Talk:Vedas

By Swami Harshananda

The word ‘Veda,’ derived from the root 'vid', indicates a vast body of sacred and esoteric knowledge concerning the eternal spiritual values revealed to the great ones called ṛṣis in the depths of their meditation. The religious tradition has accorded the Vedas the highest place in its canonical literature. They are revered as the basic scriptures of religion.

It is extremely difficult to fix the date of the Vedas. The dates assigned by the various scholars vary as widely as 25,000 B.C. to 1000 B.C. However the general consensus among most of the Indian scholars is to consider the Harappa-Mohenjo Daro culture to be a later phase of the Vedic culture. This places the date of the Ṛgveda, the earliest of the Vedas, around 10,000 B.C.

Evolution of Four Vedas

The Vedas have been handed down to the posterity by oral tradition. Hence it is named as Śruti which means ‘what is heard’. They have been mainly utilized in the performance of yajñas and yāgas, which were the most common form of early Vedic religion. Such utilization of the Vedas in the sacrificial processes naturally led to its division based upon the convenience of the chief priests conducting the sacrifices.

A compilation of all the hymns used by the hotā-priest to invite the various deities to the sacrifice became the Ṛgveda. All the liturgical parts of the Vedas, useful to the adhvaryu-priest, the chief executor of the sacrificial rites, brought together, formed the Yajurveda. Collection of all the musical chants, especially those associated with the Soma group of sacrifices, and to be sung by the udgātṛ-priest, the singer, was named as Sāmaveda. The rest, which is considered as miscellaneous appendix and addenda, became the Atharvaveda and was assigned to the brahmā-priest, considered as the supervisor over the whole sacrificial process. As per the annals of the religious orthodoxy, the great sage Kṛṣṇa Dvaipāyana Vyāsa effected this division by collecting all the mantras extant during his time and editing them into four groups: Ṛk, Yajus, Sāman and Atharvan. He taught them to his four chief disciples:

1. Paila - He was taught Rgveda.
2. Vaiśampāyana - He was taught Yajurveda.
3. Jaimini - He was taught Sāmaveda.
4. Sumantu - He was taught Atharvaveda.

This is how these four Vedas took shape.

Another Classification of Vedas

The Vedas are divided in another way too:

1. Mantra - Samhitā is the name given to the collection of the Mantras.
2. Brāhmaṇa - The Brāhmaṇa includes two more sections, the Āraṇyaka and the Upaniṣad. If the Mantras comprise the hymns, the Brāhmaṇas contain liturgies in prose. The Araṇyakas teach about meditations based on symbolical interpretations of the liturgical rites. The Upaniṣads may roughly be defined as the philosophical treatises dealing with the ultimate problems of life.

Significance of Samhitā

Conventionally speaking, it is the Samhitā that is indicated by the word Veda. For instance, Rgveda means only the Rksamhitā or the Rgveda Samhitā. The Brāhmaṇas, the Āraṇyakas and the Upaniṣads of the Rgveda have different and independent names and are considered more like its appendages. In course of time, the Samhitās, are branched off, leading to the formation of śākhās or recensions. The origin of these śākhās probably lies in the fact that each of the principal sages like Paila or Vaiśampāyana had several disciples. These disciples or their successors might have done some editing and re-adjustment of the Vedic mantras to suit the needs of the rites which they had to perform and upon which local culture too might have exerted its influence. A brief account of the contents of the four Vedas may now be attempted here.

Ṛgveda Samhitā

Classification of Ṛgveda Samhitā

Of all the four Vedic Samhitās, the Ṛgveda Samhitā is the oldest and has a pre-eminent place in the Vedic literature. It is a collection of suktas or hymns revealed to various ṛsis or sages at different periods of time. Consequently we can notice a variety of styles of language, grammar, ideas and also historical and cultural factors. Though it is said to have had 21 śākhās, only five are known to be extant:

1. Sākala
2. Bāskala
3. Āśvalāyana
4. Sāñkhāyana
5. Māndukeya

Modes of Demarcating Ṛgveda Samhitā

Except for the order of arrangement of the suktas there do not seem to be any substantial variations among them. Since ancient days, two methods of dividing this Veda, are in vogue. They can be denoted as:

1. In the first, it is divided into eight aṣṭakas. Each aṣṭaka is subdivided into vargas, containing mantras. This mode of division has been done obviously with a view to facilitating memorization, since the number of vargas in each aṣṭaka and the mantras in each varga is more or less the same. A total of 10,552 mantras are spread over 2,024 vargas, included in the 64 adhyāyas of the eight aṣṭakas.
2. In the second method, the whole Samhitā has been divided into ten maṇḍalas. The maṇḍalas are subdivided into anuvākas, the anuvākas into suktas and the suktas into mantras. The number of anuvākas is 85, that of the suktas 1,028, the total number of mantras being the same.

The second method seems to be the more ancient one and has universal approval among the modern Vedic scholars. There seems to be some method and order in the arrangement of the suktas into the ten maṇḍalas. The six maṇḍalas contain suktas revealed to the ṛṣis of the same generic group. For instance, if the seers of the suktas in the second maṇḍala belong to the lineage of Gṛtsamada, those in the third belong to the descendants of Viśvāmitra and so on.

Content of Ṛgveda Samhitā

The first and the eighth maṇḍalas contains the suktas of Satarcins and Pragāthas respectively. The suktas of the ninth maṇḍala are all in praise of a single deity, Soma Pavamāna, and are classified according to their meters. The last, the tenth maṇḍala, is a miscellany of suktas inclined more towards metaphysical subjects. The topics dealt with in the Ṛgveda Samhitā falls roughly into three groups.

1. The first group deals with the deities like Agni, Indra, Varuṇa, and others.
2. The second group is concerned with philosophical speculations like the origin of the universe and the real nature of human beings.
3. The third group deals with several secular subjects like marriage, wars of kings, eulogy of generosity and so on.

Classification of Vedic Deities

The Vedic deities are usually enumerated as 33. They are:

• 8 Vasus
• 11 Rudras
• 12 Ādityas
• Indra
• Prajāpati

These deities are assigned to the three regions of earth, heavens and the intermediary space. Though they appear like personifications of forces of nature, they are all actually facets of Brahman, the Supreme Truth. The mantra in which the well-known statement occurs, is the proof of this fact. It is as follows:

"Ekarh sat, viprāh bahudhā vadanti" which means ‘Truth is one; sages call It by various names.’

However, it may be noted that Indra, Agni, Varuṇa and Mitra have been given the pride of place in the hymns.

Philosophical Speculations of Ṛgveda Samhitā

Coming to the philosophical speculations of this Veda, we find that it is the origin and repository of almost all the later ideas of Vedānta including jñāna and bhakti, though some of them are in a seed form. This forces us to concede that it is not a book of laudatory hymns only as some try to make it out. It teaches eka-devatāvāda or monotheism and not polytheism, as it is often mistakenly assumed. However, advocacy of saguṇopāśaṇā is predominant. The overview of the views regarding it can be delineated as follows:

• God creates this world out of Himself and rules over it.
• He is omnipresent, omniscient and omnipotent.
• He is ever perfect.
• He is infinitely compassionate and easily approachable by the devotees.
• He is our dearest friend and grants us immortality.

Process of Creation as per Ṛgveda Samhitā

With regards to the actual process of creation, we find two streams of thought, creation and evolution, both of which have been found in the later Vedāntic literature. Though the existence of the soul as an eternal entity is accepted and amṛtatva or immortality is prayed for, the life here-and-now is not relegated to the background. Life here and life hereafter have been nicely harmonized.

Social Conduct as per Ṛgveda Samhitā

From the group of suktas dealing with the secular side of life, we can get an inkling into the nature of the society of those times. It is as follows:

• Social life was permeated by spiritual consciousness.
• People strongly believed in samanvaya or harmonizing the life of this world with the one in the next.
• Satya and dharma are extolled and amṛtatva was accepted as the goal of life.
• Varṇa system had already taken roots.
• Monogamy, polygamy and svayamvara system existed side by side.
• Agriculture and animal husbandry were the chief means of livelihood.
• Equitable distribution of wealth was advocated.
• Civilization was well-developed and fine arts encouraged.
• Priests and kings were powerful.
• System of sacrifices had evolved to a high degree of perfection.

Religious Comprehensions in Ṛgveda Samhitā

• Religious tradition strongly advocates a knowledge of the ṛṣi, the devatā and the chandas of any mantra before using it in the religious rites. Then only it will be effective.
• Rṣi is the sage to whom the mantra was revealed.
• Devatā is the deity to whom the mantra is addressed
• Chandas is the metre in which it is composed.
• According to one calculation the number of ṛṣis exceeds 800 whereas the number of chandas is 19 including the minor variations.

Other Literature related to Ṛgveda Samhitā

The Brāhmaṇas, Araṇyakas and the Upaniṣads of this Veda are:

1. Aitareya and Kausltaki Brāhmanas
2. Aitareya and Sāñkhāyana Āranyakas
3. Aitareya and Kausitaki Upaniṣads

Yajurveda Samhitā

Classification of Yajurveda Samhitā

It is a collection of yajus, the mantras in prose which are specially useful to the adhvaryu-priest in the performance of the sacrifices. The Yajurveda Samhitā is in two major forms:

1. The Kṛṣṇa - It means black.
2. The Śukla - It means white.

It is not easy to explain why these two major branches got these names. Though a Samhitā should have been purely in poetry, the Krsna is a mixture of prose and poetry and hence not pure. So, it has been called Kṛsṇa, the Black one. In contrast, the Śukla being entirely in poetry, it is considered to be the pure form. This is the first explanation. Being more ancient, the Kṛṣṇa is rather difficult to comprehend and so it is Black. The Śukla is of more recent origin and hence easier to grasp. So it is Śukla, the White one. This is the second explanation.

Extant Versions of Kṛṣna Yajurveda Samhitā

Though the Kṛṣna Yajurveda Samhitā is reputed to have had 85 śākhās or recensions, only four are available now:

1. Taittiriya
2. Maitrāyaniya
3. Katha
4. Kapisthala

Taittiriya Samhitā

The Taittiriya Samhitā is widely prevalent in South India. It has 7 kānḍas or books, 44 prapāṭhakas or chapters and 651 anuvākas or mantras. It deals mainly with the detailed descriptions of sacrifices like Pauroḍāśa, Yājamāna, Vājapeya, Rājasuya, Darśa-purṇamāsa and Somayāgas. The other three śākhās are not so well-known though they too deal with similar sacrifices. The last of these, the Kapisthala, as available now, seems to be incomplete. Associated with the Taittiriya Samhitā are the Taittiriya Brāhmana, Taittiriya Āranyaka and the Taittiriya Upaniṣad.

Kathopaniṣad

The well-known Kathopaniṣad also belongs to Krsna Yajurveda, but to the Kathā recension. The Śukla Yajurveda Samhitā, also known as the Vājasaneyi Samhitā, is said to have been collected and edited by the famous sage Yājñavalkya. It is entirely in verse and resembles the Ṛgveda Samhitā in form. However, there are no suktas in this. Though 17 śākhās of this Samhitā are said to have existed, only two the Kānva and the Mādhyandina, are available now. The Kānva recension is more prevalent in the South. It has 40 adhyāyas or chapters, 328 anuvākas or sections, and 2,086 mantras. The Mādhyandina recension, more common in the North, has 40 adhyāyas, 328 anuvākas, and 1,975 mantras. Like the Taittiriya Samhitā, this Samhitā also deals mainly with sacrifices like Agniṣṭoma, Vājapeya and Rājasuya.

Śatapatha Brāhmana

The Śatapatha Brāhmana, the biggest of the Brāhmaṇas, and the Brhadāranyaka are the Brāhmaṇa and the Āraṇyaka attached to the Śukla Yajurveda. Iśāvāsyopanisad and Brhadāranyakopaniṣad are the Upaniṣads of this Veda.

Sāmaveda Samhitā

The Sāmaveda Samhitā has been highly extolled in our holy books. However, it is not considered as an independent work. ‘Sā’ means ṛk, a mantra of the Rgveda. ‘Ama’ means various kinds of musical notes. Hence a ‘sāman’ is a mantra of the Rgveda Samhitā set to music. All such mantras of the Rgveda which are useful to the udgātṛ-priest, have been brought together in this work. Though it is said to have 1,000 śākhās, only three are available now. They are:

1. Kauthuma
2. Rānāyanīya
3. Jaiminīya

Classification of Sāmaveda Samhitā

This Veda is divided into two parts:

1. Ārcikā
2. Uttarārcikā

The former contains 585 mantras and the latter 964, making a total 1,549. Out of these, except 75 mantras, the rest are taken from the Rgveda Samhitā. As many as 272 mantras have been repeated twice. If these repetitions are also taken into account, then the number of mantras becomes 1,821. Another recension puts it at 1,875.

Unlike the mantras of the other three Vedas, the mantras of the Sāmaveda, known simply as sāmans, have seven svaras or musical scales, identical with the seven scales of classical music. It can thus be inferred that the origin of Indian classical music lies in the Sāmaveda. There are several varieties of singing the sāmans and they are given special names like Rathantara-sāma, Brhat-sāma and so on. It is a difficult art to learn and needs expert guidance. Nine Brāhmaṇas are attached to this Veda. Tāndya-mahā-brāhmana is the biggest and the most important of them. Only one Āraṇyaka of this Veda is available now are Talavakāra or Jaiminīya Āraṇyaka. Two well-known Upaniṣads, the Chāndogya and the Kena are also attached to the Sāmaveda.

Atharvaveda Samhitā

Overeview of the Atharvaveda Samhitā

Atharvaveda Samhitā is also known as Brahmaveda, since it is assigned to the brahmā-priest. The Atharvaveda Samhitā has some special features because of which it stands apart from the other three Vedas, especially from the Rgveda Samhitā. It deals more with the things here and now, than the hereafter, and with the sacrifices which are a means to them. A major part of this Veda is concerned with:

• Diseases and their cure
• Rites for prolonging life
• Rites for fulfilling one’s desires
• Building construction
• Trade and commerce
• Statecraft
• Penances and propitiatory rites
• Black magic
• High philosophical ideas much nearer to those of the Upaniṣads

Classification of Atharvaveda Samhitā

Even the literary style is more sophisticated. Hence it is that some scholars believe that this work is chronological to the later origin and was admitted into the comity of Vedic literature at a later date. From the ancient times, nine śākhās of this Veda are known to have existed, but only two are extant:

1. Pippalāda
2. Śaunaka

Only Śaunaka is available in a complete form. The Atharvaveda Samhitā is divided into four prapāṭhakas or books, comprising 20 kāṇḍas or chapters. Each kāṇḍa is divided into suktas or hymns, and the suktas into mantras. There are 6,077 mantras, in 736 suktas spread over 20 kāṇḍas in four prapāṭhakas. The last kāṇḍa, i.e., the 20th, has borrowed heavily from the Ṛgveda Samhitā.

Contents of Atharvaveda Samhitā

• This Veda designates God the Absolute not only as Brahman but also by some interesting names like Skambha, Ucchiṣṭa and Vrātya which are peculiar only to it.
• The whole universe has emerged out of Him due to His will and is established in Him.
• He is the Lord of the whole creation.
• The sun, called ‘Rohita’ is a symbol of His power.
• He is the indwelling spirit of human beings also.
• Those who realize this, go beyond all the fear.
• This Veda also refers to heaven and hell just as the virtue and sin.
• The qualities like satya dīkṣā and tapas helps a man to attain perfection.

Society in the Times of Atharvaveda Samhitā

This work gives us an interesting picture of the society of its times. The land in which the people lived extended from Gāndhāra to Magadha and Vaṅga. The varṇa system had been well-established. The first three varṇas were powerful. Trade and commerce were prosperous though agriculture was the mainstay of the people. Sometimes the brāhmaṇas were harassed by the powerful kṣattriya kings. The cow was highly venerated and godāna was considered meritorious. The institution of marriage was similar to that in the Ṛgvedic times.

Āraṇyakas of Atharvaveda Samhitā

No Āraṇyaka of the Atharvaveda has come to light so far. Only one Brāhmaṇa, the Gopatha Brāhmana, has been discovered. The three well-known Upaniṣads belong to this Veda. They are:

1. The Praśna Upaniṣad
2. The Mundaka Upaniṣad
3. The Māndukya Upaniṣad

Commentators on Vedas

In understanding the Vedic literature, bhāṣyas or commentaries have done yeomen service. There have been a galaxy of commentators over the centuries, among whom Śāyaṇācārya holds a unique place, not only because of the sheer volume of work but also because of the quality. Mention may also be made of some of the other commentators:

1. Skanda- svāmin
2. Veṅkaṭa- mādhava
3. Bhaṭṭa-bhāskara
4. Ānanda-tīrtha or Madhvācārya

However, their bhāṣyas as available now are incomplete. A study of the Vedas is a fascinating and a highly rewarding experience.

Epilogue

The Vedic Samhitās had to be memorized and were passed on orally from generation to generation. Even now they have been preserved in a pure form. This was possible only due to the unique system of chanting that had evolved. These various systems of chanting are:

• Pada-pāṭha
• Krama-pāṭha
• Jaṭā-pāṭha
• Ghana-pāṭha

The Vedas, considered as ‘apauruṣeya’, are rather difficult to understand due to the archaic form of language and terminology. Hence, the six Vedāṅgas, subsidiary sciences that help unfold the Vedic wisdom, came into existence. They are:

1. Śīkṣā - Śīkṣā deals with the modes of chanting.
2. Vyākaraṇa - Vyākaraṇa is Vedic grammar.
3. Chandas - Chandas is concerned with the details of the metres of Vedic poetry.
4. Nirukta - Nirukta gives the meanings and explanations of the Vedic words.
5. Jyotiṣa - Jyotiṣa, though a work of astronomy, is more directly concerned with the times and periods suitable for the performance of the Vedic sacrifices.
6. Kalpa - Kalpa, in the form of sutras or aphorisms, has four branches śrauta, gṛhya, dharma and śulba. It deals with all the aspects of sacrificial rites and smaller religious rites performed at home.

References

• The Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Swami Harshananda, Ram Krishna Math, Bangalore