Hindupedia, the Hindu Encyclopedia - User contributions [en]

Ātmā

2026-07-08T06:33:46Z

Himanshu Bhatt: Byline

By [[User:Himanshu Bhatt|Himanshu Bhatt]] & Jit Majumdar

# the self; the soul
# in philosophy, the most essential aspect of [[a]] living being that is considered identical to, and an individual expression of the Supreme [[Divinity]] or Absolute Truth, and shares all the former’s essential and intrinsic attributes such as indestructibility, unchangeability, blissfulness, [[consciousness]], indivisibility, immortality, purity, omnipotence, omniscience and omnipresence.

==Aikatmyam==
The soul is in an 'aikatmya' or interconnectivity with all.

'Aikatmyam' is the doctrine wherein Hindus identify with everything that exists in the universe.<ref> "''Eka eva dwaita [[darsana]] hina [[atma]] yatra bhavati''"[https://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m12/m12b096.htm#fr_750] </ref> It is the interconnectedness of all. Because of this, it means caretaking of the environment they live in to sustain all life - humans, animals, and plants.

In ''Atharva Veda'', Book 12, it features the magnificent [[Atharva Veda Prithvi Sukta|"Bhumi Sukta" (or "Prithvi Sukta")]][https://sacred-texts.com/hin/av/av12001.htm], which praises the Earth as a living, cosmic entity, detailing its creation, support of humanity, and the interconnectedness of earthly and celestial realms.[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/395083723_Vedic_Bhumi_Sukta_and_International_Norms_A_Comparative_Framework]

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Hymn
! Alias(es)
! Scripture
! Main Principle
! Other Principle(s)
|-
|Purush Sukta (10.90.1-16)
|Yajna Sukta
|Rig Veda
|Cosmic unity—describes all beings and the cosmos as emerging from one Cosmic Person (Purush)
|
|-
|Prithvi Sukta (12.1.1-63)
|Bhumi Sukta
|''Atharva Veda''
|Earth is divine and living
|Earth as the common mother of all beings
|-
|(6.29-6.30)
|
|''Bhagavad Gita''
|The practitioner (yogin) sees Self in all beings and all beings in Self, and that Self is God
|
|-
|(13.27-28)
|
|''Bhagavad Gita''
|Everything is seen as arising from one imperishable reality
|(5.18, 6.29-30, 6.32, 9.4-5, 10.20, 13.27-28, 18.20)
|-
|Shanti Parva (Chapters 188-239)
|
|''Mahabharata''
|All beings are manifestations of one Self
|Compassion arises from recognizing that unity, 
harming another is ultimately harming oneself
|-
|Nirvana Prakarana
|
|''Yoga Vasistha''
|Universe is one consciousness
|Apparent multiplicity is a manifestation within that [One] consciousness
|-
|(3.7)
|
|''Brihadaranyaka Upanishad''
|This Upanishad repeatedly teaches that all existence is grounded in one Self
|It also presents the Antaryāmin doctrine, where one indwelling reality permeates all beings and elements
|-
|(6.16, 6.8.7)
|Chapter 6
|''Chandogya Upanishad''
|Teaches that the individual self and the ultimate reality are fundamentally one
|Also uses analogies—such as rivers flowing into the sea—to illustrate underlying unity
|-
|(Verses 1, 6, 7)
|
|''Isha Upanishad''
|Seeing all beings in The Self
|
|-
|(3.11, 6.11)
|
|''Shvetashvatara Upanishad''
|One Divine Reality pervading everything—God hidden in all beings, the inner Self of all<ref>''Shvetashvatara Upanishad'' 6.11</ref>
|
|-
|(2.11, 2.2.5)
|
|''Mundaka Upanishad''
|All beings originating from one source (uses metaphors like 'sparks emerging from fire' and 'spokes attached to the hub of a wheel')
|
|-
|(11.2.45)
|
|''Bhagavata Purana''
|The Divine dwells in all beings
|Service to others is service to God, all life is interconnected through the Supreme
|}

==Related articles==
*[[Ātma-māyā]]
*[[Darshana|Metaphysical Worldviews]]
*[[Cosmology]]
*[[Overview of Cosmology in the Scriptures]]
*[[Theology]]
*[[Brahmānda]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Atma]]
[[Category:Glossary]]

Ātmā

2026-07-08T06:30:51Z

Himanshu Bhatt: /* Aikatmyam */

By Jit Majumdar

# the self; the soul
# in philosophy, the most essential aspect of [[a]] living being that is considered identical to, and an individual expression of the Supreme [[Divinity]] or Absolute Truth, and shares all the former’s essential and intrinsic attributes such as indestructibility, unchangeability, blissfulness, [[consciousness]], indivisibility, immortality, purity, omnipotence, omniscience and omnipresence.

==Aikatmyam==
The soul is in an 'aikatmya' or interconnectivity with all.

'Aikatmyam' is the doctrine wherein Hindus identify with everything that exists in the universe.<ref> "''Eka eva dwaita [[darsana]] hina [[atma]] yatra bhavati''"[https://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m12/m12b096.htm#fr_750] </ref> It is the interconnectedness of all. Because of this, it means caretaking of the environment they live in to sustain all life - humans, animals, and plants.

In ''Atharva Veda'', Book 12, it features the magnificent [[Atharva Veda Prithvi Sukta|"Bhumi Sukta" (or "Prithvi Sukta")]][https://sacred-texts.com/hin/av/av12001.htm], which praises the Earth as a living, cosmic entity, detailing its creation, support of humanity, and the interconnectedness of earthly and celestial realms.[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/395083723_Vedic_Bhumi_Sukta_and_International_Norms_A_Comparative_Framework]

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Hymn
! Alias(es)
! Scripture
! Main Principle
! Other Principle(s)
|-
|Purush Sukta (10.90.1-16)
|Yajna Sukta
|Rig Veda
|Cosmic unity—describes all beings and the cosmos as emerging from one Cosmic Person (Purush)
|
|-
|Prithvi Sukta (12.1.1-63)
|Bhumi Sukta
|''Atharva Veda''
|Earth is divine and living
|Earth as the common mother of all beings
|-
|(6.29-6.30)
|
|''Bhagavad Gita''
|The practitioner (yogin) sees Self in all beings and all beings in Self, and that Self is God
|
|-
|(13.27-28)
|
|''Bhagavad Gita''
|Everything is seen as arising from one imperishable reality
|(5.18, 6.29-30, 6.32, 9.4-5, 10.20, 13.27-28, 18.20)
|-
|Shanti Parva (Chapters 188-239)
|
|''Mahabharata''
|All beings are manifestations of one Self
|Compassion arises from recognizing that unity, 
harming another is ultimately harming oneself
|-
|Nirvana Prakarana
|
|''Yoga Vasistha''
|Universe is one consciousness
|Apparent multiplicity is a manifestation within that [One] consciousness
|-
|(3.7)
|
|''Brihadaranyaka Upanishad''
|This Upanishad repeatedly teaches that all existence is grounded in one Self
|It also presents the Antaryāmin doctrine, where one indwelling reality permeates all beings and elements
|-
|(6.16, 6.8.7)
|Chapter 6
|''Chandogya Upanishad''
|Teaches that the individual self and the ultimate reality are fundamentally one
|Also uses analogies—such as rivers flowing into the sea—to illustrate underlying unity
|-
|(Verses 1, 6, 7)
|
|''Isha Upanishad''
|Seeing all beings in The Self
|
|-
|(3.11, 6.11)
|
|''Shvetashvatara Upanishad''
|One Divine Reality pervading everything—God hidden in all beings, the inner Self of all<ref>''Shvetashvatara Upanishad'' 6.11</ref>
|
|-
|(2.11, 2.2.5)
|
|''Mundaka Upanishad''
|All beings originating from one source (uses metaphors like 'sparks emerging from fire' and 'spokes attached to the hub of a wheel')
|
|-
|(11.2.45)
|
|''Bhagavata Purana''
|The Divine dwells in all beings
|Service to others is service to God, all life is interconnected through the Supreme
|}

==Related articles==
*[[Ātma-māyā]]
*[[Darshana|Metaphysical Worldviews]]
*[[Cosmology]]
*[[Overview of Cosmology in the Scriptures]]
*[[Theology]]
*[[Brahmānda]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Atma]]
[[Category:Glossary]]

Shatata-Unnati

2026-07-08T06:30:12Z

Himanshu Bhatt:

{{Author|Himanshu Bhatt}}
'Shatata-Unnati' is ''continual change'', 'abhyas' means improvement, 'kram-parivartanam' is ''incremental reformation'', while 'shodhanam' is ''refinement''. All of these terms are descriptive of Hindu society throughout the ages.

Continual social betterment has been one of the defining characteristics of Hindu society. All major cultures have had evils in their histories, including Hindu societies, but the shining examples to enforce positive changes and adaptability to a changing world are the Hinduism, Christianity, and Judaism.

In an era wherein colonial norms meant imprisonment or executions for speaking out against imperial rule, Mahatma Gandhi challenged the ideas of forcing nations to be subservient, fighting oppression by violence, and purging one's own nation of evils (i.e., inequality and superstition.) Today, much of the world still looks to Gandhi's perseverance to bring positive change into society.

Transformation of India's political systems made India into the world's largest democracy, and for accomplishing that, [[Indian Freedom Fighters#INC's Hindu activist roots|Hindu doctrines were rationalize to promote democracy]]. Even in India's political spectrum, Hindu principles were used to make liberalism and communism resonate with people, like Ram Rajya being a communist utopia. Some of the Communist Party of India's [[Indian Freedom Fighters#CPI's Hindu activist roots|founders were idealogues for both communism and Hinduism]], such as Swami Kumaranand, Swami Satyabhakt, and Swami Sahajanand Saraswati, as well as Keezhedathu Damodaran, Radhamohan Gokulji, and Rahul Sankrityayan.

==Comparison in societal reformation (India and Europe)==
:''See also: [[Contribution of Hindu Diaspora]]'', ''[[The_Spread_of_Hinduism#Europe|The Spread of Hinduism in Europe]]''
Whereas even in modern times, in most European Christian societies, witch-hunts and slavery were the norm, in Indian Hindu societies, widow-burning was the norm among certain communities (usually northwestern) and caste prejudice was prevalent. Both the Christian and Hindu communities worked to extinguish these and other evils.

Historical societal injustices have been acknowledged and reconciled. Even today, the lasting legacy of important Hindu reformers is visible wherein quotas employment and educational quotas are implemented for social upward mobility to ensure poorer castes and women do not fall behind.

During the colonial era, as human rights improved in Western societies as results from agricultural/economic advancements, Western writers of non-Christian societies took a chauvinistic, parochialist, and Eurocentric approach towards Hindu societies, claiming that they:
#Would never improve in human rights, morality, or rationality
#Are permanently stagnant
#Cannot produce modern or political economic institutions

Critics of the colonial era were proven wrong in these concrete ways:
#Large-scale societal reforms led by Hindu activists themselves improved Hindu societies — i.e., promoting window remarriage and caste integration while also creating quotas for females and historically-disadvantaged castes
#Rapid expansion of education and intellectual mobility — i.e., growth of global Hindu academic presence
#Global economic and corporate leadership — i.e., entrepreneurship and CEOs of major multinational companies like Adobe, Google, and Microsoft
#Democratic political evolution — i.e., maintaining electoral democracies like Hindu-majority nations, providing peaceful transfers of power, and granting significant autonomy to judiciary, press, and civil societies
#Religious and philosophical continuity + adaptation
#Ritual practice has diversified massively by religion and class — i.e., clerics ([[Rta and Spiritual Authority|priests]] and [[ascetics|monks]]) are from many backgrounds
#Reinterpretation of scriptures became internationally influential — i.e., Aldous Huxley loved the perennialism of Upanishads, Erwin Schrödinger [[Ātmā#Aikatmyam|the idea of aikatmyam]], and Henry David Thoreau that of [[Theology#Both Immanency and Transcendence of God (Panentheism)|Ishavasyam]]
#Non-Hindus from outside of the Indian Subcontinent have converted to Sanatan Dharm and have promoted the religion — James Donald Walters who founded Ananda Sangha, Richard Alpert who founded Hanuman Foundation, John Edwin Favors who founded iFast[https://ifastdc.com/][https://ifastglobal.com/], and Robert Hansen who founded Saiva Siddhanta Church[https://www.himalayanacademy.com/]
#Hindu-based intellectual practices have popularized globally — i.e., [[Ayurveda|Ayurvedic medicine]], divination, political activism, [[Animal rights#Influence upon Westerners|animal rights]], [[Animal_rights#Vegetarianism|vegetarianism]], and [[yoga]]

==Hindu-led social betterment==
What is extraordinary in the case of India is that it was the religious institutions ([[Organizations|Hindu organizations]] and [[Hindu Post-Secondary Institutes|schools]]) that made revolutionary changes, not normally secular or non-Hindu ones. Practicing Hindus saw that superstitious and chauvinistic practices had become institutionalized (caste system and misogyny) within Hindu society, so they formed associations to help, uplift, educate the destitute. They would even go steps further to privilege the marginalized through reservations.

Even women who were more exploratory and not members of specific religions engaged with Hinduism positively. The best example might be Annette Beveridge, an Englishwoman who was the daughter of a Unitarian Christian herself became affiliated with Keshub Chandra Sen in England. She was drawn to his lectures and this fascination with his philosophy inspired her to begin life in India, where she even established<ref>Its expenses were financed by Ananda Mohan Bose and Durga Mohan Das, Dwarkanath Ganguly was its headmaster, and others Brahmos involved with the school were Sibnath Sastri and Monomohun Ghose.</ref> the Hindu Mahila Vidyalaya (''Hindu Women's School''.) Her husband Henry Beveridge was an orientalist (westerners intrigued with Asian cultures) working in India, meaning they were not Westerners critical of Hindu identity. Mrs. Emily Phear was an honorary teacher, and she too was involved in Brahmo Samaji circles for societal development. (Her husband Sir John Budd Phear helped Brahmo Samaj legally.) A non-Hindu that likewise began a girls school (Hindu Female School[https://www.bethunecollegiateschool.com/]) with Brahmos and other Hindus was John Bethune, whose accomplices were Dakshinaranjan Mukherjee, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Ramgopal Ghosh, and Madanmohan Tarkalanka (the last even taught at the school without pay.) Others foreign women in India that engaged positively with Hindu activist organizations were Mary Carpenter[https://southasianbritain.org/people/mary-carpenter/] and Sophia Dobson Collet with Brahmo Samaj, Alma B.R.A. with Arya Samaj, and Mary Hobson with Prarthana Samaj[https://puneprarthanasamaj.org/].

Hindu women that set women's rights activism into motion were Arya Samaj's Lajwanti Sood and Satyavati Devi, and Brahmo Samaj's Kadambini Ganguly and Sarala Devi Chaudhurani. Swarnakumari Devi was both an Arya Samaji and a Brahmo Samaji.
[[image:Dr. Anandi Gopal Joshi.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Dr. Anandi Gopal Joshi in 1886 marking a milestone with 2 other Asian women.]]
What is also worth mentioning is that there were women not members of sociopolitical organizations who pursued and achieved new societal achievements, showing that many Hindu women thought for themselves. Dr. Anandibai Joshi was India's first female doctor to trained in Western medicine. Her education and trip to U.S. was funded by [[Shatata-Unnati#Shahu's royal authority to implement reforms|Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj]]. Upon return, he even funded her return journey and offer her supervisory role at Kolhapur's largest hospital[https://old.rcsmgmc.ac.in/]. Foundations[https://anandibai.org/resources/], institutions (i.e., Dr. Anandi Gopal Higher Education & Medical Facilities), awards (i.e., IRDS's[https://ngosindia.org/uttar-pradesh-ngos/irds-institute-for-research-documentation-in-social-sciences-lucknow/] Anandibai Joshi Award for Medicine), and scholarships (i.e., Dr. Anandi Gopal Scholarship Scheme) are named after her in commemoration. (Dr. Anandi Gopal Higher Education & Medical Facilities itself is a collaboration between the U.S. university she graduated in (DUCM[https://drexel.edu/medicine/news-events/publications/pulse/spring-2018/]) and SMCW. She let people know that she was not ashamed of being a Hindu. She was often pressured by Christian missionaries to convert[https://knowledge.lancashire.ac.uk/id/eprint/48487/1/bharadwaj-et-al-2023-journey-across-the-world-to-study-medicine-the-anandi-joshi-story.pdf]. Dr. Anandi had written her thesis, "Obstetrics among the Aryan Hindus", containing references from both the traditional Ayurvedic (''Susruta Samhita'' and ''Charaka Samhita'') and modern American medical literatures. (Mentionable is that although her husband Gopalrao Joshi's relentless, public letter-writing campaigns and essays targeted Lokmanya Tilak for being not liberal enough and Justice Ranade for being too liberal Tilak's ''Kesari'' and ''Mahratta'' newspapers glorified Dr. Joshi as a rolemodel for women.)

===Female upliftment===
:''See also: [[Indian Freedom Fighters]] 
;Theosophical Society wing
[[image:Paris Women's Congress.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Dr. Reddy and 3 Indian women at the Paris Women's Congress (1926.)]]
The top 3 champions who politically improved Indian women's rights in the modern era were foreigners — Dr. Annie Besant, Dorothy Jinarajadasa, and Margaret Cousins. They did not tell Indian women to leave Hinduism but rather they themselves became Hindu in practice and Indian in habit. They then sought to restore the Vedic-era of womanhood wherein women had authority (i.e., to become clerics, scholars, and leaders.) Emma Mitchell (American) and Francesca Arundale (English) greatly contributed to building of Hindu educational institutions (i.e., Central Hindu College.)

Dr. Muthulakshmi Reddy is a big name in female rights, and she was influenced by Dr. Besant in her college years (1907-1912) and was guided by Dr. Besant in both her social reform and political work. She worked with Dr. Besant and others to establish the Women's Indian Association (1917.) After Dr. Besant's death, she took over the presidency of the WIA. Gandhi was another major mentor but Reddy never formally joined the INC but sometimes protested colonial injustices (i.e., Gandhi's arrest.)

;Ramakrishna Mission wing
[[image:Nivedita & Vivekanand.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Nivedita with Vivekanand.]]
[[Niveditā, Sister|Sister Nivedita (Margaret Noble)]], a convert from Ireland became a disciple of [[Swami Vivekananda|Swami Vivekanand]] and joined Aurobindo's Dawn Society and had also founded and ran girls' schools in Kolkata (i.e., Ramakrishna Sarada Mission Sister Nivedita Girls' School[https://www.sisterniveditagirlsschool.org/home.html] in Baghbazar) to educate girls who had little to no access to education (i.e., poorest of the poor.) She advocated for women's intellectual and moral development, influenced by Vivekanand's vision of strong Indian womanhood. Her work included lectures, fundraising (India, England, and U.S.), and writings that promoted gender equality in access to knowledge and opportunities. She had worked with Dr. Annie Besant at times. Likewise, Sister Christine, disciple of Vivekanand, is another example of a Westerner who utilized the Ramakrishna Mission and Vivekanand's circles as vehicles for improving female rights in India.

;INC wing
:''See also: [[Indian Freedom Fighters#INC's Hindu activist roots|INC's Hindu activist roots]] 
[[image:Nellie Sen Gupta.jpg|right|thumb|100px|N.S. Gupta.]]
Nellie Sen Gupta[https://www.thedailystar.net/in-focus/news/deshpriya-jatindra-mohan-nellie-sengupta-2036981] (nee Edith Ellen Gray) had married freedom fighter Jatindra Mohan Sen Gupta, and both joined the INC — she also founded Deepali Sangha, a women's organization aimed at promoting social and political awareness, leadership, training, and empowerment among women. Her husband passed away but she was advised to stay in the-then East Pakistan to take care of Hindu rights, which she did. Umadevi (born Wanda Dynowska), a Polish convert to Sanatan Dharm too championed women's rights in India and translated ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'', ''[[Mahabharata]]'', ''[[Ramayana]]'', and other [[Hindu Scriptures|Hindu and Bauddh literature]] into Polish. Mira Behn (born Madeleine Slade), the daughter of a British Royal Navy admiral, gave up her affluent lifestyle to become Gandhi's servant in India.
[[image:Sarla Behn Chipko Movement.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Sarla Behn's Chipko act[https://www.adda247.com/school/chipko-movement/].]]
Sarla Behn[https://growbilliontrees.com/blogs/knowledge/sarla-behn-tree-nurturing-nature-and-empowering-communities-for-a-sustainable-future?srsltid=AfmBOoq4h0d0skQBNr4w4zOvISuhYz02_EXtPvD3pUoQYjTlcvNHEbQ-#fullcontent] (born Catherine Mary Heilman) from England setup the Lakshmi Ashram Kausani in 1946 within Uttarakhand to uplift women, after having lived in the Sevagram Ashram[https://gandhiashramsevagram.org/] in Maharashtra. The organization educated rural hill girls academically, trained women of self-reliance and industrial skills (i.e., khadi weaving), taught personal care (i.e., literacy, hygiene, anti-liquor campaigns), and promoted [[Environmentalism|ecological awareness]] (Chipko Movement.) It also worked with the INC to encourage nationalist fervour. Lakshmi Ashram individual units were known as Mahila Mandals. This ashram attracted foreign residents intrigued with Sanatan Dharm even after independence, like David Hopkins, who relocated to there in the 1990's.
[[image:Durgabai Deshmukh.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Dr. D.D.]]
Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh, pupil of Gandhi and freedom fighter in the colonial era, established the Central Social Welfare Board (1953.) She later became president of the All India Women's Conference (1931.) Taraben Premchand is an important mention, as she was an important member of this organization, as well as the Jain Mahila Parishad[https://www.dbjainsabha.com], Jyoti Sangh[https://jyotisangh.org/about-us/] (local women's advancement group in Gujarat), and Shraddhanand Ashram[https://shraddhanandmahilashram.org/].

Madeleine Rolland was Women's International League for Peace and Freedom's[https://www.wilpf.org/] French section and never settled in India. However, upon engaging with Hindu culture in the 1920's, she translated Ananda Coomaraswamy's ''[[Nataraja Dasakam|The Dance of Shiva]]'' into French, introducing Hinduism to the-then residents of France. She also translated Rabindranath Tagore's writings of Sanatan themes and universal humanism, helping popularize them in Europe. She welcomed Gandhi on his visit to Marseille, France. [[image:Kanuparti Varalakshmamma.jpg|right|thumb|100px|'Sarada'.]]
Kanuparti Varalakshmamma (alias 'Sarada'), a devout Gandhian, used Hindu themes like providing ethical refences (i.e., Savitri, Sita) to depict women's morality, dignity, and conduct. She often engaged with the idea of a grihalakshmi (idea woman of the household.) She also founded the Stree Hitaishini Mandali for uplifting women. She used ''Andhra Patrika'', a newspaper created by a promoter of the ''Bhagavad Gita'', Kasinathuni Nageswara Rao, to preach her ideas.
[[image:Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit.jpg|right|thumb|100px|'Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit'.]]
It is also noteworthy that the 1st female head of government in the world was a [[Bauddh Dharm|Bauddh]] (Sirimavo Bandaranaike of Sri Lanka, non-INC member), and 2nd was a Hindu (Indira Gandhi, INC member.) Also Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit[https://news.un.org/en/story/2024/03/1147327] (born Swaroop Rani Nehru) played a significant role in global representation of women, particularly in the United Nations. She was the first woman to serve as the President of the UN General Assembly (1953-1954), a position she held to advocate for decolonization and the independence of countries in Asia and Africa. She was also the first Indian woman to hold a cabinet rank in a provincial government. Hansa Mehta[https://india.un.org/en/311450-hansa-mehta%E2%80%99s-life-story-continues-inspire] had an impact on the UN's constitution wording wherein "''all human beings''" instead of "all men" in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. (She was also one of only 2 women delegates working alongside Eleanor Roosevelt in the UN Human Rights Commission 1946-48.)
[[image:Nilla Cram Cook.jpg|right|thumb|100px|'Nilla Nagini Devi'.]]
Nilla Cram Cook, an American who settled at Gandhi's ashrams, had [[Conversion|converted to Hinduism]] in the 1930's but identified with the '[[Samyag Darshan#Samadarshan|sarva dharma sambhava]]' ideal, so considered herself a [[Bhakta|devotee]] of not only [[Krishna]] but of Jesus too, and so she later also translated the Quran and engaged with Islamic practices in a syncretic way with her Hindu and Christian customs. Her final literary work was ''The Way of the Swam: Poems of Kashmir'' (1958), which was mostly focused around the [[Saiva|Shaiv]] mystic poetess Lal Ded[https://hindupost.in/society-culture/lal-ded-her-life-and-works/#][https://homegrown.co.in/homegrown-voices/the-poetry-of-lal-ded-mysticism-resistance-the-female-voice-in-14th-century-kashmir] and others from Kashmir syncretic Sanatan-[[Bauddh Dharm|Bauddh]]-[[Sufism with Vaishnavism|Sufi]] tradition. She dedicated the book to Pandit. She didn't work on women's upliftment directly but did participate with Gandhi's Harijan Sevak Sangh. She had also written about Sarojini Naidu (1st Indian woman-president of the INC.)

;Other associations
[[image:Maharani Chimnabai Gaekwad II.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Maharani Chimnabai.]]
[[image:Sethu Parvathi Bayi.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Junior Queen Bayi.]]
The National Council of Women in India[https://www.ncwi.in/], founded 1925, was also a monumental organization to make progress for women — it mainly focused on female literacy, vocational training, public participation, and legal reform. It was primarily the initiative of Lady Meherbai Tata, a Mazdaean icon, and its first president was Maharani Chimnabai Gaekwad II, born Gajrabai Ghatge, a princess of Dewas (M.P.) She supported societal progress of women that did not compromise on Hindu identity (i.e., traditional customs like wearing sari and sindhoor or like celebrating Raksha Bandhan), which is how she framed her ''The Position of Women in Indian Life'' book. She financed schools for girls, as well as Hindu charities and temples. The Gaekwad family also funded libraries and women's institutions and social reform initiatives. She discussed the eradication or the purdah, child marriage, women's restrictions (i.e., obtaining education and employment), and other obstacles towards advancement. Following her presidentship, Sethu Parvathi Bayi took over. She was from the royal family of Travancore (Kerala), and her family was deeply connected to the Padmanabhaswamy Temple[https://spst.in/][https://www.padmanabhaswamytemple.com/]. She financed Hindu institutions as well. It is notable that Sucharu Deo, daughter of Brahmo leader K.C. Sen was a prominent member and she had also helped build the Maharani Girls' High School[https://school.banglarshiksha.gov.in/ws/website/index/19013701705] in Darjeeling (W.B.) together with her sister (Suniti) and Hemlata Sarkar, daughter of Brahmo leader Sibnath Sastri.

From Hindu-based institutions like sociopolitical organizations and schools came a number of philanthropic associations.
;Most influential persons for women's upliftment
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Area of Contribution
! Meaning
! Steps Taken
! Activists
! Organizations
! Founder's Affiliation(s)
|-
|Political rights and visibility
|1. Women appearing in public political spaces 2. Women being recognized as leaders (not just participants) 3. Changing social norms about women's public roles 4. Symbolic representation
|Helped institutionalize women's leadership through bodies like Women's Indian Association
|Dr. Annie Besant (women's political rights + organizational leadership), Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay (political participation, economic empowerment, cooperatives), Margaret Cousins[https://www.womensmuseumofireland.ie/exhibits/margaret-elizabeth-cousins] (Suffarage, WIA), Sarojini Naidu (mass mobilization of women in politics)
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|-
|Modern institutional equality
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|Helped institutionalize institutional equality through contributing policy influence (Hansa Mehta) and constitutional rights (Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh)
|Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh (welfare systems), Hansa Mehta
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|-
|Foundational legal reform
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|Raja Ram Mohan Roy (abolition of sati), Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar (widow remarriage)
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|-
|Education
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|Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar
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|-
|}

====Hindu influence internationally====
Even outside of India during the 20th century, women's rights were not perfect, and so many women incorporated Hindu symbolism (i.e., worship) and concepts towards promoting societies where women would have equal rights.
[[image:M.J. Gage.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Matilda Joslyn Gage.]]
[[image: Charlotte Despard.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Charlotte Despard, an Anglo-Irish suffragist who supported Indian independence.]]
As [[Worship of God as Mother|worship of God as a female or mother]] has been common in Sanatan Dharm since its foundation, that made validating female upliftment in India quicker. Even in Western nations, prominent women's rights organizations implemented imagery of goddesses from pertinent ancient cultures, like U.K.'s Women's Freedom League and National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies, and the global International Woman Suffrage Alliance, to legitimize female equality and women being in positions of power. Some American and European feminists and women's rights activists, like Matilda Joslyn Gage<ref>"''While the sale of daughters was practiced in England for seven hundred years after the introduction of Christianity, we note that by the ancient law of India, a father was forbidden to sell his daughter in marriage, or receive the smallest present therefor.''" - P. 79-82 ''Woman, Church and State'' (1893) By Matilda Joslyn Gage</ref> (U.S. suffragist) and Helena Petrovna Blavatsky<ref>"''The pre- and post-Vedic woman was as free as man; and no impure terrestrial thought was ever mixed with the religious symbology of the early Aryans.''" 
"''This is proven by the fact that in the Vedic period their women were not placed apart from men in penetralia, or ‘Zenanas.’ Their seclusion began when the Mahomedans … had conquered the land and gradually enforced their ways and customs upon the Hindus.''" 
- P. 379-380 ''The Secret Doctrine: Volume I'' By Helena Blavatsky </ref> (European feminist), even used the examples of [[Worship of God as Mother|Hindu goddess-worship]] and Hindu queens to support their examples. And though Blavatsky did not officially align with any single religion to encourage recruitment for her Theosophical Society, she referenced Sanatan and Bauddh scriptures (Upanishads, and then Gita, then Bauddh shastras) more than others. (M.J. Gage[https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/the-feminist-inspired-witches-of-oz-180985334/] in her ''Woman, Church, and State'' even highlighted Hindu texts to counter the male-centric theology of the West and referenced ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'' to validate the concept of a female [[divinity]].) Even feminists of the colonial era like Victoria Woodhull that was skeptical of organized religion, respected "''Christna and Buddha''" (Krishna and Gautama.) Mary Lowe Dickinson at the World's Parliament Circles (1893) was so impressed by [[Swami Vivekananda|Swami Vivekanand]]'s speech, that she developed a fascination with female divinity of Hinduism, and in her editorials and public circles, argued that Hinduism's recognition of a feminine aspect within the divine was spiritually superior to the rigidly patriarchal, all-male Trinity of mainstream American Christianity. Emily Pitts Stevens and Charlotte LeMoyne Wills (wrote about the genderless [[Brahm]]) became disciples of Vivekanand. Laura de Force Gordon wrote about the immortal soul and continuous cycle of life. Alice Moore McComas wrote about the [[Ātmā#Aikatmyam|interconnectedness (aikatmyam) of all things]]. In U.K., Charlotte Despard's specific pamphlets linked [[karma]] to political activism. Margaret Louise Sanger was influenced by Vivekanand and Rabindranath Tagore. Sarah Bull<ref> P. 483 ''Western Admirers of Ramakrishna and His Disciples'' By Gopal Stavig, Swami Shuddhidananda </ref>, who particularly focused on women's education and reform was connected to both Vivekanand and Sister Nivedita. Josephine MacLeod was a major promoter of Vivekanand in the West and was involved in transatlantic reform-intellectual networks. Viktoria Ocampo of Argentina was deeply influenced by Tagore, even hosting him in Argentina and promoting his ideas widely. Gabriela Mistral of Chile was too, and she applied Tagore's ideas to women's education, child welfare, and cultural reform. Mabel Dodge Luhan was fascinated with Sanatan philosophy and influenced by Vivekanand. Mentionable is Emma Calve of France, who wasn't a political feminist leader but influential in women's intellectual-cultural circles, and she was deeply influenced by Vivekanand.
[[image:Carol Patrice Christ.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Carol Patrice Christ.]]
After suffragists had attained complete institutional equality, they them progressed to the next stage of female liberation by ensuring that their own spiritual faith wasn't male-chauvinistic or making them subordinates of males. Feminists were inspired by goddess deity of Hinduism to then promote it within generic spirituality. Valerie Saiving, Isaac Bonewits and Naomi Goldenberg founded in the 1970's, Thealogy, a feminine-specific theology. Carol Patrice Christ launched the Goddess Movement, which provided 4 aspects of Goddess symbolism as reasons to needing a goddess in women's lives; 1) the Goddess as affirmation of female power, 2) the female body, 3) the female will, and 4) women's bond and heritage. She specifically used the Shakti concept to prove that a major global religion (Hinduism) explicitly defined the [[Brahmanda|material universe]]/nature/change ([[Darshana#Sankhya|Prakriti]]) as an inherently active, female, and sacred force. She was an ecofeminist, as were Charlene Spretnak and Miriam Simos were ecofeminists too. Merlin Stone wrote ''Ancient Mirrors of Womanhood: Our Goddess and Heroine Heritage'' (1979) and in a chapter analyzes goddesses like [[Durga]], [[Kali]], [[Lakshmi Puja|Lakshmi]], Parvati, and Saraswati. Devout Christian women feminists too drew on Hindu practices and ideas to support women's advocacy, and they include Ivone Gebara, Pearl Sydenstricker Buck, and Sally McFague.

'Matriarchal religion' is a philosophy stating that societies were Goddess worshippers with females having the same status and rights as men before male gods began being worshipped, and the latter led to patriarchy. Goddesses being worshipped contiguously in Hindu societies for thousands of years was the backing this thought utilized, in addition to feminist archaeology (i.e., ancient idols and temples of goddesses uncovered.)

==Start of modern reforms==
In modern India, most positive social changes within Indian Hindu societies came not first as enforcement or pressure from European rulers but from advocacy of forward-thinking Hindus. Raja Ram Mohan Roy had led the campaign to purge Hindu societies of Sati and caste prejudices. Roy worked with British imperial authority, specifically Lord William Bentinck to have sati outlawed. Roy himself was a religious leader that reiterated Upanishads for their principles.

Other institutions of positive social changes were mainly Hindu ones or were governed by Hindu religious leaders, not secular ones.

The Indian National Social Conference of 1887 was organized by Justice Ranade, Rai Raghunath Rao, Narendra Nath Sen Gupta, and Janki Nath Ghoshal. Ranade was founder of the Prarthana Samaj, a religious group.

Arya Samajis, Brahmo Samajis, and Prarthana Samajis were the most vocal and active forces advocating: 
#Widow Remarriage (i.e., Widow Remarriage Act 1856—initiative of Brahmo Samaj)
#Women's right to divorce (i.e., Native Marriage Act 1872—initiative of Brahmo Samaj) 
#Property rights for women 
#Opposition to child marriages (i.e., Age of Consent Act 1891—initiative of Brahmo Samaj and Prarthana Samaj, Child Marriage Restraint Act 1929—initiative of Arya Samaj) 
#Universal accessible education (built schools, including colleges and gurukuls) 
#Caste-based reservations (i.e., 50% quota of 1902—initiative of Shahu Maharaj, who later became an Arya Samaji)
[[image:Justice Ranade.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Mahadev Govind Ranade (alias 'Justice Ranade'.)]]
[[image:Jagannath Shankarshet.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Jagannath Shankarshet (alias 'Architect of Modern Mumbai'.)]]
The Indian Factories Act 1881's ratification was a landmark in workers' rights and the credit goes mainly to Sorabjee Shapoorjee Bengalee, and then Prarthana Samaj. He did work alongside the Prarthana Samaj to lobby the British authority through the First Factory Commission in 1875 (made to investigate the brutal conditions of Indian labour.) Prarthana Samaj's ''Subodh Patrika'' newspaper specifically critiqued mill owners. Rahnumai Mazdayasnan Sabha, its newspaper ''Rast Goftar'', and Bengalee himself referenced labour reformers Sasipada Banerji and Protap Chunder Mozumdar, and used the former's methods of worker upliftment as a blueprint for their own legislative arguments. Collaboration between the Sabha and Prarthana Samaj began with the latter's creation of the Theistic Association, on which the Parsi Naoroji Furdonji was its 1st Chairman. Ranade and Bhandarkar drove the Association from discussing only theism to improving society through finding solutions of work hardships. The Night School Initiative was launched, helping workers receive adequate training, particularly in labourer-heavy neighborhoods Byculla, Dongri, Khetwadi, and Thakurdwar. (From 1886-1890 alone, over 2,750 industrial workers successfully studied through this initiative.) Protap Chunder Mozoomdar, a Brahmo, began eight night schools in 1872 within Mumbai when he relocated to the city.<ref> P. 47 ''Peaceful Industrial Relations, Their Science and Technique'' (1957) By R. J. Soman </ref> Brahmos then established night schools within Kolkata by 1878.

Brahmo Samaj's K.C. Sen’s first visit to Mumbai in March-April 1864 engaged him with Bengalee, Furdonji, Ranade, and Bhandarkar (all then members of Young India.) They all discussed ways to develop India. They also shared strategies on how to bypass orthodox religious resistance—Furdonji within Zoroastrianism and Sen within Sanatan Dharm. Bengalee's First Labor Bill (1878) laid the groundwork for the later Indian Factories Act.

Prior to all of this, Jagannath Shankarshet[https://www.vishwakonkani.org/hall-of-fame/hon-jagannath-shankar-sheth/] spent the 1850s petitioning the British Parliament for local governance. As a result, it codified the Indian Councils Act of 1861, thus creating the Bombay Legislative Council as a political body to better govern the-then Bombay Presidency. Shankarshet was the main founder of Bombay Association. In its first leadership were also Dr. Ramachandra Vitthal Lad (alias 'Dr. Bhau Daji'), a Hindu intellectual who used his Sanskrit knowledge to decipher inscriptions, preserve manuscripts, and help reconstruct the forgotten timelines of ancient Guptas and Western Kshatrapa dynasties. Mentionable is the Parsi Sir Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy of the group. Shankarshet was a wealthy philanthropist that constructed and financed Sanatan and secular infrastructure, most notably the Bhavani Shankar Mandir[https://www.mcgm.gov.in/irj/go/km/docs/documents/D%20Ward/Heritage-Sites/73_Legacy%20of%20D%20Ward_Article_Bhavani%20Shankar%20Temple.pdf] (Mumbai), Sanskrit Seminary and Sanskrit Library (both in Mumbai too.) Elphinstone Educational Institution[https://elphinstone.ac.in/index.php] and Grant Medical College[https://gmcjjh.edu.in/] were his creations too. (Jeejeebhoy contributed to constructing the Grant Medical College.)

===Shahu's royal authority to implement reforms===
[[image:Shahu adoption.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Prince Yeshwantrao Ghatge being adopted by the royal family of Kohlapur.]]
[[image:Rajarshi.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Rajarshi Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj IV.]]
[[image:School foundation.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Foundation of Shri Shahu Chhatrapati Shikshan Sanstha.]]
The greatest champion on all of these sections for reforms was Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj[https://aissms.org/breaking-barriers-chhatrapati-shahu-maharaj-and-his-enduring-impact-on-progress-and-modernity/] (born Yeshwantrao Ghatge), '[[Rta and Spiritual Authority#Rishis|Rajarshi]]', the ruler of Kohlapur Kingdom who affiliated with organizations but probably the Arya Samaj[https://thearyasamaj.org] more than any other. Shahu definitely was not shy to publicly perform prayers, as he famously attended temples of goddesses Ambabai[https://www.mahalaxmikolhapur.com/home] and Bhavani[https://shrituljabhavani.org/] when having returned from his Europe trip in 1902. Also in 1902, Pratap Singh Maharaj of Idhar (Gujarat) introduced and educated him about the Arya Samaj. He provided patronage to the Arya Samaj.[https://navjyot.net/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/10.pdf]

The king passed many policies for for the upliftment of untouchable, nomadic, non-Brahmin communities and for females.<ref>Act of Free and Compulsory Primary Education (1917), Widow remarriage Act (1917), End of Balutedari (1918), Repeal of Kulkarni Watan (1918), Intercaste and Interreligious Marriages and Sanctioning of Registered Marriage Act (1919), Act relating to protection of Harassment of Women (1919), Divorce act (1919), Order on prohibition of Untouchability practice (1919), Illegitimate Children's Rights and Devadasi Prohibition Act (1920); 
[https://www.indiejournal.in/article/rajarshi-shahu-maharaj-and-his-tryst-with-the-arya-samaj "Rajarshi Shahu Maharaj & his tryst with the Arya Samaj Lessons for our times"] By Devkumar Ahire (Jun 26, 2023 6:42 PM)</ref>

;Prejudiced disgruntled castists promoting anti-Brahman hate, not universalism
While Shahu was affiliated with the Satyashodhak Samaj (SS) because it wanted to uplift the non-dwija castes, he did not feel they had any religious foundations, whereas the Arya Samaj was encompassed both a spiritual and social movement.<ref>"Beyond Reformism: Chhatrapati Shahu and Hinduism Reimagined" By Surajkumar Thube P. 124-144 ''Nidān: International Journal for Indian Studies, Volume 8'', Issue 1 (July 2023)</ref> Also, the SS of Pune was antithetical to social cohesion because it targeted the Brahman caste as an enemy, and while its main founder (Jyotirao Phule) made absurd claims like 'Shiv-Dharma'<ref>"''The real Shiv-Dharma that is ours, we are re-establishing it as Sarvajanik Satya Dharma.''" Chapter 4, ''Sarvajanik Satya Pustak''</ref> or 'Mahadev-Dharma' (worship of [[Shiva|Shiv]] as God and some local gods like Khandoba as avatars) being the true religion of Indians whereas every other Hindu belief and practice was an imposition by 'non-Indian Brahman invaders'. Being a chauvinist, he also criticized freedom fighter martyrs Lakshmi Bai, Nana Sahib, Tantia Tope for being Brahmans. He also wrote positively that freedom fighters lost the 1857 War of Independence against the British colonialists. He was also openly criticized by his own relative Baburao Phule, who accused the former of being a Christian convert who destroyed the Hindu religion.<ref>P. 58-59 ''The Caste Question: Dalits and the Politics of Modern India'' (2009) By Anupama Rao </ref>

Phule though anti-Brahman, was influenced by some Brahmans, such as Balshastri Jambhekar (a Hindu activist) who pushed scientific knowledge and history through Marathi, criticized caste segregation, and attacked other or kinds or orthodoxy like widowhood. He was also influenced by some Hindu activists who were not anti-Brahman (i.e., Karsandas Mulji.)

The organization would receive the most aid from Shahu (financial and social work), Karmvir (social work), and Padval (intellectual) but they themselves always kept a distance from the SS because of its explicitly castist vitriol. People would choose to align or become members of other associations for their inclusivity and harmonious vision for the future.

;Satyashodhak Samaj becoming less anti-Brahman
"''All Hindus are equal. No one is superior, no one is inferior. Let all flesh and blood be one. Four varnas are a real deceit. It's a tool to keep the non-Brahmins in slavery. There is no difference among the Hindus. Hindu is the only varna. If a Hindu eats or marries with another Hindu that's not ''[[adharma]].'' In contrast, what divide Hindus in the name of religion is not a dharma, but a trick by Brahmins. One who calls themselves a Hindu, whether they are Europeans or Africans, they are our coreligionists.''" - P. 39 ''Deshache Dushman'' (1925) By Dinkarrao Javalkar
[[image:Sasipada Banerji.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Sasipada Banerji (alias 'Sevabrata'.)]]
Notable is that Phule's friend Narayan Meghaji Lokhande, a labour organization leader, was close friends with Phule and used Khandoba-worship and the reverence of Sundays for Khandoba in his petition to British authority to achieve Sunday as a holiday for factory labourers (S.S. Bengalee's idea that he campaigned for over a decade.) (In some Satyashodhak branches, incoming members took an initialization oath in the name of "Khanderao".) Phule and Lokhande emulated Brahmans, like forming the political lobby group Deenbandhu Sarvajanik Sabha after Ranade's Poona Sarvajanik Sabha and forming the Bombay Mill Hands Association based and its mouthpiece ''Deenbandhu'' on the Working Men's Club (India's 1st labour welfare platform) and its mouthpiece ''Bharat Sramajibi'' (India's 1st labour journal) of Sasipada Banerji (Brahmo Samaji.) Mentionable is that Lokhande used phrases "''Hindu Bhau''", "''Hindu Dharma''" and "''Hindu Samaj''" in his writings.

Though Dinkarrao Javalkar portrayed himself as pan-Hindu when discussing the specific topic of Hindu unity, he still prejudicially criticized the Brahman caste in general<ref>"''This day will be counted among the most important days in the history of Hindus. There is no reason for you to fear jail. The Brahmans who eat ghee and roti should have that fear. To make the touchable people behave is in your hands. You are the sons of Hindus. You capture the tank saying 'har har Mahadev' and follow the advice of your leader Dr. Ambedkar Saheb. This is my own position.''" -Dinkarrao Javalkar at satyagraha with Keshavrao Jedhe and Dr. Ambedkar among a Mahar crowd</ref> and targeted some prominent Brahmans like Lokmanya Tilak. (Javalkar and Keshavrao Jedhe also portrayed themselves as pro-woman but derogatory remarks about women from the Brahman and certain other castes<ref>P. 44 ''19th Century Maharashtra: A Reassessment'' (2020) By Shraddha Kumbhojkar </ref> and both appealed to Dr. B.R. Ambedkar in 1927 to exclude Brahmans from the Mahad Satyagraha<ref> P. 27 ''Social Reform Movements in India: A Historical Perspective'' (1991) By V.D. Divekar</ref>.) Jedhe did protest with other activists (including Brahmans like Narhar Vishnu Gadgil, Seshdas Ranade, Shreedhar Mahadev Joshi, and members of Arya Samaj) for the right of Dalits to worship at Pune's Devdeveshwar Mandir[https://devdeveshwarsanthan.org/home.html]. Javalkar did write favourably about some like Ranade, Gopal Ganesh Agarkar, and Krishna Gopal Gokhale but even they were rarely mentioned. He rightfully partook in the Kalaram Mandir[https://www.shrikalaramsansthannasik.org/] Satyagraha in Nasik that protested for Dalits to be able to enter the temple. He was a communist and 10 years after his death, the Peasants and Workers Party (PWP) was formed.

SS branches outside of Pune were less hateful of Brahmans. It is also noteworthy, however, is that Nana Patil, a founder of the PWP, was affiliated with both the Satyashodhak and Prarthana associations [meaning that he, like most other Satyashodhaks didn't believe in Phule's religious ideology.] Some other PWP founders like Jedhe and Madhavrao Bagal were Satyashodhaks, they popularized Shiv Jayanti and Ganesh Chathuri. The latter and his son Vasantrao even wrote devotional pieces inspired from Bhakti Era saints (i.e., [[Tukaram]], [[Eknath]]) and valourizing pieces about Shahu. Tulshidas Jadhav, a Gandian within the PWP, championed the Bhakti Era's Warkari Movement, which was still popular in his time, because it was based on social equality and public seva. Also noteworthy is, that even some prominent members supported the Arya Samaj, like Krishnarao Bhalekar<ref>"''Bhalekar said that while Hinduism needed to be reformed , this reform should be brought about from within . He said he would defend Hinduism if it was under attack from Islam or Christianity.''" - P. 35 ''Non-Brahman Movement in Maharashtra'' (1989) By M.S. Gore </ref> (1 of the founders of SS with Phule) defended Dayanand Saraswati (Arya Samaj’s founder), when the latter’s procession was opposed by some orthodox Hindus in Pune, and Bhalekar organized a speech to be delivered by Saraswati at a dharmshal near a Rokdoba Temple in Pune. SS' Moro Vitthal Walvekar was directly affiliated with the Prarthana Samaj and played a crucial role in its associated media landscape (frequently serving as an editor of ''Subodha Patrika''.)

Bhalekar himself made the claim that the SS is the true follower of Sant Tukaram's [[Bhāgavata-dharma|Bhagwat Dharma]] ([[Krishna|Krishnaite]] [[Vaishnava|Vaishnavism]].) His son was Mukundrao Patil, who made the claim, "''The Satyasodhak Samaj is the true heir of the Hindu religion. Brahmanism is not Hinduism.''"<ref>''Dinmitra'' newspaper (1920s)</ref> Javalkar claimed SS is the true representative of the Hindu religion and that SS members are liberating Hinduism from the supremacy of the Brahmins. Shivram Janma Kamble (a Dalit) stated the SS is a revival movement of the true Hinduism. Kisan Faguji Bansode (a Dalit) argued "Shivdharma" was the true Hindu religion and that the SS advocates that version. Dr. Ramayya Venkayya Ayyavaru in ''Khristi Bandhujanans Vinanti'' or ''A Request to Our Christian Brothers'' (1887) wrote to missionaries that Indians did not need to be baptized and that monotheism has been embedded in Indian culture and that Indians. Previously, he, backed firmly by Lokhande and the urban Mumbai executive committee of the SS, aggressively fought against changing the name of the SS to 'Satya Dharma Samaj'.

There were those in his organization that promoted about how in ancient Sanatan society, there were no caste distinctions and that people were recognized by their merits. Their view was promoted by Tukaram Tatya Padval, who wrote ''Jatibhed Vivekshar'' (1861) after being inspired by Ashwaghosha's ''Vajrasuchi''. Phule republished copies of Padval's books, and the 2 developed a friendship. He did write at that in ancient India, certain sages were had Sudra or Avarna status but rose to the rank of a Brahman through their intellect, and used examples of Valmiki (wrote a ''Ramayan''), Sankhya, and Kabilar rishis. He also published copies of the ''Bhagavad Gita'', ''Yogasutra'', and compilations of the ''Rajayoga'' and ''Sankhya Karika.'' He further compiled the ''Tukarambaba ani Tyanche Shisya Yanchi Abhanga Gatha'' (1889) and ''Eknath Maharajancha Abhangachi Gatha'' (1903.) Padval, however, never became a member of Phule's organization and instead became a member of the Theosophical Society.

Krishnarao Arjun Keluskar, who was a member of the Mumbai SS had written positively of Krishna and the latter's ethics of the ''Bhagavad Gita'', as well as of Shivaji, Sant Tukaram, Gautam Buddha, and Govind Janardan Borkar (alias Shri Gajananaswami.) It was he who first influenced Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar with [[Bauddh Dharm]]. (Ambedkar had later converted to the dharm, but that's an Arya dharma, so is not damaging to Sanatan society or Indian society like converting to Islam would be.)

;Shahu forming his own Satyashodhak Samaj focused on upliftment (free of anti-Brahman distractions)
As a result of the Satyashodhak Samaj of Pune being too antagonistic of Brahmans, Shahu had instead founded his own branch in 1911 — Shri Shahu Satyashodhak Samaj. By an order, Shahu replaced the Brahman priests in the Patgaon Sansthan (Mauni Maharaj Math[https://durgbharari.in/maunibaba-patgaon/]) and Jyotiba Devasthan[https://shreejyotiba.com/?lang=E][https://maharashtratourism.gov.in/temple/jyotiba/] with Maratha priests. Bhaskarrao Jadhav and Anna Babaji Latthe were leaders of Shahu's Kolhapur Satyashodhak Samaj. Whereas Phule mostly only wrote positively of Shiva and local-born gods, Jadhav in his ''Marathas and their Religion'' wrote positively about Krishna and the ''Bhagavad Gita''. He further worked with Shahu to aid Arya Samaj in its activities and goals (i.e., train non-Brahmans to become priests too.) Noteworthy is that Latthe, who worked personally with Shahu Maharaj, was its first VP and that he worked to dismantle priestly ([[Jain Dharm|Jain priests]], not usually Brahmans) intermediation within the Jain clergy. (He was a big-time activist for general upliftment and for reform within the Jain community (i.e., wrote ''Jain Dharmacha Parichay''.)

Latthe founded the Dakshin Bharat Jain Sabha[https://dbjainsabha.com/], of which Dr. Bhaurao Patil (from a Jain family) became a member and through he wasn't a member of any SS branch, he did sometimes participate in its activities and himself founded the Rayat Shikshan Sansthan[https://rayatshikshan.edu/], which educated students in a multitude of topics, including Sanskrit. Patil (alias 'Karmvir Anna') was deeply influenced by Mahatma Gandhi and Vitthal Ramji Shinde.

;Shahu distancing himself formally from Satyashodhak Samaj
The SS had earned a bad reputation in Maharashtra with the general public, particularly for the outright anti-Brahman vitriol spewed in the SS's publications and events. Because the goal of Shahu and true reformers was to achieve a harmonious society with all people cooperating, it would not make sense to support an organization that's known for abusing persons (i.e., Brahmans) specifically over their caste identity.

In 1921, Shahu made a public statement in a Baroda newspaper that even though he granted significant support to the non-Brahman movement and introduced measures to eliminate Brahman dominance, he had never been affiliated with Phule's SS, and that he always accepted [[Rta and Spiritual Authority#Rishis|Vedic ritual authority]].

;Granting, accommodating, and expanding Arya Samaj
Shahu attended Arya Samaj sessions like the one at Navsari in 1918 and another at Bhavnagar in 1920<ref>P. 6. ''People's Raj Volume 30'' (1974) By Directorate-General of Information and Public Relations </ref>. He provided funding for Gurukul Boarding House to be built at Kerle, wherein large buildings and well-irrigated lands were granted to the Arya Samaj. Later, the Rajaram Anathalaya orphanage was added to this grant. He also brought educational institutions in his domain under the leadership of Arya Pratinidhi Sabha. Rajaram College's administration was also granted to the Arya Samaj.

;Spiritual Authority as Rajarshi
Shahu Maharaj, being a devout Sanatan wanted to proclaim the rights that warriors of history had and so participated in important ceremonies and worked with priests (i.e., Brahmans) to achieve the rights to learn and perform Vedic ceremonies. He established the Vedokta Committee for Marathas to be able to perform Vedic rites without requiring priests. In 1905, the Karveer Peeth's (or Kolhapur Math's) Shankaracharya declared full rights of Vedokta to Chhatrapati Shahu.

Tatyarao Joshirao was appointed by Shahu Maharaj as new royal purohit, replacing the Rajopadhye (creator of the infamous 'Vedokta Controversy'), who denied the Maharaj to perform Vedic rites. Joshirao was from a family that had traditional ownership of the historic Binkhambi Ganapati Mandir in Kolhapur.

Rajaram Shastri (alias 'Bhagavata'), a Brahman scholar, linguist, and researcher, openly challenged the religious orthodoxy, arguing from scripture that Shahu Maharaj had full rights to the Vedas. Vishnu Topkhane was another Brahman who greatly helped the Chhatrapati with his progressive reforms. Topkhane the educationalist helped the latter establish the Vidyapeeth High School near the Shri Karveer Niwasini Ambabai Mahalakshmi Temple. Freedom fighter Gokhale was someone who worked with Shahu. When the Vedokta Controversy broke out and the conservative press attacked the Maharaja, Gokhale privately and publicly validated Shahu Maharaj's stance, recognizing that social reform was a prerequisite for true political freedom. Ranade, though passed away before much Shahu's reforms began, was admired by the latter for his progressive ideals and actions.

Chhatrapati Shahu founded the Satyashodhak School for spiritual training in 1913, in which seminarians (predominantly from castes such as Marathas, Mahars, and Chambhars) were taught to recite and preach the poems (i.e., abhangs of Tukaram) of sants. He also created the Shivaji Vedic School (aliases 'Shahu Vedic School', 'Shahu Vedic Pathshala', 'Shri Shahu Vaidik Vidyalay') in 1920 and had invited scholars from Varanasi (spiritual capital of Sanatan Dharm) to ensure the highest standard of scriptural and linguistic training. The school trained seminarians (of all castes) to learn Sanskrit and become priests and conduct ceremonies. He further established and financed the office of the Kshatra Jagadguru (''Warrior Universal Teacher''), a pontiff seat open to anyone of any caste. The first Kshatra Jagadguru was Sadashivrao Lakshmanrao Sankpal Patil Benadikar, was an accomplished Sanskrit scholar who received his formal higher education at Rajaram College in Kolhapur. The Kshatra Jagadguru Peeth was the pontiff's seat at Patgaon (in the Bhudargad region of Kolhapur.) Patgaon was chosen because it was the historic site of the Mauni Maharaj Math, a highly respected spiritual center that had historically blessed Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj[https://pilgrimdata.in/temple/mouni-maharaj-math-temple-patgaon-bhudargarh-dist-kolhapur/]. The Kshatra Jagadguru had the Shri Sadashivrao Patil Shikshan Sanstha educationalist association named after him, and it runs schools[https://www.mwssm.org/][https://sspiop.com/] in Maharashtra still. Other organizations too use his name for schools like Sadashivrao Mandlik Mahavidyalaya (Kolhapur) of the ⁠Jay Shivray Education Society.

===Successive associations===
From Hindu-based institutions like sociopolitical organizations and schools came a number of philanthropic associations. Even other humanitarian associations that were not established by Hindu activists, were established by their influence. For example, Krishna Gopal Gokhale had participated in many sessions of the Prarthana Samaj as he was Ranade's pupil, and he later joined the Deccan Education Society, which he left to establish the Servants of India Society. Narayan Malhar Joshi was a member of Gokhale's group and later formed his own Social Service League[https://socialserviceleague.org.in/]. Hriday Nath Kunzru too was part of Gokhale's group and left to establish the Seva Samiti.

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Organization
! Demographic of Focus
! Region(s)
! Founder
! Founder's Affiliation(s)
! Achievement
|-
|Anath Balikashram Society
|Widows
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Andhra Mahila Sabha
|Females
|Andhra Pradesh
|Durgabai Deshmukh
|
|
|-
|Bharat Stree Mahamandal
|Females
|Bengal, Bihar, Punjab, Sindh, U.P.
|Sarala Devi Chaudhurani
|Arya Samaji, Brahmo Samaji, accepted Bijoy Krishna Chattopadhyaya as her guru
|
|-
|Buddhi Vardhak Sabha
|General public
|Gujarat
|Narmadashankar Labheshankar Dave
|
|Exposed people in positions of power that abused their privileges, build schools for girls
|-
|Central Social Welfare Board
|Females and children
|
|Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh
|
|
|-
|Hindu Widow Marriage Association
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Hindustani Seva Dal
|Females
|Every province
|Dr. Narayan Subbarao Hardikar
|
|Established the Hindustani Seva Mandal (later became Rashtriya Seva Dal) in 1923, established the Arya Bala Sabha, taught the Gita during his student days in Kolkata, was a fan of Lokmanya Tilak, and had enthusiastically worked with Lala Rai
|-
|Indian Reform Association
|Females
|West Bengal
|Keshub Chandra Sen
|
|Brahmo Samaji, founded ''Sulabh Samachar'' as weekly newspaper of group
|-
|Kasthurbha Gandhi Kanya Gurukulam[http://www.kgkgurukulam.org/]
|Girls
|Tamil Nadu (Vedaranyam)
|Vedaratnam Pillai
|
|Involved in temple-based philanthropy and donated to Sri Ramakrishna Mission too
|-
|Lakshmi Ashram
|Females
|Uttarakhand
|Sarla Behn
|
|Established individual Mahila Mandals throughout Uttarakhand and promoted important skills as well as ecological awareness
|-
|Lokahitawadi Mandal
|General public
|Maharashtra
|Vishnu Vaman Shirwadkar
|
|Wrote about Hindu themes, including persons from scriptures and about Shivaji poetically, philosophically, and nationally
|-
|Maharshi Karve Stree Shikshan Samstha
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Mahila Vidyalaya (Pune)
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Nishkam Karma Math
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Poona Seva Sadan
|Females
|Maharashtra (at its peak, included M.P. and T.N.)
|Ramabai Ranade
|
|
|-
|Samata Sangh
|General public
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Self Employed Women's Association (SEWA)
|Females
|18 states
|Ela Bhatt
|Gandhian Textile Labour Association
|Established: own bank (Shri Mahila Sewa Sahakari Bank, or 'SEWA Cooperative Bank'), SEWA Mahila Housing Trust
|-
|Servants of the People Society
|Females
|Kerala, Maharashtra, M.P., Odisha T.N., Uttarakhand U.P.
|
|
|
|-
|Shraddhanand Ashram[https://shraddhanandmahilashram.org] (alias Hindu Women's Welfare Society)
|Females and boys
|Maharashtra (Mumbai)
|Swami Shraddhanand
|
|Has cared for thousands of destitute women and orphans, and educated them and provided skills development, as well as fostered personal development
|-
|Stree Hitaishini Mandali
|Females
|Andhra Pradesh
|Kanuparti Varalakshmamma
|
|Educated many females
|-
|Veda Samaj
|General public
|Tamil Nadu
|Chembeti Sridharalu Naidu
|
|It advanced female literacy through local activism, campaigned against child marriages, promoted widow remarriage and windows' rehabilitation into being societal contributing members
|-
|Widow Marriage Association
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|}

==Inspiration to Madras Presidency==
[[image:M.C. Rajah.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Mylai Chinna Thambi Pillai Rajah (the real 'Periyar'.)]]
While the Arya Samaj, Brahmo Samaj, Prarthana Samaj, and a host of other Hindu-based humanitarian and sociopolitical institutions existed in the-then Madras Presidency of southern India, they inspired local organizations as well. Shahu Maharaj had friends in the-then Justice Party (JP, est. 1916), like Arcot Ramasamy Mudaliar and Panaganti Ramarayaningar. While some ethnic groups, like certain castes even falsely supported the idea of an 'Aryan Invasion Theory' and themselves (Dravidian-languages speakers) as indigenous, they still appreciated Hinduism and did not consider it alien.

The biggest uplifter of the party was M.C. Rajah, who had the highest influence upon the policies that improved the lives of the Dalits in Madras Presidency. The party itself was founded primarily by 3 individuals — Sir Pitti Theagaraya Chetty (political founder who built the political machine), Dr. Taravath Madhavan Nair (ideological co-founder), and Dr. Chintadripet Natesa Mudaliar (cultural/grassroots mobilizer who helped shape cultural legitimacy.) Dr. Nair had said that Hindu society had originally possessed broader equality before caste dominance hardened it. Chetty occasionally used dharm-based ethical framing. He is consistently described as arguing that governance must align with "''dharma and justice''". The Dr. Mudaliar was a devout Shaiva that infused into the party Shaivism as a cultural identity for southerners.
[[image:P.T. Rajan.jpg|right|thumb|200px|P.T. Rajan (centre-right, wearing glasses next to priest), touring with the idol of [[Ayyappan|Ayyappa]] he had made at Swamimalai Temple[https://swamimalaiswaminathar.hrce.tn.gov.in/] and it was placed in the Sabarimala Temple[https://www.sabarimalauptodate.in/].]]
An ideologue of influence to the JP and Self-Respect Movement was Maraimalai Adigal, a Shaiv preacher and writer, who claimed that both the JP and Self-Respect Movement were from his teachings and that militant atheist Erode Venkatappa Ramasami Naicker had hijacked them. JP founder Dr. Nair died in 1919 and Chetty in 1925, so had no interaction Naicker. Ponnambala Thiaga Rajan was an active party member and disagreed with Naicker's ideology, so joined Congress-aligned politics. Mudaliar died in 1935 around the time Naicker entered the JP. Naicker was also a prejudiced castist that criticized but did not contribute to build schools and shelters for women and children, as Rajah[https://www.news18.com/opinion/opinion-m-c-rajah-the-forgotten-hindu-mahasabha-dalit-8937192.html][https://vskbharat.com/m-c-rajah-a-staunch-hindu-leader/?lang=en][https://thecommunemag.com/m-c-rajah-the-hindu-mahasabha-dalit/], a practicing Hindu of the party did. Rajah even once formed a political alliance with the Hindu Mahasabha, was the contributor. Before Rajah, the party's caste disparity was mainly about civil service occupations and education access for underprivileged castes. Rajah was recommended by Ambedkar to convert but Rajah replied there's no religion better than Hinduism.<ref>P. 92 ''The Political Evolution of Muslims in Tamilnadu and Madras, 1930-1947'' By J.B. Prashant More (1997) </ref><ref> In a public meeting of the All India Adi Dravida Mahajana Sabha in Nungambakkam, Chennai he said, "''The president (of this meeting) mentioned that no other community other than us has more right to be called Hindus. Conversion will not bring about any good. By saying so, I am not undermining or wishing away the oppression and ills we have faced. We need to fight for our rights. The speed at which reforms are happening might be slow. But think about our current situation and how much it has improved. I beseech you to please abandon any move that will weaken us. I request the government to bring about the Untouchability Abolition Bill and pass it quickly. The Harijans are proud Hindus. That is the only reason why even after years of oppression by higher castes and a barrage of proselytization efforts by other religions hasn't changed their resolve being Hindus.''" P. 123 ''Evolution of Hindu Nationalism - Icons of HMS, RSS & BJS'' By Sankara Narayanan T (2025)</ref> Adigal's writings had a profound impact on Subramania Ramanathan, the founder of the Self-Respect Movement, and on the Naicker but the latter only wanted pro-Tamil and castist societal changes, not promotion of Shaivism. Naicker would later break away from the party and form his own Dravidar Kazhagam, a title he copied from Adigal's Shaiv association (Podhunilak Kazhagam.) (His own pupil, Conjeevaram Natarajan Annadurai, would eventually disown him after he married his own adopted daughter, and Annadurai would leave his group.)
[[image:Alamelu.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Alamelu Mangai Thayarammal, a Brahmo Samaji, was co-founder of the party among 29 others (all men.)]]
The Hindu sentiment was definitely present in the JP. Many left after Naicker's hijacking. Important members bothered by Naicker's rhetoric apart from Rajan were Ananda Prasad Patro, Arunachalam Thamaraiselvam Panneerselvam, Muthiah Annamalai Chettiar, Ramasamy Kandasamy Shanmukham Chetty, and Subbarayalu Kumaraswami Reddiar. Chettiar even personally regularly donated to temple renovations, endowing temple lands or festivals, supporting pilgrimage facilities, and Hindu-managed schools. Rajan, the last leader of the JP, was the head-of-government of the Presidency, and was a big devotee a [[Ayyappan|Swami Ayyappa]]. Rajan even solemnized a marriage of a German couple converted to Hinduism in Coimbatore (Oct 31, 1962.) He further discouraged conversion of Dalits from Hinduism to another religion<ref>"''If by mass conversion you expect to achieve your object, you will be disappointed, because of a mere change of religion it will not give you all that you want.''" 
P. 147 ''Sir P. T. Rajan's Eighty Second Birthday Souvenir, 1973'' By P.T. Rajan and K. Paramasivam</ref> while encouraging caste-Hindus to better treat Dalits. His family had deep ties to the Meenakshi Amman Temple[https://maduraimeenakshi.hrce.tn.gov.in/] in Madurai, with his son (Palanivel Rajan), serving as a minister, and his daughter-in-law (Rukmani), serving as the first female chairperson of the temple's board of trustees. His predecessor Ramakrishna Ranga Rao denied that the JP was anti-Hindu and declared that it aimed to purify Hindu society from "''absurdities''" and return "''Hinduism greater and more glorious than it was in the past...''"<ref>"''As I understand it, the Self-Respect movement stands for certain great ideals to make Hinduism greater and more glorious than it was in the past, to rid it of all those absurdities which are the accretions of an unfortunate era of the past, and unite us in a solid federation so that all those who profess to follow the Hindu faith may feel that they are brethren following one of the most ancient and glorious religions of the world. No longer should the foreigner point his finger of scorn at this or that particular phase of Hinduism which belies its cosmopolitan tendency by inflicting personal hardship on classes or communities. If a few youths in their exuberant enthusiasm have been carried away beyond the bounds of Hinduism it will not do to fight shy of the new movements, but political wisdom and sagacity lie in taking them into our fold and guiding them aright along the paths of duty and rectitude.''" 
P. 289 ''The Indian Annual Register An Annual Digest of Public Affairs of India Recording the Nation's Activities Each Year in Matters Political, Economic, Industrial, Educational, Social, Etc · Volume 2'' By Nipendra Nath Mitra (1934)</ref> Alamelu Mangai Thayarammal, conferred 'Pandithai' title by Saiva Sabha in Palamcottah, was a JP co-founder [with 29 co-founders being men] who was a Brahmo Samaji, meaning the influence of the Hindu-based organizations wasn't insignificant. Paramasivan Subbarayan Gounder, while not technically a JP member, worked with it closely, and both he and his women's rights activist wife Kailash Radhabai Kulmud were Brahmos. It is also noteworthy that [[Ascetics|ascetic]] Swamiyar Kaivalyar who supported the party without being a member wrote pro-Shaiv material. Cattamanchi Ramalinga Reddy, an ex-member who formed his own party in 1923 was a close friend of Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, and he himself engaged with Hindu texts on a literary artistic level. As Hinduism isn't a scripture-dependent religion, some JP members like A.R. Mudaliar heavily criticized certain scriptures but were devout Hindus ([[Vaiśnava|Vaishnav]] in his case.) And while orthodox opposition was present, the majority of Indians, including religious leaders, supported reforms, like when Shankaracharya of Kanchi[https://www.kamakoti.org/] supported the "Hindu Religious Endowments Bill" (1921) even while voicing some concerns in within. Mentionable is that [[Shatata-Unnati#Female upliftment|Dr. Muthulakshmi Reddy]] wasn't part of the JP but it still nominated her in 1926 for the Madras Legislative Council to bring about positive changes.

==Impactful legacy==
The currents resulting from electrifying the establishments in the colonial era by activists, especially Bhave, Gandhi, Ramakrishna, Tagore, and Vivekanand, are still being felt. Humanitarians worldwide in the colonial era recognized those individuals in particular. Albert Schweitzer of France praised Tagore, Howard Thurman and Thomas Merton spoke positively about Sanatan spirituality in general, and Romain Rolland commended Ramakrishna and Vivekanand. Even international figures who changed the world scientifically and social scientifically recognized, like Albert Einstein revering Tagore and his Upanishadic-style monism, and Ernst Friedrich Schumacher exalting both Bhave and Tagore. (Schumacher was influenced by Buddhism as well, upon visiting Burma, and he founded 'Buddhist Economics'.)

And because [[Ārya Samudāy|Arya dharmas]], focus on the rights of all creatures, including animals, activists struggling to improve [[Animal rights#Influence upon Westerners|animals' lives too were impacted]] by Sanatan, Jain, and Bauddh thoughts on the topic.

One thing that Arya dharmas, particularly Sanatan Dharm, has been able to do is accommodate many viewpoints [provided that they converge at its foundation.] For example, even atheists like M.N. Roy have praised philosophical systems, such as Sankhya, Nyaya, and Vaishesik darshans believe they appreciate that their cosmologies delve into the natural world and don't treat it as maya. Likewise, Nobel Prize-winning physicist Erwin Schrödinger[https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1933/schrodinger/biographical/] used Hindu metaphysics to make sense of the bizarre subatomic behaviors discovered in quantum mechanics. Norwegian philosopher Arne Næss, heavily influenced by Gandhi, who founded the "Deep Ecology" movement in the 1970s, pointed directly to Sanatan ethics (mainly ahimsa) to argue against human destruction of the Earth. Leo Tolstoy, who refused to accept the Nobel[https://www.nobelprize.org/ceremonies/proclamation-sent-to-leo-tolstoy-after-the-1901-years-presentation-of-nobel-prizes/], had based much of his humanistic philosophies of anarcho-pacifism and anti-colonialism on the ''[[Thirukkural]]'' and Gandhism.

==Related articles==
*[[Women]]
*[[Women as Rishikas in the Vedas]]
*[[Worship of God as Mother]]

==External resources==
*[https://www.ijhsss.com/files/08.-ABHISEK-KARMAKAR_6813z4a4.pdf "Changing status of women in Indian politics (1917-1947): the role of civil society"], P. 42-45 ''International Journal of Humanities & Social Science Studies'' Volume-I, Issue-II (September 2014) By Abhisek Karmakar
*[https://www.besanthill.org/about/history-heritage/annie-besant/ Besant Hill School of Happy Valley in Ojai, California]
*[https://www.anniebesant.org Annie Besant Women's College in Hyderabad, Telangana]
*[https://www.aryasabha.mu/cultural-programme-arya-mahila-mandal-in-the-context-of-the-200th-birth-anniversary-of-swami-dayananda-saraswati/ Arya Mahila Mandal (Mauritius)]
*[https://www.thearyasamaj.org/ammkarolbagh Arya Mahila Mandal Karol Bagh]
*[https://vatikashaktipeeth.com/seven-agitations/women-awakening.html Vatika Shakti Peeth]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category: History]]
[[Category: Economics]]
[[Category: Societal altruism]]

Theology

2026-07-08T06:29:45Z

Himanshu Bhatt:

{{Author|Himanshu Bhatt}}
[[Image:Vishnu making universes.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Vishnu]] depicted as God (in [[Vaiśnava|Vaiśnava]] sectarian context) as making and ending universes while being within them, demonstrating panentheism.]]
[[Image:Gayatri Ma.jpg|thumb|250px|The monotheistic prayer Gayatri Mantra personified as God, demonstrating [[monotheism]] in itself.
 
The [[mantra]] demonstrates henotheism when it is called Sarva-[[devata]] Svarupini ("''Universal Form of All Deities''.")]]
<blockquote>
“The Hindu religion is the only one of the world’s great faiths dedicated to the idea that the Cosmos itself undergoes an immense, indeed an infinite, number of deaths and rebirths. It is the only religion in which the time scales correspond to those of modern scientific [[cosmology]]. Its cycles run from our ordinary day and night to a day and night of Brahma, 8.64 billion years long. Longer than the age of the Earth or the Sun and about half the time since the Big Bang.” - Carl Sagan, ''Cosmos''
</blockquote>
Panentheism is the first and foremost theology of the Sanatan Dharm while henotheism and monotheism are secondary but they are all in conformity with each other. This is because while recognizing there is only One Supreme Being above all ([[Brahm]] or [[God]]), the immanence and transcendence of It is a doctrine that goes beyond the generic monotheism preached by other religions. While accepting there is One God above all, it does not enforce worshiping only The One. So it is monotheistic because it believes there is God, but also henotheistic because others worshipping It in another form is accepted as still worshiping the One God. Worship as polytheism (i.e., praying to ancestors) is acceptable being it does not reject The One but venerates others as well. Once a human attains Moksh, it is united with Brahm or Parmatma. Brahm is not confined to space and so is everywhere, including within ourselves. This principle is Ishavasyam. Individuals on the other hand are also connected to all that exists, and this is the [[Ātmā#Aikatmyam|principle of aikatmyam]]. Because of this omnipresence, the central Hindu theology is panentheism. It is monotheist too because there is just one God above all other spirits. It is henotheist because, while Brahm is The Supreme, other beings worthy of worship exist, which may be pious humans or angels ([[Devatā|demi-gods]].) Hindu theology is often aptly termed monistic theism and even open monotheism by some scholars, but is not purely polytheistic as outsiders perceive it to be. [[Bhakti Marga|Worship (Bhakti Yoga]]) is one of the three yogas to attain Moksh.<ref>The other two are [[Gyāna Mārga|Gyāna Yoga]] and [[Karma Mārga|Karma Yoga]].</ref> Monotheism is known in [[Overview Of Scriptures|Hindu scriptures]] as ekantikvad, and some sects practice it strictly, such as the [[Arya]] Samaj, Mahima, and certain [[Śaiva]] (i.e., Viraśaiva, Alakhgir) and the Vaiśnava (i.e., Pushtimarga, Ekasarana) sampradays.

Hinduism has often been considered to be polytheistic because of one leading denomination, Smartism, which follows the [[Advaita]] philosophy of absolute monism, and includes worship of all kinds of personal forms of God. Absolute monists see one unity with all personal forms of God as different aspects of one Supreme Spirit, like a single beam of light separated into colors by a prism. Thus Smartas consider all personal forms of God as equal including Devi, Vishnu, Śiva, Ganesh and Skanda but generally limit the recognized forms to be six. Other denominations of Hinduism don't adhere to the Smarta viewpoint, but are quite unlike Western perceptions of monotheism. Additionally, like Judeo-Christian traditions which believe in angels, Hindus also believe in other less powerful entities, such as [[deva]]s.<ref name = hop1>{{cite book |title=THE RELIGIONS OF INDIA|author=Edward Washburn Hopkins|url=http://books.google.com/?id=Dj33XvXqJO8C |publisher= Jr. Ginn & Co |pages=204 |year= 1896 |editor=Morris Jastrow, |isbn=978-1-60303-143-1}}</ref>

Sometimes the orthodox members of religions interpret religions with a puritan mindset. An example is that many Christians believe any form of worship not including Jesus as being 'idol worship', while Muslims consider idol worship specifically practicing worship through statues but revering the black stone at the Kaaba and circumambulating Kaaba as not idolatry. [Within the Hindu community too prejudices exist among certain people but the general belief is that 'all religions lead to God'.] This leads to religions discrediting other religions. It is resulted in Hinduism being classified as 'pagan cults' and/or a 'polytheistic religion with no heaven'. The underlying principle of the divine is that it has a Supreme Soul (literally 'Parmatma'), making Hinduism monotheistic in belief. Because Hindus believe that Parmatma possesses the universe, which It also transcends, Hinduism believes in panentheism. And because of the principles 'all religions lead to God' and 'All God is One', and that God can be worshiped in those various ways in various forms, Hinduism believes in henotheism.

Contemporary Hinduism can be categorized into four major sects:
# [[Vaiśnava|Vaiśnavism]]
# [[Śaiva|Śaivism]]
# [[Śākta|Śaktism]]
# Smartism
Vaiśnavism, Śaivism, and Śaktism [[worship]] [[Narayan]], [[Śiva]] and [[Devi]] - the Divine Mother as the Supreme Being respectively or considering all [[Hindu]] [[deities]] as aspects of the Supreme Being or Brahm.<ref>See [[Advaita]], or impersonalism.</ref> Other minor sects such as [[Ganapatya]] and [[Surya|Saura]] focus on [[Ganesha|Ganesh]] and [[Surya]] as the Supreme.

==Nature of God==
:''See also: [[God#Nature of God|Nature of God]]'' [[Image:Durga Ma.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Durga|Durga Ma]] as depicted as God (in [[Shakta]] sectarian context), the God of gods, demonstrating henotheism.]]
[[Image:God in all beings.jpg|thumb|250px|God is considered [[Antaryamin]] (Inner Dweller) or [[Caitya-purusa|Chaitya Purush]] (Inner Being.) While God is omnipresent in inanimate objects too, it is Its presence within living beings that enables a relationship between humans and It, and for humans to attain [[Moksha|Moksh]]. (This is an image of God in [[Vaiśnava]] context.)]]
The One Above All is called Brahm and Parmatma in Sanatan Dharm. This [[acintya|Supreme Being is beyond imagination]] and experience, and as such, transcends the universe. The [[Darshana|darshanas (metaphysical worldviews)]] discuss this universe being prakriti which releases from either Brahm Itself or from human under the influence of ignorance (i.e., [[Maya Panchakam|Maya]].) Brahm is also believed by most Hindus to incarnate in various avataras, which may be to answer a prayer of a devotee, [[test]] a human, or promote spirituality (i.e., Krishna.)

Brahm or God Almighty is spoken of as being ''alaukika'' ("''beyond this world''.") This world is seen as prakriti (nature) which God created. This nature of this world is such that karmas cause beings to be possessed with defilements. God is tri-guṇatit, meaning It is transcendental to the modes of material nature.

God is:
#Sarvavyapin (omnipresent)
#Sarvajna (omniscient)
#Sarvaśaktiman (omnipotent)
#Akal (without beginning, and forever)
#Tri-gunatit (transcendent of the 3 modes of material nature)
The sarvavyapin aspect of God is such that it pervades everything, both material and spiritual, and is also called ''Ishavasyam'' ("''God present in all.''") Sarvajna means to know all, and this is an aspect often highlighted when speaking of Moksh, because salvation means Brahmgyana ("''to know Brahm''") or to acquire Brahmvidya. Sarvaśaktiman means the power of Brahm is such that there is nothing it cannot do, and no other power is greater. ''Akal'' means "''timeless''" and refers to the self-existent state (''swayambhu'') of God, and that it will exist forever. Tri-gunatit means to be transcendent of this material universe which is imperfect.

===Dualistic Energies of God===
This is an understanding of Brahm based on its energies in this universe. While Brahm is the Supreme above all, the God Almighty, it is said to apply two forms of energies in this world. This means that the energy which surrounds us in this material realm is different from that of the spiritual world (Moksh), as is the energy which is with our souls. This is spoken of in different sects and [[Darshana|darshans]]. For example, in the Śaiva sect, Śiva is said to be Brahm while his other half is Prakriti (the divine energy possessing this world.) In the [[Sankhya darsana|Samkhya Yoga]] darshan too, Brahm (Purusha) has a counterpart referred to as Prakriti, which is the nature that surrounds us in this reality. In the ''Bhagvad Gita'' too, Krishna says that Brahm is the total energy while the energy here in this reality he calls ''Parmatma''. In Vaiśnavism, this is notion of the Gita is elaborated wherein the energy of Brahm present in this universe is Mahamaya (or hiraṇmaya-[[mahat]]-[[tattva]]), whereas in the spiritual one it is Yogamaya (or jivan śakti.) The material energy is impacted by the three modes of material nature whereas spiritual energy is not, which is why prakriti is eternal and mutable (parimaminitya), whereas Yogamaya is eternal and immutable (parinamnitya.) The total energy of Brahm is called swarup śakti.

Personification of God's two energies has been presented in some instances as well. In Śaiva context, Śiva represents the spiritual energy and Śakti Ma represents the material energy. In Vaiśnavism too, Brahm is Krishna or Narayan and his energy (both spiritual and material) is a female, usually portrayed as Vishnu's wife, Śri (''Mantramayi Kriya Śakti''.)

====References to 3 aspects of God====
[[Image:Trimurti.jpg|thumb|250px|God represented in a syncretist context as [[Trimurti]] ("''Triune God''"), showing [[Brahmā]], [[Vishnu]], and [[Mahesh]] as God in Its 3 aspects.]]
Because the energies in the universe have normally been considered to be dualistic, they, together with God's total energy in the spiritual real, would be 3 aspects of God. From this logic, many Hindu thinkers have believed there are 3 aspects of God we can come to the conclusion of. Various scriptures have written on the One Supreme Lord being characterized of 3 aspects, in Hinduism and in the [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]]. In a conversation mentioned in the ''Brihadaranyaka [[Upanishad|Upaniṣad]]''<Ref> Chapter 3, Part 9 of ''Brihadaranyaka Upaniṣad'' </ref> between [[Yajnavalkya]] and Vidaghdha, the latter asks how many Devas (gods) there are, to which the former replies 33, but Vidaghdha keeps asking, and before coming to the answer of a single 1 God, he had said there are 3 gods [which can be taken to mean that single God has 3 aspects.] No other story legitimizes 3 aspects of Brahm more than the one of the ''[[Rig Veda]]'' wherein Ka (an epithet of the unseen presence or Parabrahm) or Apo (primordial waters) produced the universal womb Hiranyagarbha (Prajapati) with Prajapati within the womb having come into being the "one divine spirit", and Agni (souls)[https://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10121.htm]

Parallel to the 3 aspects of Brahm is the the [[Vaiśnava#Pāñcharātra Āgama|Pāñchrātra]], which consists of 5 venerable forms of Narayan (para, vyuha, vibhava, [[arca]], and antaryamin), the 3 aspects which as para, vyuha, and antaryamin fall within the same categories as the classifications of Brahm do in many other analyses. The vibhava aspect of God is basically formed from one or 2 of the other aspects (i.e., avatara of vyuha and consist of antaryamin.) Arca refers to representative icons of God which are venerated, which are created by matter. In this analysis, the Pāñchrātra holds consistent with the triune characterization of God. Some schools of Śaivism too break down the aspects of God into 3, like Śiva being Parabrahm, Śakti being Aparabrahm, and Yamala being Tapas or Agni. The last is called Tapas or Agni normally, as it is imperishable and is the same energy as the soul (Yogamaya.) That is why it is also called Apām Napāt (''Child of Apo''.)

The "Ka Sukta" (aliases "Hiranyagarbha Sukta", "Prajapati Sukta") of the ''Rig Veda'' is one the most popular cosmogonies in the Arya dharmas. What has been overlooked are the triple aspects detailed within the hymn. In it, Apo (God as 'primordial waters'), which "''possesses generational fire''" (Agni), incubates the Hiranyagarbha (womb containing Prajapati, "''born Only-Lord of all created beings''"). In other words, it ambiguously states Apo is God in the highest form (i.e., Parabrahm), Prajapati this material universe's Aparabrahm, and Agni the life-giving spark within all creatures. (This can be likened to the Pāñchrātrik para, vyuha, and antaryamin.) The hymn goes further to state that [[Devatā#Divine Council|the Devanam or ''people who've taken the title of God'']] (i.e., Devtas on the Divine Council of 33) return to God, meaning that the Devtas are representatives of God on Earth but they are none of the 3 aspects of God and aren't of equal status to God either.

As the material energy is Mahamaya and spiritual (superior) energy is Yogamaya, these energies can also help break down the Vak (cosmic speech.) The ''Rig Veda'' itself declares, "''Vak resides in four quarters (pada). The wise Brahmins who possess insight know them all. Three quarters are hidden in secret and do not stir; human beings speak only the fourth quarter.''"<ref>''Rig Veda'' 1.164.45</ref> The first 3 aspects of Vak itself—para, pashyanti, and madhyama—are spiritual, while the last (Vaikhari) is material energy. Therefore, it can be presumed that this together with synthesizing the commonalities in the creation myths, that the Aparabrahm or Universe is the lowest form of Vak.

"Purush Sukta" states that all creatures in this universe are 1/4 of the Purush (God) and that the others are spiritual—this would be in line with the trinitarian concept that the other 3/4 of Purush are the Parabrahm, Aparabrahm, and Antaryamin. All living beings here in the material world being 1/4 of Purush means that we are eternal, since are a part of the Purush Itself, and that we are of the same spiritual substance as Purush.

Below is a table summarizing and forming the connections between the trinity stated in various texts or beliefs.
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Derivation
! Heavenly Being
! All-Pervasive Being in Universe
! Inner Being
|-
!Vishwakarman Sukta (''Rig Veda''[https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rvsan/rv10081.htm][https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10081.htm][https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rvsan/rv10082.htm][https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10082.htm])
|Vishwakarma/Apo (Primordial Waters)/Garbha/Dhātar/Vidhātar/Sacrificial Seer<ref>ṛṣirhotā</ref>/Ascetic Father<ref>nyasīdatpitā</ref>/One Dev<ref>deva ekaḥ</ref>/Lord of Speech<ref>vācas patiṃ</ref>/One, Only One<ref>para ekamāhuḥ</ref>
|Universe
|
|-
!Ka Sukta (''Rig Veda''[https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rvsan/rv10121.htm][https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10121.htm])
|Apo
|Hiranyagarbha (Prajapati)/Universe
|Agni
|-
!Vak Sukta (''Rig Veda''[https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rvsan/rv10125.htm][https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10125.htm])
|Apsu (Primordial Waters<ref>Yonirapsvantaḥ</ref>)
|Universe
|Vak
|-
!Nasadiya Sukta (''Rig Veda''[https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rvsan/rv10129.htm][https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10129.htm])
|Tad Ekam (That One)
|Sat (The Existent/Manifestation)/Universe
|Asat (The Non-Existent/Potentiality)
|-
!Aghamarṣaṇa Sukta (''Rig Veda''[https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rvsan/rv10190.htm][https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10190.htm])
|Dhātar
|Sat (The Existent/Manifestation)/Ṛta (Cosmic Order) and Satya (Cosmic Truth)
|Tapas (Cosmic Heat)
|-
!Devāgāna Sukta (''Rig Veda''[https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rvsan/rv10072.htm][https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10072.htm])
|Āsur Ek/Brahmaṇaspati/Dev Ek
|Sat (The Existent/Manifestation)
|Vak
|-
!Purush Sukta (''Rig Veda''[https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rvsan/rv10090.htm][https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10090.htm])
|Adhi Purush
|Virāj/Universe
|Vak/Purush (other souls)
|-
!''Bhagavad Gita''<ref> “''O best of the embodied souls, the physical manifestation that is constantly changing is called adhibhūta; the universal form of God, which presides over the celestial gods in this creation, is called adhidaiva; I, who dwell in the heart of every living being, am called Adhiyajña, or the Lord of all sacrifices.''” - [https://www.holy-bhagavad-gita.org/chapter/8/verse/4 ''Bhagvad Gita'' 8.4] </ref>
|Parabrahm
|Aparabrahm
|Parmatma<Ref> “''Within the body also resides the Supreme Lord. He is said to be the Witness, the Permitter, the Supporter, Transcendental Enjoyer, the ultimate Controller, and the Paramātmā (Supreme Soul).''” - [https://www.holy-bhagavad-gita.org/chapter/13/verse/23 ''Bhagvad Gita'' 13.23] </ref>
|-
!''Bhagavat Purana''
|Narayan
|Mahamaya
|Yogamaya
|-
!''Isha Upaniṣad'' 6-7
|Uttam [Purush]
|Kshar
|Akshar
|-
!''Katha Upaniṣad'' (1.3.10–11)
|Purush
|Avyaktam
|Mahat (Mahan [[Atma]])
|-
!''Mahānārāyan Upaniṣad'' 24
|Tvashtā
| -
| -
|-
!''Maitrāyaṇīya Upaniṣad''
|Brahmā
|Vishnu
|Mahesh
|-
!''Sams'aya-taducchedavādah''
|Manomaya Purush ([[Avyaya]])
|Vangmaya (Kshar)
|Pranamaya Purush (Akshar)
|-
!''Sasongko Jati''
|Principle of Lord<ref>Suksma Kawekas</ref>
|Director of Life<ref>Suksma Sejati</ref>
|Lord of Life<ref>Roh Suci</ref>
|-
!''Sāttvat Saṃhitā''
|Para
|Vyuha
|Antaryamin
|-
!''Swaminarayan Bhashyam'' / ''Vachanamrut''
|Parabrahm
|Aparabrahm
|Aksharbrahm
|-
!''Vijñāna Bhairava Tantra''
|Śiva
|Śakti
|Yamala
|-
!''[[Vayu]] [[Purana]]'' 1.2
|Purush
|Manifested Prakriti
|Unmanifested Prakriti
|-
!''[[Yoga]] Sutra'' 2.20
|Drashtā
|Pratyaya-anupashya
|Shuddha
|-
|}

===Formlessness===
{{Cquote|Knowing That which is soundless, touchless, formless, undecaying; also tasteless, odorless, and eternal; beginningless, endless and immutable; beyond the Unmanifested: (knowing That) man escapes from the mouth of death.|4=Katha Upaniṣad 3.15}}
 
Brahm has been written of to be either Nirguna (Parabrahm) and Shaguna (Aparabrahm), including being both. Nirguna refers to God without physical and personality attributes (i.e., a body) while Shaguna is the opposite. Worshiping God as either is fine. Brahm is believed to take vyuhas or emanations, especially to communicate with humans in the physical world (i.e., to provide revelations), and has been seen particularly in Vaiṣnavism as both heavenly and earthly incarnations. Avatars of Śiva, Ganesh, [[Durga]], and others have also been documented and worshipped. 
{{Cquote|Brahm has indeed has 2 two modes, formless as well as manifested.|4=Brihad-Aranyaka Upaniṣad 2.3.1}}
 
Nirguna bhakti was a popular method of worshipping in the medieval era in particular when several sects appeared. Worshipping Vishnu in the formless manner was practiced by Ramanand [[Sampraday]] and its succeeding sects, including Kabir Panth, Ravidas Panth, Satnam Panth, and others. Mahima Dharm was a peculiar Vaiśnava sect because it adheres only to the ''Bhagvat Purana'' and normally referred to Vishnu as ''Alakh'' or ''Sunya'' (“''Void''.”) [[Temples]] of this sect never include [[idols]] which are venerated because the heavenly Vishnu, God before the creation of all, is considered unmanifested. Some Śaiva sects too have practiced worship without an idol, denying that God (Śiva) has a form. These sects include Alakhgirs and Nath Panthis, both of whom call Śiva ''Alakh'' (“''Invisible''.”) Manikkavasagar was a well-known saint from the Bhakti era that worshipped Śiva as formless.<ref> ''Shiva in the City of Nectar: Fifty-four divine tales of Shiva in ancient India'' By Preetha Rajah Kannan </ref> Arulnanti was a another Śaiva theologian from southern India at the time.
 
{{Cquote|Although the Supreme Lord is described as having no hands and legs, He nonetheless accepts all sacrificial offerings.|4=Śvetāśvatara Upaniṣad 3.19}}
 
Temples wherein Brahm is worshipped as formless are known as ''Sunya Mandirs''. Most of these are Vaiśnava belonging to the Ekasarana, Mahima, and Satnami sects, but Śaiva sects of Brahmā Kumaris are notable. There are also temples of Vishnu, Śiva and other gods that don’t belong to a particular sect.
 
{{Cquote|The Entity who is one and without a second, and one without any colours; who has created the colourful quinquelemental world for reasons unknown with the help of His many powers; in whom this entire universe dissolves; is no other than Parama Puruśa. Let that Entity guide our intellect along the path of supreme righteousness. |4=Śvetāśvatara Upaniṣad 4.1.12}}

==Both Immanency and Transcendence of God (Panentheism)==
{{Cquote|I take refuge in that self-existent Being in Whom is this Universe, and Who is beyond this (differentiated Nature) as also beyond that (Undifferentiated.)|4=[https://vedabase.io/en/library/sb/8/3/3/ Bhagvata Purana 8.3.3]}}
 
Karl Krause coined the term 'panentheism' inspired by his readings on Hinduism.<ref> P. 170 ''The Oxford Handbook of Natural Theology'' By Russell Re Manning; ''Karl Krause (1781–1832) borrowed Indian ideas in formulating his own panentheist doctrine of God as a non-personal essence (Wesen) with which the world must eventually be reunited.''"</ref> In Sanskrit, this is called ''Ishavasyam'' or ''vibhudyatvad'' (“''doctrine of pervading and surpassing''.”) While pantheism equates the visible universe with God, panentheism declares that God is omnipresent in Its creation and transcends Its creation too. This means God is the visible universe and more. Heaven and hell may not be in this universe, but another wherein God is also omnipresent. It would make sense that if God is all-pervasive that we would be within It. In other words, everything is submerged or within God. Purusha [[Sukta]] states that The Supreme is both immanent and transcendent - "''Sa bhumin vishvato vritva atyatishthat dashangulam.''" Even when Hindus greet each other by saying "''Namaste''," it means "''I bow to God within you''," showing panentheism in the very greeting. The ''Kaṭha Upaniṣad'' 2.2.12-13 states, “''Whatever we see is a manifestation of [[Brahman]].''”<ref> “''sarvaṁ khalv idaṁ brahma taj jalā[[niti]] śānta upāsīta''” </ref> Satguru Sivaya Subramuniyaswami, said that "''Panentheism is the view that the universe is part of the being of God, as distinguished from pantheism (all-is-God doctrine"), which identifies God with the total reality. In contrast, panentheism holds that God pervades the world, but is also beyond it. He is immanent and transcendent, relative and Absolute. This embracing of opposites is called dipolar. For the panentheist, God is in all, and all is in God.''"

{{Cquote|It is you from whom this universe of forms emerges, and it is you within whom it stays. It is you in whom it finally disappears. |4=Vedasara Shivastotram}} 

Professor Charles Hartshorne in his discussion of panentheism discussed Hinduism in 1953. Professor Lorilai Biernacki considers Hinduism to be one of the most panentheistic traditions.[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/panentheism/] Other [[Ārya Samudāy]] dharmas have also been written on by scholars as panentheist - Christopher Key Chapple on Jainism, Geoffrey Samuel on Buddhism, William M. Reynolds on [[Sikhism]]<ref> P. 90 ''Expanding Curriculum Theory: Dis/positions and Lines of Flight'' By William M. Reynolds and ‎Julie A. Webber </ref>, Ernest Lee Tuveson on Hermeticism<ref>P. 255 ''Gnosis and Hermeticism from Antiquity to Modern Times'' By R. van den Broek </ref>, and Dirk Baltzly on Neoplatonism.

<blockquote>
"It is in the [[Vedas]] that we find for the first time not merely traces or indications of Pantheism, but Pantheism itself in its full growth and maturity." - Constance E. Plumptre<ref> ''General Sketch of the History of Pantheism: Volume 1'' By Constance E. Plumptre </ref>
</blockquote>
{{Cquote|This entire cosmic manifestation is pervaded by Me in My unmanifest form. All living beings dwell in Me, but I do not dwell in them.|4=[https://www.holy-bhagavad-gita.org/chapter/9/verse/4 Bhagvad Gita 9.24]}}
 
Ishavasyam is a term which demonstrates the omnipresent nature of Brahm, wherein It is everywhere and is transcendent of the objects it possesses. In a story from Krishna's life, once when Krishna was an infant he was suspected to have placed mud into his mouth. Yashoda then said, “''If you have not taken any mud, then open your mouth. I shall see for myself.''” Upon seeing in his mouth, she saw the universe (i.e., galaxies, starts. ) This one event shows how the universe itself is within God Almighty.
 
{{Cquote|The Supreme Lord walks and does not walk. He is far away, but He is very near as well. He is within everything, and yet He is outside of everything.|4=[https://vedabase.io/en/library/iso/5/ Isha Upaniṣad 5]}}
 
In the below verse, [[Yama]] is saying the Brahm is present in the inanimate and animate objects of the world.
{{Cquote|I am the food. I am the eater of food.|4=Taittiriya Upaniṣad 3.10.6}}
 
{{Cquote|He who, dwelling in all things,
Yet is other than all things, 
Whom all things do not know, 
Whose body all things are, 
Who controls all things from within, 
He is your soul, the Inner Controller, the Immortal.|4=Brihad-Aranyaka Upaniṣad 3.7.15}}
 
The verse below illustrates that God is the Complete Whole, meaning all-pervasive in this universe and yet, transcendent of it:
{{Cquote|God is perfect and complete, and because It is completely perfect, all emanations from It, such as this phenomenal world, are perfectly equipped as complete wholes. Whatever is produced of the Complete Whole is also complete in itself. Because It is the Complete Whole, even through so many complete units emanate from It, It remains the complete balance.|4=Isha Upaniṣad invocation}}
 
Mahatma Gandhi was very fond of quoting from this Upaniṣadic couplet:
{{Cquote|Whatever is ephemeral in this changing universe is Ishavasya (enveloped by Isha.)|4=Isha Upaniṣad}}
 
The omnipresence of Brahm is related to the [[Ātmā#Aikatmyam|interconnectedness of the soul (aikatmyam)]], because it is this relationship which also helps connect the soul to Brahm for achieving Moksh - realizing Aham Brahmasmi and tapping into the [[Antaryamin]] (Brahm within.)

{{Cquote|That microcosm [within you] is That Universe [outside of you], That Universe [outside of you] is that microcosm [within you.]<ref>Yat pinde tatha Brahmānde yatha Brahmande tatha pinde[https://www.yogapedia.com/definition/9326/yat-pinde-tat-brahmande]</ref>|4=Yajur Veda}}

This concept is mentioned as ''Pind Brahmand [[Nyaya]]. ''

==Oneness of God (Monotheism)==
[[Image:Surya with attendents.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Surya]] as God (in [[Saura]] sectarian context) being worshipped by his attendants and crowds of humans, demonstrating monotheism.]]
[[Image:Cosmic Vishnu.jpg|thumb|250px|Krishna too is sometimes depicted as comprising of the whole universe and to have his abodes outside of the universe (as stated in the ''[[Bhagavad Gita|Bhagvad Gita]]''), demonstrating panentheism.]]
[[Image:Cosmic Jina.jpg|thumb|250px|The whole universe in [[Jain Dharm|Jainism]] too is depicted as a person - referred to as 'Lok Purusha', demonstrating panentheism.]]
[[Image:Cosmic Buddha.jpg|thumb|250px|The whole universe in [[Bauddh Dharm|Buddhism]] too is sometimes depicted as a person, demonstrating panentheism.]]
''Brahm'' and ''Parmatma'' are the generic terms for The One Above All. The Sanskrit term for this is
''ekantikvad'' or ''ekamata.'' How Hindus have practiced monotheism is by worshiping Parmatma by worshiping It as an Ishta-Dev. Even the worship of solely Krishna as Parmatma or God Almighty by followers was referred to ''Ekantika [[Dharma]]'' and ''[[Ekayana]]''. The latter term was used also by Vaiśnavas of the [[Rudra]] Sampraday for worshipers of only Vishnu. Śaiva sects too have enforced monotheism, such as the Alakh Panth and Virasaivs. Monotheism in worship is enforced by a few sects but worshiping God Almighty along with others (demi-gods and ancestors) isn’t forbidden by most sects.

==Oneness of Deities (Henotheism)==
:''See also: [[Worship]], [[God#Oneness of God|Oneness of God]]''
<blockquote>
"This concept of God is panentheistic and even the Vedic theism is nothing but panentheism. It is very well expressed in philosophical hymns like ''[[Puruṣa]] sūkta'', ''Hiranyagarbha sūkta'' and even ''Nāsadīya sūkta''." - Sahebrao Genu Nigal<ref> P. 81 ''Vedic Philosophy of Values'' By Sahebrao Genu Nigal </ref>
</blockquote>It is understood that any kind of worship is accepted by The One Above All, regardless of name or form addressed in worship. The Sanskrit term for this is ''sarvekāntatva'' (“''state of all being a part of one''.”) Even a worshiper who is not Hindu and worships God [or a god] at their church or home, is worshiping God (only in a different way.) This particular viewpoint was so profound to modern scholars studying Hinduism that new terms had to be invented in English just to describe it - 'henotheism'. Then from 'henothenism' came another another term - 'kathenotheism' - meaning to worship 1 god at a time (while recognizing there may be more than a single divine being.) Then in 1828 German philosopher Karl Krause coined the term 'panentheism'.

 
{{Cquote|Of the eternals you are The Chief Eternal, of the sentients you are The Chief Sentient 
The One Chief of the many, that assembles and who is desirable 
Dark (unseeable) and present in the soul who is watching and unwavering 
That eternal peace is a guiding force [within]|4=Katha Upaniṣad 2.2.13<ref> Nityo nityanam cetanas cetananam 
eko bahunam yo vidadhati kaman 
tam atma-stham ye ’nupasyanti dhiras 
tesham shantih sasvati netaresam</ref>}}

 
Even the earlier Mandalas of ''[[Rig Veda]]''<ref>Ṛgveda books 1 and 9</ref> which contain hymns dedicated to devas, are thought to have a tendency toward monotheism.<ref>Macdonell, Arthur Anthony. Vedic Mythology. Forgotten Books (May 23, 2012). P. 17. ISBN 1440094365.</ref> Often quoted isolated pada of the ''Ṛig Veda''<ref>Ṛgveda 1.164.46</ref> states (trans. Ralph T.H. Griffith):

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! English
! Sanskrit
|-
|
{{Cquote|
:They call him Indra, Mitra, Varuṇa, Agni, and he is heavenly nobly-winged Garutmān.
:To what is One, sages give many a title they call it Agni, Yama, Mātariśvan.}}
|
{{Cquote|
:Indraṃ mitraṃ varuṇamaghnimāhuratho divyaḥ sa suparṇo gharutmān
:ekaṃ sad viprā bahudhā vadantyaghniṃ yamaṃ mātariśvānamāhuḥ}}
|-
|}

Further, the ''Rig Veda'' states, “There is only one God, [[worship]] Him“<Ref> Ṛg Veda, 6.45.16 </ref> and “Do not worship any one beside Him“<ref> Ṛg Veda 8.1.1 </ref>. Recognizing that there is a Supreme God above any other divinities is seen in the Vaiśnava mantra “Dev devaya namo nama” and Śaiva mantra “Aum nama Shivay sarvaya deva devaya vai namaha,” both of which proclaim their respective Supreme as the “God of gods.”
 
{{Cquote|Patiṁ patīnāṁ paramaṁ parastāt|4=Śvetāśvatara Upaniṣad 6.7}}
 
The ''[[Brahma Samhitā]]''<ref>Brahma Samhitā 5.45</ref> declares, ''Lord Vishnu is milk; Lord Śiva is yogurt''. Other aspects of God are expansions or aspects of Vishnu or Śiva which is detailed in various [[Purānas]]. Vaiṣnavites, like other Hindus, have tolerance for other beliefs because [[Krishna]], an [[avatara]] of Vishnu, said so in the Gitā. Krishna says:
{{Cquote|Whatever deity or form a devotee worships, I make his or her faith steady. However, their wishes are only granted by Me alone."<ref>Gitā 7.21-22</ref>|4=Bhagvad Gita 7.21-22}}
Krishna also says in the Gitā:
{{Cquote|O [[Arjuna]], even those devotees who worship other lesser [[deities]] e.g., devas, with faith, they also worship Me, but in an improper way because I am the Supreme Being. I alone am the enjoyer of all sacrificial services (Seva, [[Yajna]]) and Lord of the universe."<ref>Gitā 9.23</ref>|4=[https://www.holy-bhagavad-gita.org/chapter/9/verse/3 Bhagvad Gita 9.23]}}
 
The theology of henotheism also applies to the treating of ancestors or other beings as venerable. Because divinity is extended to them by many Hindus, it does not mean that there is a violation of the belief in a One God Above All, but that piety is offered to them in respect.
 
{{Cquote|The Lord of lords is Supreme and beyond them (deities.)|4=Śvetāśvatara Upaniṣad 6.7}}

===Smarta view===
The system prevalent in Hinduism is defined by the Smartha philosophy; this theory allows for the veneration of numerous deities, but on the understanding that all of them are but manifestation of the one divine power.<ref>It is a belief sometimes called kathenotheism.</ref> That ultimate [[divinity]] is termed Brahm or Atman and is believed to have no specific form, name or attribute.<ref>{{cite book
| author = Sivaya Subramuniyaswami
| url = http://books.google.com/?id=EWlHPAkjBKUC&pg=PA425
| title = Dancing with Siva: Hinduism's Contemporary Catechism
| publisher = Himalayan Academy Publications
| year = 2004
| isbn = 0-945497-96-2}}</ref> Only a Smartha, or follower of the [[Advaita Vedanta|Advaita]] philosophy, would have no problem worshiping every imaginable deity with equal veneration; as the view is that all names and forms of deities are merely manifestations of the same God. Other Hindu sects such as [[Vaiśnavism]] and Śaivism conform more closely to a Western understanding of what a monotheistic faith is. For instance, a Vaiṣnavite considers Vishnu as being the one and only true God, an attitude that resonates with that of the [[Abrahamic religions]]. However, it is [[Advaita]] philosophy that defines the Smartha sect of mainstream Hinduism, and imparts to Indic spiritual and religious traditions their renowned liberalism.

===Swaminarayan view===
[[Swami Sahajananda]], founder of the Swaminarayan Sampraday, said in verse 115 of its scripture, “''[[Śikśapatri]] said, ‘[[Sri Krishna]] Bhagvan and Sri Krishna Bhagvan's incarnations alone are worthy of meditation. Similarly, Sri Krishna Bhagvan's images are worthy. And men or [[devas]], even if they are devotees of Sri Krishna Bhagvan or Brahmvetta,<ref>It is knower of [[divinity]].</ref> They are still not worthy of meditation and thus one should not meditate upon them.’''"

The ''[[Brahma Samhitā]]''<ref>It means ''Brahma Samhitā'' 5.45</ref> declares, Lord Vishnu is milk; [[Śiva|Lord Śiva]] is yogurt.<ref>http://vedabase.net/bs/5/45/en Sri Bramha Samhita 5.45</ref> Followers of Swaminaryan are [[Vaiṣnavas]], but differ from the viewpoint attested by Gaudiya Vaiṣnavas who emphasize Śiva as a subordinate demigod expansion of Krishna. For example, Swaminaryan states:
<ref>[http://www.swaminarayanwales.org.uk/Shikshapatri/shikshapatridetails.asp?shlockcode=85 Shree Swaminarayan Temple Cardiff - Scriptures - Shikshapatri]</ref>
{{Cquote|And the oneness of Narayan and Śiva should be understood, as the Vedas have described both to be Brahmarupa (or form of Brahm, i.e., Saguna Brahm), thus indicating that Vishnu and Śiva are different forms of the one and same God. And that [[Ishvara]] is Sri Krishna Bhagvan,<ref> (Sri Swaminarayan Bhagvan</ref> who is supreme [[Para Brahman|Parabrahm]], [[Purushottama|Purushottam]], our [[Ishta-deva]]<ref>It means principal deity.</ref> worthy of worship, and the cause of all incarnations.|4=Shikshapatri 47.84.108}}

===Vivekanandian view===
According to the speech of [[Swami Vivekananda]] in Chicago during 1906, the monotheism of Hindu is not only for Hindu. It can effective for every human living on the earth. The verse,

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! English
! Sanskrit
|-
|{{Cquote|
:It means the rain water fallen from the sky go to the ocean, the same worship of every deity goes to only one God." (Here in this verse God is mentioned as Keshav (one of the name of Krishna). It doesn't matter, you are Hindu or not.
:Every worship goes to that God.}}
|{{Cquote|
:akāsāt patitaM toyam yathā gacchati sāgaram
:sarvadeva namaskārān kesavam prati gacchati}}
|-
|}

==Relation Between Brahm and Individuals==
Sanatan Dharm is essentially to understand the relationship between the Self and self, which is why the phrases "''Aham Brahmasmi''" and "''Ayamatma Brahm''", both of which mean, "''I am part of the Supreme''."

==Upaniṣad Era==
In the time period that the [[Upaniṣads]] were written, worship of gods within Hindus is turning into worship of primarily one god. The ''Chāndogya [[Upaniṣad]]'' states,
{{Cquote|God is only one, not a second.“|4=Chāndogya [[Upaniṣad]] Ch. 6.2.1}}
 
The ''Rudra Upaniṣad'' from the ''[[Atharva]] Shiras Upaniṣad'' reads of Rudra declaring himself as Brahm, and describing his attributes. The text also reads:
{{Cquote|O Rudra, O Ishana, O Maheshwara, O Mahadeva, O lord, for thou art Parabrahm, the one and only god!<Ref> P. 443 ''Researches Into the Nature and Affinity of Ancient and Hindu Mythology'' By Vans Kennedy </ref>}}

==Bhakti movement==
:''See also: [[The Hindu Renaissance#Medieval Renaissance|Bhakti movement]], [[Bhakti]], [[Bhakti Marga|Bhakti Yoga]]''
Krishnaism is one notable instance of Vaiṣnava monotheism popularized in the [[Bhakti movement]]. Krishnaism refers to Krishna with the title ''Svayam Bhagvan'', meaning 'Lord Himself' and it is used exclusively to designate Krishna as the Supreme Lord.<ref name=Gupta20071>Gupra, 2007, p.36 note 9.</ref> Certain other [[Sampradaya|traditions]] of Hinduism consider Krishna to be the source of all emanations,<ref name = jsn>''[[Bhagwan Swaminarayan]] bicentenary commemoration volume, 1781-1981.'' p. 154: ...Shri [[Vallabhacharya]] [and] Shri Swaminarayan...Both of them designate the highest reality as Krishna, who is both the highest avatara and also the source of other avataras. To quote R. Kaladhar Bhatt in this context. "In this transcendental devotion (Nirguna [[Bhakti]]), the sole Deity and only" is Krishna. [http://books.google.com/books?id=_Q0YAAAAIAAJ&q=Avatara+Swaminarayan+Krishna+origina%3B&dq=Avatara+Swaminarayan+Krishna+origina%3B New Dimensions in Vedanta Philosophy - Page 154], Sahajā[[nanda]], [http://books.google.com/books?q=+subject:%22Vedanta%22 Vedanta]. 1981</ref> and the source of Vishnu himself or to be the same as [[Narayana|Narayan]].<ref name = "Delmonico2004">{{cite journal
| author = Delmonico, N.
| year = 2004
| title = The History Of Indic Monotheism And Modern Chaitanya Vaishnavism
| journal = The Hare Krishna Movement: the Postcharismatic Fate of a Religious Transplant
| url = http://books.google.com/?id=mBMxPdgrBhoC&pg=PA31&dq=Vaisnava+monotheism
| accessdate = 2008-04-12
| publisher = Columbia University Press
| isbn = 978-0-231-12256-6
}}</ref><ref name = "Elkman1986">{{cite book
| author = Elkman, S.M.
| coauthors = Gosvami, J.
| year = 1986
| title = Jiva Gosvamin's Tattvasandarbha: A Study on the Philosophical and Sectarian Development of the Gaudiya Vaishnava Movement
| publisher = Motilal Banarsidass Pub
| isbn =

}}</ref><ref name = Dimock1989>{{cite book
| author = Dimock Jr, E.C.
| coauthors = Dimock, E.C.
| year = 1989
| title = The Place of the Hidden Moon: Erotic Mysticism in the Vaisnava-Sahajiya Cult of Bengal
| publisher = University Of Chicago Press
| isbn =

}} [http://books.google.com/books?id=EAYa1BtUTm0C&pg=PA132&dq=Svayam+bhagavan&sig=jcyEA-4tyPoddQmWg-FnYKDBgEY page 132]
</ref> The term is seldom used to refer to other forms of Krishna and/or Vishnu within the context of certain religious texts such as the ''[[Bhagvata Purāṇa|Bhagvata Purāṇa]]''.

Though Krishna is recognized as ''Svayam Bhagvan'' by many,<ref name = "RKm">{{cite book
|author=Mepathur Narayana Bhattatiri
|title=Narayaneeyam-Bhagavata, Condensed Edition
|publisher=Sri Ramakrishna Math
|location=
|year=2003
|pages=
|isbn=81-7120-419-8
|oclc=
|doi=
|accessdate=
}}pp.234-239</ref> he is also perceived and understood from an eclectic assortment of perspectives and viewpoints.<ref name=Mahony1987>{{cite journal
| author = Mahony, W.K.
| year = 1987
| title = Perspectives on Krishna's Various Personalities
| journal = History of Religions
| volume = 26
| issue = 3
| pages = 333–335
| accessdate = 2008-04-12
| doi = 10.1086/463085
| jstor=1062381
}}</ref> When Krishna is recognized to be ''Svayam Bhagvan'', it can be understood that this is the belief of Gaudiya Vaiṣnavism,<ref name=Kennedy1925>{{cite book
| author = Kennedy, M.T.
| year = 1925
| title = The Chaitanya Movement: A Study of the Vaiṣnavism of Bengal
| publisher = H. Milford, Oxford university press
| isbn =

}}</ref> the Vallabha Sampradaya,<ref name = "flood">{{cite book
| author = Flood, Gavin D.
| authorlink = Gavin Flood
| title = An introduction to Hinduism
| publisher = Cambridge University Press
| location = Cambridge, UK
| year = 1996
| isbn = 0-521-43878-0
| url = http://books.google.com/?id=KpIWhKnYmF0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=gavin+flood
| accessdate = 2008-04-21
| page = 341
}}"Early [[Vaiṣnava]] worship focuses on three deities who become fused together, namely Vasudeva-Krishna, Krishna-Gopala and Narayana, who in turn all become identified with Vishnu. Put simply, Vasudeva-Krishna and Krishna-Gopala were worshiped by groups generally referred to as Bhagvatas, while Narayana was worshiped by the Pancaratra sect."</ref> and the [[Nimbarka Sampradaya]], where Krishna is accepted to be the source of all other manifestations and the source of Vishnu himself. This belief is drawn primarily from the famous statement of the Bhagvatam<ref name=Gupta2007/>:<ref name = Rosen>''Essential [[Hinduism]]'' S. Rosen, 2006, Greenwood Publishing Group [http://books.google.com/books?id=VlhX1h135DMC&pg=PA124&dq=Krishna+is+the+original+Personality+of+Godhead&client=firefox-a&sig=2Yojs3j3lTcocPQ7RaIqBnpLrq0 p.124] ISBN 0-275-99006-0</ref>
 
{{Cquote|All of the descents and incarnations are either plenary portions or portions of the plenary portions of the Lord, but Lord Śrī Krishna is the original Personality of Godhead.|4=Srimad Bhagvatam<ref>Śrimad Bhagvatam1.3.28</ref>}}
 
Vaiṣnavism is one of the earliest implicit manifestations of monotheism in the traditions of Vedas. ''Svayam Bhagvān'' is a [[Sanskrit]] term for the original deity of the Supreme God worshiped across many traditions of the Vaiṣnavism as the source of all, the monotheistic absolute Deity.<ref name=Delmonico2004>{{cite journal
| author = Delmonico, N.
| year = 2004
| title = The History Of Indic Monotheism And Modern Chaitanya Vaishnavism
| journal = The Hare Krishna Movement: the Postcharismatic Fate of a Religious Transplant
| url = http://books.google.com/?id=mBMxPdgrBhoC&pg=PA31&dq=Vaisnava+monotheism
| accessdate = 2008-04-12
| publisher = Columbia University Press
| isbn = 978-0-231-12256-6
}}</ref><ref name = "Elkman1986">{{cite book
| author = Elkman, S.M.
| coauthors = Gosvami, J.
| year = 1986
| title = Jiva Gosvamin's Tattvasandarbha: A Study on the Philosophical and Sectarian Development of the Gaudiya Vaisnava Movement
| publisher = Motilal Banarsidass Pub
| isbn =
}}</ref>
<ref name = "Klostermaier1974">{{cite journal
| author = Klostermaier, K.
| year = 1974
| title = The Bhaktirasamrtasindhubindu of Visvanatha Cakravartin
| journal = Journal of the American Oriental Society
| volume = 94
| issue = 1
| pages = 96–107
| accessdate = 2008-04-12
| doi = 10.2307/599733
| jstor = 599733
| publisher = American Oriental Society
}}
</ref> Within [[Hinduism]], Krishna is worshiped from a variety of perspectives.<ref name=Mahony1987>{{cite journal
| author = Mahony, W.K.
| year = 1987
| title = Perspectives on Krishna's Various Personalities
| journal = History of Religions
| volume = 26
| issue = 3
| pages = 333–335
| accessdate = 2008-04-12
| jstor=1062381
| doi=10.1086/463085
}}</ref> However, the Svayam Bhagvan concept refers to the Supreme Being of the Orthodox Gaudiya Vaiṣnavism,<ref name=Kennedy1925>{{cite book
| author = Kennedy, M.T.
| year = 1925
| title = The Chaitanya Movement: A Study of the Vaiṣnavism of Bengal
| publisher = H. Milford, Oxford university press
| isbn =
}}</ref> the Vallabha Sampradaya and the [[Nimbarka]] Sampradaya, where Krishna is worshiped as the source of all other avataras (including Vishnu).<ref name=Ojha1978>{{cite book
| author = Ojha, P.N.
| year = 1978
| title = Aspects of Medieval Indian Society and Culture
| publisher = BR Pub. Corp.; New Delhi: DK Publishers' Distributors
| isbn =
}}</ref>
<ref>[http://srimadbhagavatam.com/1/3/28/en1 ''Bhag'' 1.3.28] Chapter 3: Krishna Is the Source of All Incarnations</ref>
<ref name = McDaniel>See McDaniel, June, ''"Folk Vaishnavism and Thākur Pañcāyat: Life and status among village Krishna statues"'' in {{Harvnb|Beck|2005|p=39}}</ref> A distinguishing feature of the Vaisnava teachings is that God, Krishna or Vishnu,<ref name="Elkman1986"/> is a real person and His variegated creation is also real.<ref name="Elkman1986"/><ref name= Thomson>{{cite journal
| author = Richard Thompson, Ph. D.
| year = December 1994
| title = Reflections on the Relation Between Religion and Modern Rationalism
| url = http://www.iskcon.com/icj/1_2/12thompson.html
| accessdate = 2008-04-12
}}</ref>

Krishna worshiped in Vaiṣnava religion as the Supreme came into being as soon as all creatures came into existence. [[Brahma]] was the first Vaiṣnava. In Gaudiya Vaiṣnavism, Śiva Mahadeva is also a Vaiṣnava; in Śaivism, by contrast, Śiva is the supreme God. The ancient Prajapaties are all Vaiṣnavas. [[Narada]] who is the born child of Brahma, is a Vaiṣnava. Thus pure monotheistic Vaiṣnava religion began with the beginning of history.<ref name="Thomson"/> In the recent times man arrived once again at the instinctive monotheism of the Aryans and Vaiṣnavas.<ref name=Dalmia-luderitz1992>{{cite journal
| author = Dalmia-luderitz, V.
| year = 1992
| title = Hariscandra of Banaras and the reassessment of Vaisnava bhakti in the late nineteenth century
| journal = Devotional Literature in South Asia: Current Research, 1985-8
| url = http://books.google.com/?id=BE40dp6SCFUC&pg=PA281&dq=Vaisnava+monotheism
| accessdate = 2008-04-12
| publisher = Cambridge University Press
| isbn = 978-0-521-41311-4
}}</ref>

A different viewpoint, opposing this theological concept, is the concept of Krishna as an ''avatara'' of Narayan or Vishnu. However, although its is usual to speak of Vishnu as the source of the avataras, this is only one of the names of god of Vaiṣnavism, who is also known as Vishnu to some Vaiṣnava, Narayan to some, Vasudeva, or any of the other Vaiśnava persons, and behind each of those names there is a divine figure with attributed supremacy in Vaisnavism.<ref name = Krishna4>
{{Harvnb|Matchett|2000|p=4}}</ref> The theological interpretation of ''Svayam Bhagvān'' differs with each tradition and the translated from the Sanskrit language, the term literary means "[[Bhagvan]] Himself" or "directly Bhagvan".<ref name=Gupta2007/> Gaudiya Vaiṣnava tradition often translates it within its perspective as ''primeval Lord'' or ''original Personality of Godhead'', but also considers the terms such as ''Supreme Personality of Godhead'' and ''Supreme God'' as an equivalent to the term ''Svayam Bhagvan'', and may also choose to apply these terms to Vishnu, Narayan and many of their associated avatars.<ref> name=Knapp2005>{{cite book
| author = Knapp, S.
| year = 2005
| title = The Heart of Hinduism: The Eastern Path to Freedom, Empowerment and Illumination -
| publisher = iUniverse
| isbn =</ref>

"Krishna is the primeval Lord, the original Personality of Godhead, so He can expand Himself into unlimited forms with all potencies."<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=a2KPChj7lTwC&pg=PA161 page 161]</ref><ref name= ICJKnott>{{cite journal
| author = Dr. Kim Knott,
| year = 1993
| title = Contemporary Theological Trends In The Hare Krishna Movement: A Theology of Religions
| url = http://www.iskcon.com/icj/1_1/knott.html
| accessdate = 2008-04-12
}}..."''[[Bhakti]]'', the highest path, was that of surrender to [[Lord Krishna]], the way of pure devotional service to the Supreme Personality of Godhead".</ref>
Others have translated it simply as "the Lord Himself".<ref name="KK">{{cite book |author=K. Klostermaier |title=The Charles Strong Trust Lectures, 1972-1984 |publisher=Brill Academic Pub |location= |year=1997 |isbn=90-04-07863-0 |quote= For his worshippers he is not an avatara in the usual sense, but Svayam Bhagvan, the Lord himself.|url= http://books.google.com/?id=F_0UAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA109&dq=Svayam+bhagavan |accessdate= |page=206 | others = Crotty, Robert B.}} p.109 Klaus Klostermaier translates it simply as "the Lord Himself"</ref> Followers of Vishnu-centered sampradayas of Vaiṣnavism rarely address this term, but believe that it refers to their belief that Krishna is among the highest and fullest of all ''avatars''<ref name = Pal1958>{{cite book
| author = [[Bipin]] Chandra Pal
| year = 1964, 132 pages
| title = Shree Krishna: Letters Written to a Christian Friend
| publisher = Yugayatri/New India Printing
& Publishing Co.
| quote = First edition published in 1938 under the title of 'Europe asks: who is Shree Krishna'.
| isbn =</ref>

Sri Krishna stands at the top of this series. He is therefore called by his votaries as Purna Avatara or the highest and fullest incarnation of the Lord. and is considered to be the "''paripurna avatara''", complete in all respects and the same as the original.<ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://www.tirumala.org/sapthagiri/122002/purana.htm
|title=Sapthagiri
|publisher=www.tirumala.org
|accessdate=2008-05-03
|last=
|first=
}}</ref> Parashara Maharishi, [[Vyāsa]]'s father had devoted the largest [[Aṅṣa]]<ref>It means part.</ref> in ''[[Vishnu Purāṇa]]'' to the description of Sri Krishna Avatara the ''Paripoorna Avatara''. And according to Lord Krishna's own instructions ''upadeṣa'', "he who knows the secrets of His (Krishna's) Janma<ref>It means birth.</ref> and [[Karma]]<ref>It means actions.</ref> will not remain in [[saṅsāra]]<ref>''punar janma naiti-maam eti''.</ref> and attain Him after leaving the mortal coil."<ref>Bhagvad Gita 4.9</ref> [[Parāsara]] Maharishi ends up [[Añṣa]] 5 with a phalashruti in an identical vein (''Vishnu Purāna''<ref>Vishnu Purāna 5.38.94</ref>.)

The prime supporters of the Krishna-centered theology, Gaudiya Vaiṣnavas and followers of the Vallabha [[Sampradāya]] Nimbarka Samprā[[daya]], use the ''[[Gopala Tapani Upaniṣad]]'',<ref>{{cite book |author=B. V. Tripurari |title=Gopala-tapani Upaniṣad |publisher=Audarya Press |location= |year=2004 |pages= |isbn=1-932771-12-3 }}</ref> ''[[Vedanta Sutras]]''<ref name=Gupta2007/> and other Hindu scriptures such as the ''Bhagvata Purāna'' and the ''[[Brahma Vaivarta Purāna]]'', among others, to support their view that Krishna is indeed the ''Svayam Bhagvan''. This belief was summarized by the 16th century author [[Jiva Goswami]] in some of his works, such as ''Krishna-sandarbha''.<ref name=Gupta2007>{{cite book
| author = Gupta, Ravi M.
| coauthors =
| year = 2007
| title = Caitanya Vaisnava Vedanta of Jiva Gosvami
| publisher = Routledge
| isbn = 0-415-40548-3
}}</ref><ref name=Gupta2004>{{cite book
| author = Gupta, Ravi M.
| coauthors =
| year = 2004
| title = Caitanya Vaisnava Vedanta: Acintyabhedabheda in Jiva Gosvami's Catursutri tika
| publisher = University Of Oxford
| isbn =

}}</ref> While Krishna himself if mentioned in one of the earliest texts of Vedic literature - ''Rig Veda''.<ref>
Sunil Kumar Bhattacharya ''Krishna-cult in Indian Art''. 1996
M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd. ISBN 81-7533-001-5 p.126: "According to (D.R.Bhadarkar), the word Krishna referred to in the expression 'Krishna-drapsah' in the Ṛgveda, denotes the very same Krishna".</ref>

In the sixth book of the [[Hindu epic]] ''[[Mahābhārata]]'', the Bhishma Parva<ref>It is better known as the ''[[Bhagavad Gitā|Bhagvad Gitā]]''.</ref> Krishna offers numerous quotations that reaffirm the belief that he himself is the ''Svayam Bhagvan''. Verse [http://www.asitis.com/7/7.html 7.7] of the ''[[Bhagavad Gitā|Bhagvad Gitā]]'', is often used to support the opinion that Krishna himself is the ''Svayam Bhagvan'', and that no impersonal form of Brahm supersedes his existence, as it is a common view that ''Bhagvad Gitā'' was propounding Krishna-theism before first major proponents of [[Advaita Vedanta|monism of the Smarta school]].<ref name = "IST">{{cite book
|author=
|authorlink=
|editor = S. Devadas Pillai
|others=
|title=Indian Sociology Through Ghurye: A Dictionary
|edition=
|language=
|publisher=South Asia Books
|location=Columbia, Mo
|year=1997
|origyear=
|quote=
|isbn=81-7154-807-5
|oclc=
|doi=
|url=http://books.google.com/?id=P3uD22Ghqs4C&pg=PA283
|accessdate=
|page=403
}}</ref>

==Related Articles==
*[[Cosmogony]]
*[[Cosmology]]
*[[Darshana]]
*[[Divinity]]
*[[Brahm]]
*[[God]]
*[[Devatā]]
*[[Deities]]
*[[Worship]]
*[[Murti Puja]]

==External Resources==
*[http://enlightened-spirituality.org/panentheism.html "Panentheism and the Reality of God"] By Timothy Conway, Ph.D. (Published: October 2, 2015)
*[https://www.academia.edu/19511326/Panentheism_and_Hindu_Tantra_Abhinavagupta_s_Grammatical_Cosmology “Panentheism and Hindu Tantra: Abhinavagupta’s Grammatical Cosmology”] By Loriliai Biernacki

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

[[Category:Theology]]
[[Category:Hindu philosophical concepts]]
[[Category:Forms of worship]]

Samyag Darshan

2026-07-08T06:29:02Z

Himanshu Bhatt:

{{Author|Himanshu Bhatt}}
<blockquote>
“Hinduism’s basic tenet is that many roads exist by which men have pursued and still pursue their quest for the truth and that none has universal validity.” – Kenneth Scott Latourette
</blockquote>
Samyag darshan ("''Right worldview''", "''Proper viewpoint''", "''Correct insight''", or "''Rationality of perception''") as opposed to mithya darshan ("''improper viewpoint''")<ref> P. 715 ''Encyclopedia of Hinduism'' By Catherine Robinson, Denise Cush, Michael York </ref> is required for attaining [[Moksha]]. It is recommended for Hindus to think objectively when it comes to the their outlook circumstances. Samyag darshan is the [[Objective Worldview|objective worldview]]. Objectivity is bias-free whereas subjectively is biased. Hence Objectivity, allows for an all-inclusive resolution. This is important because of the principle of vasudhaiva kutumbakam<ref> ''Maha-[[Upanishad]]'' </ref>, which means "''the whole world is one family.''" As such, in order for a family to function, it requires everyone play a part in its success for the present and future generations. Sathya [[Sai Baba]] proclaimed, "''All is divine, all is God, and unity is [[divinity]].''" Following this line of thought, [[Ātmā#Aikatmyam|''aikatmyam'']] is the principle of identifying with the entire universe, and it helps the self in thinking [and hence, living out] the vasudhaiva kutumbakam ideal.
{{Cquote|As is the individual, so is the universe 
As is the universe, so is the individual|4=Yajur Veda}}

==Samadarshan==
[[image:Sahaja Yoga International.jpg|thumb|200px|Sahaja Yoga International poster encouraging unity of religions.]]
[[image:BKSWU.jpg|thumb|200px|Brahma Kumari poster encouraging unity of religions.]]
[[image:ISKCON.jpg|thumb|200px|ISKCON poster encouraging unity of religions.]]
[[image:Worship frame.jpg|thumb|200px|A frame from India encouraging unity of religions.]]
[[image:SSO.jpg|thumb|200px|Sathya Sai Organization poster encouraging unity of religions.]]
[[image:Swarg Foundation.jpg|thumb|200px|Swarg Foundation poster encouraging unity of religions.]]
{{Cquote|May noble and auspicious thoughts come to us from all over the Universe|4=Rig Veda 1.89.1}} 

{{Cquote|The truth is one - the sages express it variously|4=Rig Veda 1.164.46}} 

{{Cquote|That which is one has multiplied unto all|4=Rig Veda 8.59.2}} 

''Samadarshan'' means "''Equal viewpoint''" or "''Equal worldview''." This idea is important in life so individuals can avoid bias and come to a mutually beneficial solution. It compares to the [[Jain Dharm|Jain]] [[Anekantavada]] ("''non-one-sidedness''.") The term appears in the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'' wherein [[Krishna]] advises humans to see all with a equal vision.<ref>”The truly learned, with the eyes of divine knowledge, see with equal vision a Brahmin, a cow, an elephant, a dog, and a dog-eater.” (B.G. 5.18) </ref>

<blockquote>
"This sarvatra samadarsana is the supreme ideal of Hinduism. This is the state of liberation or Moksha." - ''The Astrological Magazine''<ref> P. 291 ''The Astrological Magazine, Volume 91'' By Raman Publications </ref>
</blockquote>

Someone who thinks with this principle is a ''Samadarshi''. The right worldview is required in order to obtain Moksha.<ref> "''Samyag-darshana-kalam eva tat phalam sarvatmatvam darsayati''" - [[Adi Shankara]]'s ''[[Brahma]] Sutra Bhasya'' 3.3.32 "''Precisely at the time that right knowledge arises, its result - being the Self of all - is realized.''"</ref><ref> "''Jnana-samana-kalaiva [[mukti]]''" - ''Anandagirivyakhya'' "''Liberation is exactly simultaneous with the rise of knowledge.''"</ref>

The verse below is what ties the Samadarshan principle in with Loksangraha:

{{Cquote|Where the mind is without fear, and the head is held high; Where Knowledge is free; Where the world has not been broken up into fragments by narrow domestic walls;...Where the clear stream of reason has not lost its way into the dreary desert sand of dead habit;...Into that heaven of freedom, my Father, let my country awake.|4=Geetanjali}}

Further, the ''Jnana Sankalini [[Tantra]]'' gives 6 virtues for humans, and 1 of them includes [[uparati]] (indifferent outlook for worldly endeavours), which is along the lines of samadarshan.<ref> P. 91 ''Jnana Sankalini Tantra'' By Paramhamsa Prajnanananda </ref>

==Loksangraha==
{{Cquote|Dharma exists for the welfare of all beings. Hence, that by which the welfare of all living beings is sustained, that for sure is dharma.|4=Mahabharata 109.10}}
 
If Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam is true and must become a reality, then working towards it is a must. ''Loksangraha'' means “''well-being of the world''.”
 
{{Cquote|On who sees all creatures as if they were his own selves and himself in others - his mind rests in peace|4=Yajur Veda 40-46}} 
''Sarvabhutahita'' also means "''working for the welfare of all humanity''" and ''samya'' means "''becoming one''". 'Inclusivism' is a term invented by Paul Hacker in 1957 in his article titled "Tolerance and Intolerance in Hinduism," in which he portrays Hinduism as doctrinally tolerant and does not superimpose.<ref> ''[[Swami Vivekananda]] and Non-[[Hindu]] Traditions: A Universal [[Advaita]]'' By Stephen E. Gregg </ref> ''Sadharana Dharma'' is the term for a universal set of principles that would apply to all people equally. ''[[Antahkarana]]-shuddhi'' is the purity by being compassionate to all.<ref> P. 220 ''Tat Tvam Asi: The Universal Massage in the [[Bhagavadgītā]] · Volume 1'' By Pathikonda Viswambara Nath</ref>
 
<blockquote>
“I am proud to belong to a religion which has taught the world both tolerance and universal acceptance. We believe not only in universal tolerance, but we accept all religions as true." - Swami Vivekanand<ref> P. 360 ''Religious Tolerance in World Religions'' By Jacob Neusner and Bruce Chilton </ref>
</blockquote>
As a result, Hindus tend to be very tolerant and Hindu societies have allowed other religions to develop in terms to building their [[institutions]] (i.e., [[worship]] halls, post-secondary [[institutes]], political parties.) ''Sarva [[Dharma]]'' means, "''All Religions'' and this concept has been preached by Hindus for social harmony. For example, Sarwa Dharma Mahavidyalaya and Sarwa Dharma [[Vidhi]] Mahavidhyalaya are post-secondaries while Sarva Dharma Sthal Temple is a worship hall for all religions, and Sarva Dharma Sammelan is a yearly summit of all religions in India. Swami Vivekā[[nanda]] called the idea that "''all religions are equal''," ''Sarva Dharma Samabhava.'' Swami Shantatmanand called it ''Dharma Samanvaya,'' and the [[Ramakrishna Mission]] organization calls it ''Dharma Siwan Waya.''
{{Cquote|Shunning all differences, we should speak together, our minds should work together, and our thoughts should be in harmony.|4=Yajur Veda<ref> Samgachhadhvam samvadadhvam sam vo manansi janatam </ref>}}
 

==Trikarana shuddhi==
{{Cquote|Purity of speech, of body, and of mind, forgiveness, truth, firmness and intelligence, these good qualities are shown by pious persons who observe both kinds of dharm.|4=Mahabharata 12.214.6[https://sacred-texts.com/hin/m12/m12b041.htm]}}
This process of 'purification' helps cleanse the [[mind]], speech, and deeds. ''Sarvabhutatma-bhutatma'' also means ''antahkarana-shuddhi'' ("''purity by being compassionate to all.''") The ''[[Mahabharata]]'' elaborates this concept by stating, "''Manasyekam vachasyekam karmanyekam mahatmanam''" or "''All are one; there is no disparity in ideas, expression and deeds, and he is a Mahatma who applies this concept.''" Another term for trikarana shuddhi is sattva-samshuddhi, which appears in the ''Bhagavad Gita''. The Gita says Ahimsa is committing no harm to any living creature in thought, speech, or deed.<ref>"Chapter 13" (Verses 7–11), ''Bhagavad Gita''</ref> In "Chapter 17", Krishna redefines true tapas (austerities) by splitting it into 3 balanced, non-extreme types—Austerity of the Body<ref>Śārīraṁ Tapa: Cleanliness, straightforwardness, celibacy, non-violence, and honoring teachers.</ref>, Austerity of Speech<ref>Vāṅ-mayaṁ Tapa: Speaking words that are truthful, pleasant, beneficial, and do not cause distress.</ref>, and Austerity of the Mind<ref>Mānasaṁ Tapa: Serenity, mental gentleness, silence, self-control, and purity of purpose.</ref>. The monastic order of the Vaishnav Tri-Dandin (Triple-Staffed) had its emblem of 3 staffs represent 'restraint in speech<ref> Vāg-danda </ref>, restraint in bodily senses <ref> Kāya-danda </ref>, and restraint in mind<ref> Mano-danda </ref>.

Mahatma Gandhi would say, "''See no evil. Hear no evil. Speak no evil.''" This statement ties into the principle of trikarana shuddhi.
 
The ''[[Yajur Veda]]'' says:
:"We are prostrating you ([[Rudra]]) with trikarana shuddhi."
 
The three words also appear at ''Mahabharata''<ref>[http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/mbs/mbs13008.htm ''Mahabharata'' 13.8.16]</ref>:
:"In consequence of what I have done to the Brahmanas in thought, word, and deed, I do not feel any pain now [even though I am lying on a bed of arrows]."<ref>[http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/mbs/mbs13008.htm Sanskrit text] and [http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m13/m13a008.htm#fn_11 English translation]</ref>
 
They appear in at least one version of the ''[[Guru Gita]]''<ref> ''[[Guru]] Gita 1.51'' </ref>:
:"With actions, speech, and thought, constantly strive to satisfy the guru. With sincerity, prostate before the guru and offer hull honor."
 
The ''[[Padma Purana]]'' says on Prahlada:
:"He, of a delighted mind, never knew anyone else except the lord of gods in all conditions and deeds (done) with his mind, speech and body. The humble and very intelligent one stayed in his preceptor's [[house]] at a (proper) time."
 
In contrast, one who seeks to cause harm to others in mind, speech, and deed is a ''purvalodra''.<ref> ''Culture and International Law: Proceedings of the International Conference of the Centre for International Law Studies (CILS 2018), October 2-3, 2018, Malang, Indonesia'' By Hikmahanto Juwana, ‎Jeffrey Thomas, ‎Mohd Hazmi Mohd Rusli </ref>

'''Quotes regarding self-restrain from Sanatan and other [[Ārya Samudāy|Arya teachers]]:'''
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Krishna
! [[Narada]]
! Patanjali
! Gautam [[Buddha]]
! Mahavir
! Guru Nanak
! Mahatma Gandhi
|-
|
:”For one who has conquered the mind, the mind is the best of friends. But for one who has failed to do so, his very mind will be his greatest enemy.”<ref> [http://www.prabhupadaconnect.com/One-Who-Has-Conquered-the-Mind.html ''Bhagavad-Gītā'' 6.5-7] </ref>
|
:”Some think themselves the conqueror of the ten directions, yet have not even conquered the six enemies within, which are their own five senses and mind.”<ref> ''Bhagavad [[Purana]]'' 7.8.11[107] </ref>
|
:”Conquer callous, cruel, and insensitive feelings toward all beings.”
|
:”To conquer oneself is a greater victory than to conquer thousands in a battle.”
|
:”Fight with yourself. Why fight with external foes. He who conquers himself will obtain happiness.”<ref> ''Uttaradhyayana Sutra'' 9.34-36 </ref>
|
:”By conquering oneself, one conquers the world.”<ref> Japu 26, ''Guru Granth'' 6</ref>
|
:”The only devils in this world are those running around in our own hearts, and that is where all our battles should be fought.”
|-
|}

==Related articles==
*[[Darshana]]
*[[Sadachara|Right Conduct]]
*[[Ethics of Hinduism]]
*[[Animal rights]]
*[[Environmentalism]]
*[[Karma Marga]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Ethical ideals]]
[[Category:Core concepts]]

Environmentalism

2026-07-08T06:28:30Z

Himanshu Bhatt: /* Aikatmyam */

{{Author|Himanshu Bhatt}}
The ecology of the world has been considered sacred to Hindus because plans are living beings, and hence, children of the earth albeit not sentient. As a consequence, plants have been implemented in [[worship]] and ceremonies. Specific communities, such as Bishnois, Bhils, and Swadhyayis, have a close connection with the ecosphere and treat it as a part of their spirituality to protect the environment. For example, Swadhyayis have built Vrikshamandiras (tree [[temples]]) and Nirmal Nirs (water-harvesting sites.) Scriptures too have promoted environmentalism. The ''Varaha [[Purana]]'' says that one who plants five mango trees does not go to hell, and the ''[[Vishnu]] Dharmottara''<ref> ''Vishnu Dharmottara'' 3.297.13 </ref> claims that one who plants a tree will not fall into hell. The ''Matsya Purana'' describes "''The Festival of Trees''" wherein participants plants trees. Also in the ''Matsya Purana''<ref> ''Matsya Purana'' 154.506-512 </ref> Parvati is asked what she achieves by "''creating and rearing trees like sons,''" to which Parvati replied that humans who do so as well will receive heavenly rewards, and that through her environmental mission she will "''protect the universe to safeguard it...''" Kautilya's ''Arthashastra'' prescribes varying levels of fines for people who destroy trees, groves, and forests. That the ecology played a significant role in their compilation can be seen even in some of the titles of texts. For example, the Aranyanakas (''Belonging to the wilderness'') and Upanishads (''Up-down-sitting,'' referring to gurus and their pupils seated in their forest ashram.)
<blockquote>
"Hinduism comes closest to being a nature religion. Rivers, rocks, trees, plants, animals, and birds all play their part, both in mythology and everyday worship. This harmony is most evident in remote places like this, and I hope it does not lose its unique character in the ruthless urban advance." - Ruskin Bond
</blockquote>
It has been common for many communities to implement sustainable development when constructing a temple. Almost every temple in southern India dedicated to Shakti, [[Shiva]], or Vishnu have a sthala vriksha ("''tree of a [sacred] place"''), which was the tree sacred to that area whereupon the temple's construction happened.<ref> P. 770 ''Encyclopedia of Religion and Nature'' By Bron Taylor </ref> Some of the temples' ceremonies also involve their trees, such as circumambulation around the trees. Tirumala Tirupati temple has a billboard which reads, "''Vriksho rakshati rakshatah''," meaning "''Trees protect us - protect them''." Some spiritual leaders like Veer [[Bhadra]] Mishra and Sathya [[Sai Baba]] have used the World Wildlife Fund towards cleaning up the natural environment.

Eco-friendly symbolisms can be seen in [[Hindu]] architecture, artwork, and even dances. Ecofeminist Mallika Sarabhai, a participant of the Chipko Andolan, sees environmental echos within the Bharat Natyam [[dance]], which she is a professional performer of. She communicates the message of trees protecting rural [[women]] through her dance performances.

Plants have been utilized not only in ceremonies but also for medicinal purposes. [[Ayur Veda|Ayurvedic homeopathy]] implementing plants towards providing medicine is known as ''vrikshayurveda'' and plant science in general is known as ''Vanaspati Vidya''.
 
{{Cquote|You (The Supreme God) are the dark blue butterfly, and the green parrot with red eyes. You are the thundercloud, the seasons and the oceans.|4=Shvetashvatara Upanishad 4.4}}

==Ishavasyam==
The presence of [[Brahm]] or God Almighty is seen everywhere (making [[Theology#Immanency and Transcendence of God (Panentheism)|Hinduism panentheistic]]), and this can be seen in shastras like the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]''<ref> [https://vedabase.io/en/library/bg/6/30/ Bhagavad Gita 6.30] </ref>, ''[[Bhagavata Purana]]''<ref> [https://vedabase.io/en/library/sb/11/2/45/ Bhagavata Purana 11.2.45] </ref>, and ''[[Brahma Samhita]]''<ref> [[Brahma]] Samhita 5.38 </ref>. This principle is ''Ishavasyam'' and it helps humans identify God Almighty within ([[Antaryamin]].) It is an important principle because it refers to the omnipresence of Brahm, meaning it would exist everywhere, within living and non-living objects, and so all living things in particular have value.

==Aikatmyam==
:''See also: [[Ātmā#Aikatmyam|Aikatmyam Doctrine]]''
Aikatmyam is the doctrine wherein Hindus identify with everything that exists in the universe.<ref> "''Eka eva dwaita [[darsana]] hina [[atma]] yatra bhavati''"[https://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m12/m12b096.htm#fr_750] </ref> It is the interconnectedness of all. Because of this, it means caretaking of the environment they live in to sustain all life - humans, animals, and plants.

In ''Atharva Veda'', Book 12, it features the magnificent [[Atharva Veda Prithvi Sukta|"Bhumi Sukta" (or "Prithvi Sukta")]][https://sacred-texts.com/hin/av/av12001.htm], which praises the Earth as a living, cosmic entity, detailing its creation, support of humanity, and the interconnectedness of earthly and celestial realms.[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/395083723_Vedic_Bhumi_Sukta_and_International_Norms_A_Comparative_Framework]

==Loksangraha==
The doctrine of loksangraha (''welfare of the world'') proposes that humans be the caretakers of the planet and its creatures - treating them well is good karma (resulting in merit), while treating them poorly is bad karma (resulting in sin.) The related doctrine of trikarana suddhi (pure thoughts, words, deeds) also applies to both sentient and non-sentient living beings. The [[Ahimsa Paramo Dharma|Vow of Ahimsa]] applies to plants too, and outright killing of plants is forbidden because it kills the life of the plant, who is sacred in its own right, and because a provides sustenance for humans and animals.
 
{{Cquote|Peace be to Earth and to airy spaces! Peace to the heaven, peace to the waters, peace to the plants, and peace to the trees!|4=Atharva Veda 19.9.14}}
 
<blockquote>
"But do the many Hindu philosophies and communities value nature and privilege the existence of plants, trees, water? Although the short answer is yes, Hindus have answered this question in many different ways that have been documented in excellent texts. Plants and trees are valued so highly in Hindu sacred texts that their destruction is connected with doomsday scenarios." - Mary Evelyn Tucker<ref> P. 180 ''Religion and Ecology: Can the Climate Change?'' By Mary Evelyn Tucker</ref>
</blockquote>
[[image:Sarla Behn.jpg|thumb|200px|Sarla Behn was a disciple of Mahatma Gandhi]]
Sarla Behn (born Catherine Mary Heilman), a Swiss woman who became Mahatma Gandhi's disciple in India, was one of the main organizers of the Chipko Andolan (''Hug the Tree Movement'') in India. She had used verses from the ''[[Bhagavata Purana]]'' wherein [[Krishna]] mentions his deep admiration for Vrindavan forest. Participants of the movement had tied rakhis on trees and sung verses from the ''[[Bhagavata]] Purana''.<ref> P. 10 ''[[Dharma]] and Ecology of Hindu Communities
Sustenance and Sustainability'' By Pankaj Jain </ref> She helped create awareness of the environment in India. She stood against massive deforestation operations and was successful. Her organization was the Parvatiya Paryavaran Samrakshan [[Samiti]] (''Mountain Environment Protection Committee'') Dharamghar in Uttarakhand, which is become the environmentalist capital of India. She also initiated the Vyapak Lok Shikshan (Comprehensive Public Education) program to educate the public in India about helping the environment. She also wrote the ''Sanrakshan Ya Vinash'' (''Conservation or Destruction'') and ''Revive Our Dying Planet''.
 
{{Cquote|The Earth is my mother and I am her child!|4=Atharva Veda 12.1.12}}
 
[[image:Vandana Shiva.jpg|thumb|200px|Vandana Shiva is an environmental activist, eco-feminist, and scholar who has authored over 20 books and 500 essays]]
Vandana Shiva is a part of the Women's Environment & Development Organization and created the [[Bija]] Vidyapeeth college for sustainable living.
 
{{Cquote|Ether, air, fire, water, earth, planets, all creatures, directions, trees and plants, rivers and seas, they are all organs of God’s body. Remembering this a devotee respects all species.|4=Srimad Bhagavatam 11.2.41}}
 
T.T. Devasthanam (the organization of the temple) had began the Shri Venkateswara Vanabhivriddhi Schemes in 1981 wherein a donation made to the temple is used for purchasing and planting trees and plants. The donor is in turn given recognition by being granted a special darshan (viewing of the idol in the temple's inner sanctum.) Over 2,500,000 trees are said to have been planted on the hills and plains as a result of this program.

In 1991 a group of Hindus took action to address the environmental hardships such as its deforestation and pollution, and together with community involvement and a grant from the World Wide Fund (WWF) they organized a program to start restoring the land for Krishna.<ref> P. 378 ''Contemporary Hinduism: Ritual, Culture, and Practice'' By Robert Rinehart and Robin Rinehart </ref>

Some notable environmentalist other than the ones mentioned include, D.V. Shridharan, a writer for ''Indic Academy'', and professor Vijaya Nagarajan who writes and lectures students on Hinduism within the Religious Students department and the environment within the Environmental Studies department at University of San Francisco.

Some major environmental initiatives have begun, started by Hindu activists. Sanrakahan is one such initiative, begun by [[Divya]] Jyoti Jagrati Sansthan (whose founder is Sri Ashutosh Maharaj.) Isha Outreach, Isha Based, and Project GreenHands are another, begun by Isha Foundation. Ayudh India and Amrita SeRVe is another, begun by Mata Amritanandamayi Math.

Communities and temples have also been established, which are eco-friendly. Govardhan Eco Village is an [[Vaishnava]] eco-friendly village. Sadhana Forest is an eco-friendly utopia within Auroville (the township founded by The Mother of Sri [[Aurobindo]] Ashram.) Badrikashram in another eco-farming utopia, located in Rajpura Town, Punjab.[https://badrikashram.com/about/] One of Europe's largest sustainable and eco-friendly villages is the Krishna Valley in Hungary. ISKCON’s Alachua Temple hosts its Eco Farm Fall Festival to make visitors more ecologically conscious. Yash Bhatt and Arjun Thakkar in Gujarat have developed a way to turn flowers (i.e., offered in puja) into organic manure to enrich gardens. Swami Narayan Temple in Kingsbury, U.K. is world's largest eco-friendly worship hall. Plans for an eco-friendly £10M temple in Northampton, U.K. have been approved. Gangadhareshwara Shiva Temple in Bengaluru reuses milk offered as propitiation and is turned into butter milk for temple visitors. Shivalaya-Dwadash Jyotirling Dham in Sadar reuses offerings made to the Shivlings by containing the milk offered to be able to perpetually use it with a visitor's the push of a button. Parleshwar and Mahalakshmi temples in Mumbai collect and convert offerings into compost, which is fed to 150 trees in vicinities of the temples every month. Kundam festival of Sri Bannari Amman Temple in Bannari promotes eco-tourism, as do the Sidheswar Temple of Athamallik and Nanda Devi Temple of Munsyari, and the Agung Mountain and the Besakih, Tanah Lot, and Uluwatu temples of Indonesia. The Deogar airport terminal building and runways are being designed with inspiration from the eco-friendly Shikhars of the Baidyanath Temple.

Sugathakumari [the daughter of Hindu revivalist Bodheswarananda and a her mother was a Sanskrit teacher] had spent 3 years at university researching 'Comparative Study of the Concept of [[Moksha]] in Indian [[Schools of Philosophy]]' [but didn't finish this thesis.] She is an eco-feminist and has participated in a number of environmentalist missions. For example, she was a prominent figure in the Save Silent Valley protest.

==Divine Nature==
<blockquote>
“The one who plants trees, knowing that he will never sit in their shade, has at least started to understand the meaning of life.” — Rabindranath Tagore
</blockquote>
The nature of God is such that God is nature, and more. The Supreme utilizes nature in particular.

'Physitheism' is the theological definition of venerating the natural environment.

==Monasticism==
<blockquote>
"The culture of the forest has fueled the culture of Indian society. The culture that has arisen from the forest has been influenced by the diverse processes from renewal of life which are always at play in the forest, varying from species to species, from season to season, in sight and [[sound]] and smell. The unifying principle of life in diversity, of democratic pluralism, thus became the principle of Indian civilization." - Rabindranath Tagore
</blockquote>
[[Monasticism]] or [[Gyana Marga]], which is not a requirement for Hindus to attain Moksh, has been practiced to give more focus to Brahm or to expiate all karmas (sin), which are defilements to the soul. [[Ascetics]] have historically taken sanctuary in forests, which is which the Vanaprastha (''Forest-dweller'') stage of life, the Hindu practices asceticism in the forest. A large number of monks, while they lived within a monastic community in the forests, did not even have monasteries (maths.) It was very common for Buddhist monks to have monasteries, but in the case of Sanatan ascetics, it was not the norm.

Monasticism is not as common in the modern era because the tradition was banned under Islamist rule and ascetics were executed. Also, with the technological progress of society, possessions have become greater attachments for people, and asceticism seems more impractical. Ascetics do exist, but usually in monasteries that are within cities or towns.

==Related Articles==
*[[Ideals and Values/Environmental Awareness]]
*[[Animal rights|Animal rights and Vegetarianism]]
*[[Ethics of Hinduism]]
*[[Sanātan Dharma Principle]]
*[[Samyag Darshan|Right Worldview]]
*[[Sadachara|Right Conduct]]
*[[Karma Marga]]

==External Resources==
;Articles
*[https://www.bhaktivedantamanor.co.uk/home/?tag=climate-change "Could Diwali now be the festival of ‘solar lights’?"] By Gopal Patel (Published: Tuesday, November 22, 2016)
*[https://www.downtoearth.org.in/blog/environment/gandhi-at-150-green-movements-have-gandhian-streak-67038 “Gandhi at 150: Green movements have Gandhian streak” ]By John S. Moolakkattu (Published: Tuesday, October 01, 2019)
*[https://ethnobiology.org/ethno-ecology-bishnois-and-swadhyayis "Ethno-ecology of Bishnois and Swadhyayis"] By Dr. Pankaj Jain, Ph.D
*[https://www.psychiatrictimes.com/view/climate-change-and-hinduism "Climate Change and Hinduism"] By Nyapati R. Rao, MD, MS, DLFAPA (Published: April 20, 2021)
*[https://swarajyamag.com/magazine/the-connected-cosmos "The Connected Cosmos"] By Sumedha Verma Ojha (Published: Mar 9, 2018)
*[https://www.bvashram.org/update-building-rooms-sadhus-forests-odisha/ "Update on Building Rooms for Sadhus in the Forests of Odisha"] By Jahnava Nitai Das (Published: Dec 21, 2016)
*[https://www.indiadivine.org/trees-beautiful-gift-nature/ "Trees – A Beautiful Gift of Nature"] By Adarsh M. Kalla (Published November 6, 2017)
*[https://fore.yale.edu/files/jainism.pdf#:~:text=Chapple%20shows%20a%20distinctly%20South%20Asian%20environmental%20rhetoric,of%20modernization%20on%20traditional%20Indian%20culture%20and%20civilization. "Jainism and Ecology Bibliography"] By Christopher Key Chapple
*[https://www.ekumaon.com/2020/02/hari-narayan-das-dedicated-to.html “Hari Narayan Das dedicated to Environmental Protection - पर्यावरण संरक्षण को समर्पित हरी नारायण दास।” By eKumaon] (Published February 12, 2020)
*[https://youtu.be/h00vg0HBZ6w “India’s original eco-warriors: Meet the Bishnoi community who won’t cut down living trees“]
;[[Organizations]] and Initiatives
*[http://www.hinduclimatedeclaration2015.org/english Hindu Declaration on Climate Change]
*[https://news.yale.edu/2019/02/15/hindu-climate-activists-take-lead-combating-climate-change Hindu Earth Ethics and Climate Action]
*[https://www.hinduclimateaction.org/ Hindu Climate Action] - a service project of the Oxford Centre for Hindu Studies
*[https://eco.brahmakumaris.org/the-bhumi-project/ The Bhumi Project] - A collaboration between the Oxford Centre for Hindu Studies and Brahma Kumaris World Spiritual University
*[https://eco.brahmakumaris.org/ Brahma Kumaris Environment Initiative]
*[https://vrikshamandir.com/ Vrikshamandir]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Ethical ideals]]
[[Category:Core concepts]]

Environmentalism

2026-07-08T06:28:17Z

Himanshu Bhatt: /* Aikatmyam */ added article's internal link

{{Author|Himanshu Bhatt}}
The ecology of the world has been considered sacred to Hindus because plans are living beings, and hence, children of the earth albeit not sentient. As a consequence, plants have been implemented in [[worship]] and ceremonies. Specific communities, such as Bishnois, Bhils, and Swadhyayis, have a close connection with the ecosphere and treat it as a part of their spirituality to protect the environment. For example, Swadhyayis have built Vrikshamandiras (tree [[temples]]) and Nirmal Nirs (water-harvesting sites.) Scriptures too have promoted environmentalism. The ''Varaha [[Purana]]'' says that one who plants five mango trees does not go to hell, and the ''[[Vishnu]] Dharmottara''<ref> ''Vishnu Dharmottara'' 3.297.13 </ref> claims that one who plants a tree will not fall into hell. The ''Matsya Purana'' describes "''The Festival of Trees''" wherein participants plants trees. Also in the ''Matsya Purana''<ref> ''Matsya Purana'' 154.506-512 </ref> Parvati is asked what she achieves by "''creating and rearing trees like sons,''" to which Parvati replied that humans who do so as well will receive heavenly rewards, and that through her environmental mission she will "''protect the universe to safeguard it...''" Kautilya's ''Arthashastra'' prescribes varying levels of fines for people who destroy trees, groves, and forests. That the ecology played a significant role in their compilation can be seen even in some of the titles of texts. For example, the Aranyanakas (''Belonging to the wilderness'') and Upanishads (''Up-down-sitting,'' referring to gurus and their pupils seated in their forest ashram.)
<blockquote>
"Hinduism comes closest to being a nature religion. Rivers, rocks, trees, plants, animals, and birds all play their part, both in mythology and everyday worship. This harmony is most evident in remote places like this, and I hope it does not lose its unique character in the ruthless urban advance." - Ruskin Bond
</blockquote>
It has been common for many communities to implement sustainable development when constructing a temple. Almost every temple in southern India dedicated to Shakti, [[Shiva]], or Vishnu have a sthala vriksha ("''tree of a [sacred] place"''), which was the tree sacred to that area whereupon the temple's construction happened.<ref> P. 770 ''Encyclopedia of Religion and Nature'' By Bron Taylor </ref> Some of the temples' ceremonies also involve their trees, such as circumambulation around the trees. Tirumala Tirupati temple has a billboard which reads, "''Vriksho rakshati rakshatah''," meaning "''Trees protect us - protect them''." Some spiritual leaders like Veer [[Bhadra]] Mishra and Sathya [[Sai Baba]] have used the World Wildlife Fund towards cleaning up the natural environment.

Eco-friendly symbolisms can be seen in [[Hindu]] architecture, artwork, and even dances. Ecofeminist Mallika Sarabhai, a participant of the Chipko Andolan, sees environmental echos within the Bharat Natyam [[dance]], which she is a professional performer of. She communicates the message of trees protecting rural [[women]] through her dance performances.

Plants have been utilized not only in ceremonies but also for medicinal purposes. [[Ayur Veda|Ayurvedic homeopathy]] implementing plants towards providing medicine is known as ''vrikshayurveda'' and plant science in general is known as ''Vanaspati Vidya''.
 
{{Cquote|You (The Supreme God) are the dark blue butterfly, and the green parrot with red eyes. You are the thundercloud, the seasons and the oceans.|4=Shvetashvatara Upanishad 4.4}}

==Ishavasyam==
The presence of [[Brahm]] or God Almighty is seen everywhere (making [[Theology#Immanency and Transcendence of God (Panentheism)|Hinduism panentheistic]]), and this can be seen in shastras like the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]''<ref> [https://vedabase.io/en/library/bg/6/30/ Bhagavad Gita 6.30] </ref>, ''[[Bhagavata Purana]]''<ref> [https://vedabase.io/en/library/sb/11/2/45/ Bhagavata Purana 11.2.45] </ref>, and ''[[Brahma Samhita]]''<ref> [[Brahma]] Samhita 5.38 </ref>. This principle is ''Ishavasyam'' and it helps humans identify God Almighty within ([[Antaryamin]].) It is an important principle because it refers to the omnipresence of Brahm, meaning it would exist everywhere, within living and non-living objects, and so all living things in particular have value.

==Aikatmyam==
:''See also:'' [[Ātmā#Aikatmyam|Aikatmyam Doctrine]]
Aikatmyam is the doctrine wherein Hindus identify with everything that exists in the universe.<ref> "''Eka eva dwaita [[darsana]] hina [[atma]] yatra bhavati''"[https://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m12/m12b096.htm#fr_750] </ref> It is the interconnectedness of all. Because of this, it means caretaking of the environment they live in to sustain all life - humans, animals, and plants.

In ''Atharva Veda'', Book 12, it features the magnificent [[Atharva Veda Prithvi Sukta|"Bhumi Sukta" (or "Prithvi Sukta")]][https://sacred-texts.com/hin/av/av12001.htm], which praises the Earth as a living, cosmic entity, detailing its creation, support of humanity, and the interconnectedness of earthly and celestial realms.[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/395083723_Vedic_Bhumi_Sukta_and_International_Norms_A_Comparative_Framework]

==Loksangraha==
The doctrine of loksangraha (''welfare of the world'') proposes that humans be the caretakers of the planet and its creatures - treating them well is good karma (resulting in merit), while treating them poorly is bad karma (resulting in sin.) The related doctrine of trikarana suddhi (pure thoughts, words, deeds) also applies to both sentient and non-sentient living beings. The [[Ahimsa Paramo Dharma|Vow of Ahimsa]] applies to plants too, and outright killing of plants is forbidden because it kills the life of the plant, who is sacred in its own right, and because a provides sustenance for humans and animals.
 
{{Cquote|Peace be to Earth and to airy spaces! Peace to the heaven, peace to the waters, peace to the plants, and peace to the trees!|4=Atharva Veda 19.9.14}}
 
<blockquote>
"But do the many Hindu philosophies and communities value nature and privilege the existence of plants, trees, water? Although the short answer is yes, Hindus have answered this question in many different ways that have been documented in excellent texts. Plants and trees are valued so highly in Hindu sacred texts that their destruction is connected with doomsday scenarios." - Mary Evelyn Tucker<ref> P. 180 ''Religion and Ecology: Can the Climate Change?'' By Mary Evelyn Tucker</ref>
</blockquote>
[[image:Sarla Behn.jpg|thumb|200px|Sarla Behn was a disciple of Mahatma Gandhi]]
Sarla Behn (born Catherine Mary Heilman), a Swiss woman who became Mahatma Gandhi's disciple in India, was one of the main organizers of the Chipko Andolan (''Hug the Tree Movement'') in India. She had used verses from the ''[[Bhagavata Purana]]'' wherein [[Krishna]] mentions his deep admiration for Vrindavan forest. Participants of the movement had tied rakhis on trees and sung verses from the ''[[Bhagavata]] Purana''.<ref> P. 10 ''[[Dharma]] and Ecology of Hindu Communities
Sustenance and Sustainability'' By Pankaj Jain </ref> She helped create awareness of the environment in India. She stood against massive deforestation operations and was successful. Her organization was the Parvatiya Paryavaran Samrakshan [[Samiti]] (''Mountain Environment Protection Committee'') Dharamghar in Uttarakhand, which is become the environmentalist capital of India. She also initiated the Vyapak Lok Shikshan (Comprehensive Public Education) program to educate the public in India about helping the environment. She also wrote the ''Sanrakshan Ya Vinash'' (''Conservation or Destruction'') and ''Revive Our Dying Planet''.
 
{{Cquote|The Earth is my mother and I am her child!|4=Atharva Veda 12.1.12}}
 
[[image:Vandana Shiva.jpg|thumb|200px|Vandana Shiva is an environmental activist, eco-feminist, and scholar who has authored over 20 books and 500 essays]]
Vandana Shiva is a part of the Women's Environment & Development Organization and created the [[Bija]] Vidyapeeth college for sustainable living.
 
{{Cquote|Ether, air, fire, water, earth, planets, all creatures, directions, trees and plants, rivers and seas, they are all organs of God’s body. Remembering this a devotee respects all species.|4=Srimad Bhagavatam 11.2.41}}
 
T.T. Devasthanam (the organization of the temple) had began the Shri Venkateswara Vanabhivriddhi Schemes in 1981 wherein a donation made to the temple is used for purchasing and planting trees and plants. The donor is in turn given recognition by being granted a special darshan (viewing of the idol in the temple's inner sanctum.) Over 2,500,000 trees are said to have been planted on the hills and plains as a result of this program.

In 1991 a group of Hindus took action to address the environmental hardships such as its deforestation and pollution, and together with community involvement and a grant from the World Wide Fund (WWF) they organized a program to start restoring the land for Krishna.<ref> P. 378 ''Contemporary Hinduism: Ritual, Culture, and Practice'' By Robert Rinehart and Robin Rinehart </ref>

Some notable environmentalist other than the ones mentioned include, D.V. Shridharan, a writer for ''Indic Academy'', and professor Vijaya Nagarajan who writes and lectures students on Hinduism within the Religious Students department and the environment within the Environmental Studies department at University of San Francisco.

Some major environmental initiatives have begun, started by Hindu activists. Sanrakahan is one such initiative, begun by [[Divya]] Jyoti Jagrati Sansthan (whose founder is Sri Ashutosh Maharaj.) Isha Outreach, Isha Based, and Project GreenHands are another, begun by Isha Foundation. Ayudh India and Amrita SeRVe is another, begun by Mata Amritanandamayi Math.

Communities and temples have also been established, which are eco-friendly. Govardhan Eco Village is an [[Vaishnava]] eco-friendly village. Sadhana Forest is an eco-friendly utopia within Auroville (the township founded by The Mother of Sri [[Aurobindo]] Ashram.) Badrikashram in another eco-farming utopia, located in Rajpura Town, Punjab.[https://badrikashram.com/about/] One of Europe's largest sustainable and eco-friendly villages is the Krishna Valley in Hungary. ISKCON’s Alachua Temple hosts its Eco Farm Fall Festival to make visitors more ecologically conscious. Yash Bhatt and Arjun Thakkar in Gujarat have developed a way to turn flowers (i.e., offered in puja) into organic manure to enrich gardens. Swami Narayan Temple in Kingsbury, U.K. is world's largest eco-friendly worship hall. Plans for an eco-friendly £10M temple in Northampton, U.K. have been approved. Gangadhareshwara Shiva Temple in Bengaluru reuses milk offered as propitiation and is turned into butter milk for temple visitors. Shivalaya-Dwadash Jyotirling Dham in Sadar reuses offerings made to the Shivlings by containing the milk offered to be able to perpetually use it with a visitor's the push of a button. Parleshwar and Mahalakshmi temples in Mumbai collect and convert offerings into compost, which is fed to 150 trees in vicinities of the temples every month. Kundam festival of Sri Bannari Amman Temple in Bannari promotes eco-tourism, as do the Sidheswar Temple of Athamallik and Nanda Devi Temple of Munsyari, and the Agung Mountain and the Besakih, Tanah Lot, and Uluwatu temples of Indonesia. The Deogar airport terminal building and runways are being designed with inspiration from the eco-friendly Shikhars of the Baidyanath Temple.

Sugathakumari [the daughter of Hindu revivalist Bodheswarananda and a her mother was a Sanskrit teacher] had spent 3 years at university researching 'Comparative Study of the Concept of [[Moksha]] in Indian [[Schools of Philosophy]]' [but didn't finish this thesis.] She is an eco-feminist and has participated in a number of environmentalist missions. For example, she was a prominent figure in the Save Silent Valley protest.

==Divine Nature==
<blockquote>
“The one who plants trees, knowing that he will never sit in their shade, has at least started to understand the meaning of life.” — Rabindranath Tagore
</blockquote>
The nature of God is such that God is nature, and more. The Supreme utilizes nature in particular.

'Physitheism' is the theological definition of venerating the natural environment.

==Monasticism==
<blockquote>
"The culture of the forest has fueled the culture of Indian society. The culture that has arisen from the forest has been influenced by the diverse processes from renewal of life which are always at play in the forest, varying from species to species, from season to season, in sight and [[sound]] and smell. The unifying principle of life in diversity, of democratic pluralism, thus became the principle of Indian civilization." - Rabindranath Tagore
</blockquote>
[[Monasticism]] or [[Gyana Marga]], which is not a requirement for Hindus to attain Moksh, has been practiced to give more focus to Brahm or to expiate all karmas (sin), which are defilements to the soul. [[Ascetics]] have historically taken sanctuary in forests, which is which the Vanaprastha (''Forest-dweller'') stage of life, the Hindu practices asceticism in the forest. A large number of monks, while they lived within a monastic community in the forests, did not even have monasteries (maths.) It was very common for Buddhist monks to have monasteries, but in the case of Sanatan ascetics, it was not the norm.

Monasticism is not as common in the modern era because the tradition was banned under Islamist rule and ascetics were executed. Also, with the technological progress of society, possessions have become greater attachments for people, and asceticism seems more impractical. Ascetics do exist, but usually in monasteries that are within cities or towns.

==Related Articles==
*[[Ideals and Values/Environmental Awareness]]
*[[Animal rights|Animal rights and Vegetarianism]]
*[[Ethics of Hinduism]]
*[[Sanātan Dharma Principle]]
*[[Samyag Darshan|Right Worldview]]
*[[Sadachara|Right Conduct]]
*[[Karma Marga]]

==External Resources==
;Articles
*[https://www.bhaktivedantamanor.co.uk/home/?tag=climate-change "Could Diwali now be the festival of ‘solar lights’?"] By Gopal Patel (Published: Tuesday, November 22, 2016)
*[https://www.downtoearth.org.in/blog/environment/gandhi-at-150-green-movements-have-gandhian-streak-67038 “Gandhi at 150: Green movements have Gandhian streak” ]By John S. Moolakkattu (Published: Tuesday, October 01, 2019)
*[https://ethnobiology.org/ethno-ecology-bishnois-and-swadhyayis "Ethno-ecology of Bishnois and Swadhyayis"] By Dr. Pankaj Jain, Ph.D
*[https://www.psychiatrictimes.com/view/climate-change-and-hinduism "Climate Change and Hinduism"] By Nyapati R. Rao, MD, MS, DLFAPA (Published: April 20, 2021)
*[https://swarajyamag.com/magazine/the-connected-cosmos "The Connected Cosmos"] By Sumedha Verma Ojha (Published: Mar 9, 2018)
*[https://www.bvashram.org/update-building-rooms-sadhus-forests-odisha/ "Update on Building Rooms for Sadhus in the Forests of Odisha"] By Jahnava Nitai Das (Published: Dec 21, 2016)
*[https://www.indiadivine.org/trees-beautiful-gift-nature/ "Trees – A Beautiful Gift of Nature"] By Adarsh M. Kalla (Published November 6, 2017)
*[https://fore.yale.edu/files/jainism.pdf#:~:text=Chapple%20shows%20a%20distinctly%20South%20Asian%20environmental%20rhetoric,of%20modernization%20on%20traditional%20Indian%20culture%20and%20civilization. "Jainism and Ecology Bibliography"] By Christopher Key Chapple
*[https://www.ekumaon.com/2020/02/hari-narayan-das-dedicated-to.html “Hari Narayan Das dedicated to Environmental Protection - पर्यावरण संरक्षण को समर्पित हरी नारायण दास।” By eKumaon] (Published February 12, 2020)
*[https://youtu.be/h00vg0HBZ6w “India’s original eco-warriors: Meet the Bishnoi community who won’t cut down living trees“]
;[[Organizations]] and Initiatives
*[http://www.hinduclimatedeclaration2015.org/english Hindu Declaration on Climate Change]
*[https://news.yale.edu/2019/02/15/hindu-climate-activists-take-lead-combating-climate-change Hindu Earth Ethics and Climate Action]
*[https://www.hinduclimateaction.org/ Hindu Climate Action] - a service project of the Oxford Centre for Hindu Studies
*[https://eco.brahmakumaris.org/the-bhumi-project/ The Bhumi Project] - A collaboration between the Oxford Centre for Hindu Studies and Brahma Kumaris World Spiritual University
*[https://eco.brahmakumaris.org/ Brahma Kumaris Environment Initiative]
*[https://vrikshamandir.com/ Vrikshamandir]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Ethical ideals]]
[[Category:Core concepts]]

Ātmā

2026-07-08T06:27:07Z

Himanshu Bhatt: /* Related articles */

By Jit Majumdar

# the self; the soul
# in philosophy, the most essential aspect of [[a]] living being that is considered identical to, and an individual expression of the Supreme [[Divinity]] or Absolute Truth, and shares all the former’s essential and intrinsic attributes such as indestructibility, unchangeability, blissfulness, [[consciousness]], indivisibility, immortality, purity, omnipotence, omniscience and omnipresence.

==Aikatmyam==
The soul is in an 'aikatmya' or interconnectivity with all.

'Aikatmyam' is the doctrine wherein Hindus identify with everything that exists in the universe.<ref> "''Eka eva dwaita [[darsana]] hina [[atma]] yatra bhavati''"[https://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m12/m12b096.htm#fr_750] </ref> It is the interconnectedness of all. Because of this, it means caretaking of the environment they live in to sustain all life - humans, animals, and plants.

In ''Atharva Veda'', Book 12, it features the magnificent [[Atharva Veda Prithvi Sukta|"Bhumi Sukta" (or "Prithvi Sukta")]][https://sacred-texts.com/hin/av/av12001.htm], which praises the Earth as a living, cosmic entity, detailing its creation, support of humanity, and the interconnectedness of earthly and celestial realms.[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/395083723_Vedic_Bhumi_Sukta_and_International_Norms_A_Comparative_Framework]

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Hymn
! Alias(es)
! Scripture
! Main Principle
! Other Principle(s)
|-
|Purush Sukta (10.90.1-16)
|Yajna Sukta
|Rig Veda
|Cosmic unity—describes all beings and the cosmos as emerging from one Cosmic Person (Purush)
|
|-
|Prithvi Sukta (12.1.1-63)
|Bhumi Sukta
|''Atharva Veda''
|Earth is divine and living
|Earth as the common mother of all beings
|-
|(6.29-6.30)
|
|''Bhagavad Gita''
|The practitioner (yogin) sees Self in all beings and all beings in Self, and that Self is God
|
|-
|(13.27-28)
|
|''Bhagavad Gita''
|Everything is seen as arising from one imperishable reality
|(5.18, 6.29-30, 6.32, 9.4-5, 10.20, 13.27-28, 18.20)
|-
|Shanti Parva (Chapters 188-239)
|
|''Mahabharata''
|All beings are manifestations of one Self
|Compassion arises from recognizing that unity, 
harming another is ultimately harming oneself
|-
|Nirvana Prakarana
|
|''Yoga Vasistha''
|Universe is one consciousness
|Apparent multiplicity is a manifestation within that [One] consciousness
|-
|(3.7)
|
|''Brihadaranyaka Upanishad''
|This Upanishad repeatedly teaches that all existence is grounded in one Self
|It also presents the Antaryāmin doctrine, where one indwelling reality permeates all beings and elements
|-
|(6.16, 6.8.7)
|Chapter 6
|''Chandogya Upanishad''
|Teaches that the individual self and the ultimate reality are fundamentally one
|Also uses analogies—such as rivers flowing into the sea—to illustrate underlying unity
|-
|(Verses 1, 6, 7)
|
|''Isha Upanishad''
|Seeing all beings in The Self
|
|-
|(3.11, 6.11)
|
|''Shvetashvatara Upanishad''
|One Divine Reality pervading everything-—God hidden in all beings, the inner Self of all<ref>''Shvetashvatara Upanishad'' 6.11</ref>
|
|-
|(2.11, 2.2.5)
|
|''Mundaka Upanishad''
|All beings originating from one source (uses metaphors like 'sparks emerging from fire' and 'spokes attached to the hub of a wheel')
|
|-
|(11.2.45)
|
|''Bhagavata Purana''
|The Divine dwells in all beings
|Service to others is service to God, all life is interconnected through the Supreme
|}

==Related articles==
*[[Ātma-māyā]]
*[[Darshana|Metaphysical Worldviews]]
*[[Cosmology]]
*[[Overview of Cosmology in the Scriptures]]
*[[Theology]]
*[[Brahmānda]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Atma]]
[[Category:Glossary]]

Ātmā

2026-07-08T06:25:48Z

Himanshu Bhatt: /* Aikatmyam */ added sections

By Jit Majumdar

# the self; the soul
# in philosophy, the most essential aspect of [[a]] living being that is considered identical to, and an individual expression of the Supreme [[Divinity]] or Absolute Truth, and shares all the former’s essential and intrinsic attributes such as indestructibility, unchangeability, blissfulness, [[consciousness]], indivisibility, immortality, purity, omnipotence, omniscience and omnipresence.

==Aikatmyam==
The soul is in an 'aikatmya' or interconnectivity with all.

'Aikatmyam' is the doctrine wherein Hindus identify with everything that exists in the universe.<ref> "''Eka eva dwaita [[darsana]] hina [[atma]] yatra bhavati''"[https://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m12/m12b096.htm#fr_750] </ref> It is the interconnectedness of all. Because of this, it means caretaking of the environment they live in to sustain all life - humans, animals, and plants.

In ''Atharva Veda'', Book 12, it features the magnificent [[Atharva Veda Prithvi Sukta|"Bhumi Sukta" (or "Prithvi Sukta")]][https://sacred-texts.com/hin/av/av12001.htm], which praises the Earth as a living, cosmic entity, detailing its creation, support of humanity, and the interconnectedness of earthly and celestial realms.[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/395083723_Vedic_Bhumi_Sukta_and_International_Norms_A_Comparative_Framework]

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Hymn
! Alias(es)
! Scripture
! Main Principle
! Other Principle(s)
|-
|Purush Sukta (10.90.1-16)
|Yajna Sukta
|Rig Veda
|Cosmic unity—describes all beings and the cosmos as emerging from one Cosmic Person (Purush)
|
|-
|Prithvi Sukta (12.1.1-63)
|Bhumi Sukta
|''Atharva Veda''
|Earth is divine and living
|Earth as the common mother of all beings
|-
|(6.29-6.30)
|
|''Bhagavad Gita''
|The practitioner (yogin) sees Self in all beings and all beings in Self, and that Self is God
|
|-
|(13.27-28)
|
|''Bhagavad Gita''
|Everything is seen as arising from one imperishable reality
|(5.18, 6.29-30, 6.32, 9.4-5, 10.20, 13.27-28, 18.20)
|-
|Shanti Parva (Chapters 188-239)
|
|''Mahabharata''
|All beings are manifestations of one Self
|Compassion arises from recognizing that unity, 
harming another is ultimately harming oneself
|-
|Nirvana Prakarana
|
|''Yoga Vasistha''
|Universe is one consciousness
|Apparent multiplicity is a manifestation within that [One] consciousness
|-
|(3.7)
|
|''Brihadaranyaka Upanishad''
|This Upanishad repeatedly teaches that all existence is grounded in one Self
|It also presents the Antaryāmin doctrine, where one indwelling reality permeates all beings and elements
|-
|(6.16, 6.8.7)
|Chapter 6
|''Chandogya Upanishad''
|Teaches that the individual self and the ultimate reality are fundamentally one
|Also uses analogies—such as rivers flowing into the sea—to illustrate underlying unity
|-
|(Verses 1, 6, 7)
|
|''Isha Upanishad''
|Seeing all beings in The Self
|
|-
|(3.11, 6.11)
|
|''Shvetashvatara Upanishad''
|One Divine Reality pervading everything-—God hidden in all beings, the inner Self of all<ref>''Shvetashvatara Upanishad'' 6.11</ref>
|
|-
|(2.11, 2.2.5)
|
|''Mundaka Upanishad''
|All beings originating from one source (uses metaphors like 'sparks emerging from fire' and 'spokes attached to the hub of a wheel')
|
|-
|(11.2.45)
|
|''Bhagavata Purana''
|The Divine dwells in all beings
|Service to others is service to God, all life is interconnected through the Supreme
|}

==Related articles==
*[[Atma-Maya]]
*[[Darshana|Metaphysical Worldviews]]
*[[Cosmology]]
*[[Overview of Cosmology in the Scriptures]]
*[[Theology]]
*[[Brahmānda]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Atma]]
[[Category:Glossary]]

Category:Atma

2026-07-08T06:24:43Z

Himanshu Bhatt: Created page with "Relating to the soul."

Relating to the soul.

Ātma-māyā

2026-07-08T06:24:32Z

Himanshu Bhatt: added category

By Swami Harshananda

Ātma-[[māyā]] literally means ‘inherent mysterious power’.

Lord Śrī Kṛṣṇ[[a]] while describing his descent into the human form uses this word.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 4.6</ref> Though he is unborn, eternal and the Lord of all beings, he takes recourse to his ‘prakṛti’ and incarnates himself through ‘ātma-māyā’. He incarnates to re-establish and preserve [[dharma]] or righteousness by destroying the wicked and protecting the good.

Prakṛti comprise of the three guṇas:
# [[Sattva]]
# Rajas
# Tamas
 
It is the basic matrix out of which the whole universe is evolved. It is also called māyā which is variously interpreted as illusion, illusory or mysterious power and so on. The incarnation of God is not like the rebirth of ordinary jivas or beings who are forced into birth and suffering due to their past [[karma]] or deeds. He does it out of his free will exercising his mysterious power, which is inherent in Him. These powers are called as ‘ātma-māyā.’

==References==
{{reflist}}
* The Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Swami Harshananda, Ram [[Krishna]] Math, Bangalore

[[Category:Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism]]
[[Category:Atma]]

Ātmā

2026-07-08T06:23:00Z

Himanshu Bhatt: /* Aikatmyam */

By Jit Majumdar

# the self; the soul
# in philosophy, the most essential aspect of [[a]] living being that is considered identical to, and an individual expression of the Supreme [[Divinity]] or Absolute Truth, and shares all the former’s essential and intrinsic attributes such as indestructibility, unchangeability, blissfulness, [[consciousness]], indivisibility, immortality, purity, omnipotence, omniscience and omnipresence.

==Aikatmyam==
The soul is in an 'aikatmya' or interconnectivity with all.

'Aikatmyam' is the doctrine wherein Hindus identify with everything that exists in the universe.<ref> "''Eka eva dwaita [[darsana]] hina [[atma]] yatra bhavati''"[https://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m12/m12b096.htm#fr_750] </ref> It is the interconnectedness of all. Because of this, it means caretaking of the environment they live in to sustain all life - humans, animals, and plants.

In ''Atharva Veda'', Book 12, it features the magnificent [[Atharva Veda Prithvi Sukta|"Bhumi Sukta" (or "Prithvi Sukta")]][https://sacred-texts.com/hin/av/av12001.htm], which praises the Earth as a living, cosmic entity, detailing its creation, support of humanity, and the interconnectedness of earthly and celestial realms.[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/395083723_Vedic_Bhumi_Sukta_and_International_Norms_A_Comparative_Framework]

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Hymn
! Alias(es)
! Scripture
! Main Principle
! Other Principle(s)
|-
|Purush Sukta (10.90.1-16)
|Yajna Sukta
|Rig Veda
|Cosmic unity—describes all beings and the cosmos as emerging from one Cosmic Person (Purush)
|
|-
|Prithvi Sukta (12.1.1-63)
|Bhumi Sukta
|''Atharva Veda''
|Earth is divine and living
|Earth as the common mother of all beings
|-
|(6.29-6.30)
|
|''Bhagavad Gita''
|The practitioner (yogin) sees Self in all beings and all beings in Self, and that Self is God
|
|-
|(13.27-28)
|
|''Bhagavad Gita''
|Everything is seen as arising from one imperishable reality
|(5.18, 6.29-30, 6.32, 9.4-5, 10.20, 13.27-28, 18.20)
|-
|Shanti Parva (Chapters 188-239)
|
|''Mahabharata''
|All beings are manifestations of one Self
|Compassion arises from recognizing that unity, 
harming another is ultimately harming oneself
|-
|Nirvana Prakarana
|
|''Yoga Vasistha''
|Universe is one consciousness
|Apparent multiplicity is a manifestation within that [One] consciousness
|-
|(3.7)
|
|''Brihadaranyaka Upanishad''
|This Upanishad repeatedly teaches that all existence is grounded in one Self
|It also presents the Antaryāmin doctrine, where one indwelling reality permeates all beings and elements
|-
|(6.16, 6.8.7)
|Chapter 6
|''Chandogya Upanishad''
|Teaches that the individual self and the ultimate reality are fundamentally one
|Also uses analogies—such as rivers flowing into the sea—to illustrate underlying unity
|-
|(Verses 1, 6, 7)
|
|''Isha Upanishad''
|Seeing all beings in The Self
|
|-
|(3.11, 6.11)
|
|''Shvetashvatara Upanishad''
|One Divine Reality pervading everything-—God hidden in all beings, the inner Self of all<ref>''Shvetashvatara Upanishad'' 6.11</ref>
|
|-
|(2.11, 2.2.5)
|
|''Mundaka Upanishad''
|All beings originating from one source (uses metaphors like 'sparks emerging from fire' and 'spokes attached to the hub of a wheel')
|
|-
|(11.2.45)
|
|''Bhagavata Purana''
|The Divine dwells in all beings
|Service to others is service to God, all life is interconnected through the Supreme
|}

[[Category:Glossary]]

Ātmā

2026-07-08T06:11:08Z

Himanshu Bhatt: /* Aikatmyam */

By Jit Majumdar

# the self; the soul
# in philosophy, the most essential aspect of [[a]] living being that is considered identical to, and an individual expression of the Supreme [[Divinity]] or Absolute Truth, and shares all the former’s essential and intrinsic attributes such as indestructibility, unchangeability, blissfulness, [[consciousness]], indivisibility, immortality, purity, omnipotence, omniscience and omnipresence.

==Aikatmyam==
The soul is in an 'aikatmya' or interconnectivity with all.

'Aikatmyam' is the doctrine wherein Hindus identify with everything that exists in the universe.<ref> "''Eka eva dwaita [[darsana]] hina [[atma]] yatra bhavati''"[https://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m12/m12b096.htm#fr_750] </ref> It is the interconnectedness of all. Because of this, it means caretaking of the environment they live in to sustain all life - humans, animals, and plants.

In ''Atharva Veda'', Book 12, it features the magnificent [[Atharva Veda Prithvi Sukta|"Bhumi Sukta" (or "Prithvi Sukta")]][https://sacred-texts.com/hin/av/av12001.htm], which praises the Earth as a living, cosmic entity, detailing its creation, support of humanity, and the interconnectedness of earthly and celestial realms.[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/395083723_Vedic_Bhumi_Sukta_and_International_Norms_A_Comparative_Framework]

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Hymn
! Alias(es)
! Scripture
! Main Principle
! Other Principle(s)
|-
|Purush Sukta
|Yajna Sukta
|Rig Veda
|Cosmic unity—describes all beings and the cosmos as emerging from one Cosmic Person (Purush)
|
|-
|Prithvi Sukta
|Bhumi Sukta
|Atharva Veda
|Earth is divine and living
|Earth as the common mother of all beings
|-
|6.29-6.30
|
|''Bhagavad Gita''
|The practitioner (yogin) sees Self in all beings and all beings in Self, and that Self is God
|
|-
|13.27-28
|
|''Bhagavad Gita''
|Everything is seen as arising from one imperishable reality
|
|-
|
|Moksha Dharma
|''Mahabharata''
|All beings are manifestations of one Self
|Compassion arises from recognizing that unity, 
harming another is ultimately harming oneself
|-
|
|
|''Yoga Vasistha''
|Universe is one consciousness
|Apparent multiplicity is a manifestation within that [One] consciousness
|-
|
|
|''Brihadaranyaka Upanishad''
|This Upanishad repeatedly teaches that all existence is grounded in one Self
|It also presents the Antaryāmin doctrine, where one indwelling reality permeates all beings and elements
|-
|
|Chapter 6
|''Chandogya Upanishad''
|Teaches that the individual self and the ultimate reality are fundamentally one
|Also uses analogies—such as rivers flowing into the sea—to illustrate underlying unity
|-
|
|
|''Isha Upanishad''
|Seeing all beings in The Self
|
|-
|
|
|''Shvetashvatara Upanishad''
|One Divine Reality pervading everything-—God hidden in all beings, the inner Self of all<ref>''Shvetashvatara Upanishad'' 6.11</ref>
|
|-
|
|
|''Mundaka Upanishad''
|All beings originating from one source (uses metaphors like 'sparks emerging from fire' and 'spokes attached to the hub of a wheel')
|
|-
|
|
|''Bhagavata Purana''
|The Divine dwells in all beings
|Service to others is service to God, all life is interconnected through the Supreme
|}

[[Category:Glossary]]

Ātmā

2026-07-08T06:09:40Z

Himanshu Bhatt: /* Aikatmyam */

By Jit Majumdar

# the self; the soul
# in philosophy, the most essential aspect of [[a]] living being that is considered identical to, and an individual expression of the Supreme [[Divinity]] or Absolute Truth, and shares all the former’s essential and intrinsic attributes such as indestructibility, unchangeability, blissfulness, [[consciousness]], indivisibility, immortality, purity, omnipotence, omniscience and omnipresence.

==Aikatmyam==
The soul is in an aikatmya or interconnectivity with all.

Aikatmyam is the doctrine wherein Hindus identify with everything that exists in the universe.<ref> "''Eka eva dwaita [[darsana]] hina [[atma]] yatra bhavati''"[https://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m12/m12b096.htm#fr_750] </ref> It is the interconnectedness of all. Because of this, it means caretaking of the environment they live in to sustain all life - humans, animals, and plants.

In ''Atharva Veda'', Book 12, it features the magnificent [[Atharva Veda Prithvi Sukta|"Bhumi Sukta" (or "Prithvi Sukta")]][https://sacred-texts.com/hin/av/av12001.htm], which praises the Earth as a living, cosmic entity, detailing its creation, support of humanity, and the interconnectedness of earthly and celestial realms.[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/395083723_Vedic_Bhumi_Sukta_and_International_Norms_A_Comparative_Framework]

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Hymn
! Alias(es)
! Scripture
! Main Principle
! Other Principle(s)
|-
|Purush Sukta
|Yajna Sukta
|Rig Veda
|Cosmic unity—describes all beings and the cosmos as emerging from one Cosmic Person (Purush)
|
|-
|Prithvi Sukta
|Bhumi Sukta
|Atharva Veda
|Earth is divine and living
|Earth as the common mother of all beings
|-
|6.29-6.30
|
|''Bhagavad Gita''
|The practitioner (yogin) sees Self in all beings and all beings in Self, and that Self is God
|
|-
|13.27-28
|
|''Bhagavad Gita''
|Everything is seen as arising from one imperishable reality
|
|-
|
|Moksha Dharma
|''Mahabharata''
|All beings are manifestations of one Self
|Compassion arises from recognizing that unity, 
harming another is ultimately harming oneself
|-
|
|
|''Yoga Vasistha''
|Universe is one consciousness
|Apparent multiplicity is a manifestation within that [One] consciousness
|-
|
|
|''Brihadaranyaka Upanishad''
|This Upanishad repeatedly teaches that all existence is grounded in one Self
|It also presents the Antaryāmin doctrine, where one indwelling reality permeates all beings and elements
|-
|
|Chapter 6
|''Chandogya Upanishad''
|Teaches that the individual self and the ultimate reality are fundamentally one
|Also uses analogies—such as rivers flowing into the sea—to illustrate underlying unity
|-
|
|
|''Isha Upanishad''
|Seeing all beings in The Self
|
|-
|
|
|''Shvetashvatara Upanishad''
|One Divine Reality pervading everything-—God hidden in all beings, the inner Self of all<ref>''Shvetashvatara Upanishad'' 6.11</ref>
|
|-
|
|
|''Mundaka Upanishad''
|All beings originating from one source (uses metaphors like 'sparks emerging from fire' and 'spokes attached to the hub of a wheel')
|
|
|-
|
|
|''Bhagavata Purana''
|The Divine dwells in all beings
|Service to others is service to God, all life is interconnected through the Supreme
|}

[[Category:Glossary]]

Ātmā

2026-07-08T06:08:23Z

Himanshu Bhatt: added table containing relevant (direct or indirect) statements from hymns or specific verses

By Jit Majumdar

# the self; the soul
# in philosophy, the most essential aspect of [[a]] living being that is considered identical to, and an individual expression of the Supreme [[Divinity]] or Absolute Truth, and shares all the former’s essential and intrinsic attributes such as indestructibility, unchangeability, blissfulness, [[consciousness]], indivisibility, immortality, purity, omnipotence, omniscience and omnipresence.

==Aikatmyam==
The soul is in an aikatmya or interconnectivity with all.

Aikatmyam is the doctrine wherein Hindus identify with everything that exists in the universe.<ref> "''Eka eva dwaita [[darsana]] hina [[atma]] yatra bhavati''"[https://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m12/m12b096.htm#fr_750] </ref> It is the interconnectedness of all. Because of this, it means caretaking of the environment they live in to sustain all life - humans, animals, and plants.

In ''Atharva Veda'', Book 12, it features the magnificent [[Atharva Veda Prithvi Sukta|"Bhumi Sukta" (or "Prithvi Sukta")]][https://sacred-texts.com/hin/av/av12001.htm], which praises the Earth as a living, cosmic entity, detailing its creation, support of humanity, and the interconnectedness of earthly and celestial realms.[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/395083723_Vedic_Bhumi_Sukta_and_International_Norms_A_Comparative_Framework]

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Hymn
! Alias(es)
! Scripture
! Main Principle
! Other Principle(s)
|-
|Purush Sukta
|Yajna Sukta
|Rig Veda
|Cosmic unity—describes all beings and the cosmos as emerging from one Cosmic Person (Purush)
|
|-
|Prithvi Sukta
|Bhumi Sukta
|Atharva Veda
|Earth is divine and living, Earth as the common mother of all beings
|
|-
|6.29-6.30
|
|''Bhagavad Gita''
|The practitioner (yogin) sees Self in all beings and all beings in Self, and that Self is God
|
|-
|13.27-28
|
|''Bhagavad Gita''
|Everything is seen as arising from one imperishable reality
|
|-
|
|Moksha Dharma
|''Mahabharata''
|All beings are manifestations of one Self
|Compassion arises from recognizing that unity, 
harming another is ultimately harming oneself
|-
|
|
|''Yoga Vasistha''
|Universe is one consciousness
|Apparent multiplicity is a manifestation within that [One] consciousness
|-
|
|
|''Brihadaranyaka Upanishad''
|This Upanishad repeatedly teaches that all existence is grounded in one Self
|It also presents the Antaryāmin doctrine, where one indwelling reality permeates all beings and elements
|-
|
|Chapter 6
|''Chandogya Upanishad''
|Teaches that the individual self and the ultimate reality are fundamentally one
|Also uses analogies—such as rivers flowing into the sea—to illustrate underlying unity
|-
|
|
|''Isha Upanishad''
|Seeing all beings in The Self
|
|-
|
|
|''Shvetashvatara Upanishad''
|One Divine Reality pervading everything-—God hidden in all beings, the inner Self of all<ref>''Shvetashvatara Upanishad'' 6.11</ref>
|
|
|-
|
|
|''Mundaka Upanishad''
|All beings originating from one source (uses metaphors like 'sparks emerging from fire' and 'spokes attached to the hub of a wheel')
|
|
|-
|
|
|''Bhagavata Purana''
|The Divine dwells in all beings
|Service to others is service to God, all life is interconnected through the Supreme
|}

[[Category:Glossary]]

Main Page

2026-07-08T05:40:11Z

Himanshu Bhatt:

There are [[Special:Statistics | '''{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}''']] articles on Hindupedia. Now, we are introducing DharmaGPT which is powered by this content.

Hindupedia, the Hindu Encyclopedia, is devoted to educating the public about all aspects of Hinduism ranging from history and philosophy to current events that impact Hindus. We are the only online Hindu encyclopedia that provides the public with a traditional perspective on our religion and way of life.

{| class="cleantable" style="width: 100%;"
|- style="vertical-align: top;"
|width="50%"|
{| width="100%"
|-
||{{mp-topicheader-h3|General Introduction}}
* [[Who is a Hindu?]]
* [[Hindu|Origin of the Name "Hinduism"]]
* [[Overview|Introduction to Sanatan Dharm]]
* [[Sanātan Dharm Principle|Sanatan Dharm Principle]]
* [[Ārya Samudāy|Arya Family of Religions]]
* [[Ideals and Values]]
* [[Conversion]] or [[Śuddhi|Suddhi]] ([[Dīkşā]])
* [[Unique Features]]
* [[Key Beliefs]]
|-
| |{{mp-topicheader-h3|Core Practices}}
*[[Ethics of Hinduism|Ethics]]
**[[Right Worldview]]
**[[Sadachara|Right Conduct]]
**[[Gundosh|Sin and Virtue]]
**[[Kshama and Pashchanutap|Forgiveness and Repentance]]
**[[Tapas|Penance]]
**[[Expiation of Sins]]
**[[Vinaya|Humility]]
**[[Shanti|Peace]]
**[[Animal rights|Animal Rights and Vegetarianism]]
**[[Environmentalism]]
**[[Rta and Spiritual Authority|Divine Will and Authority]]
*[[Means to Liberation|Three Approaches to Salvation]] ([[Yoga Traya|Three Yogas]] and [[Svarga and Naraka|Heaven and Hell]])
**[[Bhakti Marga]] ([[Worship]])
***[[Mantra Marga]] ([[Japa]] or [[Fundamentals of Mantra Sadhana or Practice|Chanting]])
***[[Nirguna Puja|Worship of God Without Icons]]
***[[Murti Puja|Worship of God Through Icons]]
***[[Worship of God as Mother]]
***[[Sangrahan & Kripa|Propitiation & Grace]]
***[[Yajna|Sacrifice]]
**[[Gyana Marga]] ([[Tapas#Tapas as austerities|Austerities]])
***[[Ascetics|Asceticism]]
***[[Monasticism]]
**[[Karma Marga]] ([[Nishkam Karma|Altruism]])
|-
|}
{| width="100%"
|-
| |{{mp-topicheader-h3|Core Concepts}}
*Metaphysical
**[[Darshana|Metaphysical Worldviews]] and [[Cosmogony]]
**[[Theology]]
***[[Divinity]]
***[[Brahm]] ([[God]])
***[[Devata|Demigods]] ([[Deities]])
***Godly Manifesting ([[Avatara|Avatar]])
**Salvation ([[Moksha]])
**Causation ([[Karma]])
***[[Cycle of Birth & Death]] and [[Atma|the Soul]]
***[[Bandha, Bandhana]] and [[Ātma-māyā|Maya]]
*Psychophysical
**[[Devayāna|Devayana]]
**[[Principle of Transcendence]]
**[[Consciousness Studies]]
*Physical
**[[Cosmology]]
**[[Kalakash Samsthan|Time & Space]]
**[[Heliocenteric Theory Of Gravitation]]
|-
|}
{| width="100%"
|-
| |{{mp-topicheader-h3|Individual and Social Life}}
* [[Hindu View of Life]]
* [[Karma in Individual Life]]
* [[Shraddha|Faith]] and [[Dharma|Religion]]
*Lifestyle Customs
**[[Devapujā|Devapuja]]
**[[Dinacharya]]
**[[Snāna|Snāna]]
**[[Upavāsa|Upavāsa]]
**[[Vratas and Utsavas]]
**[[Charan Sparsh]]
**[[Yoga]]
*Festivities
** [[Festivals]]
** [[Soḍaśa-samskāras|Sodasha-samskaras]]
** [[Shraddh]]
** [[Pañcāṅga|Calendar]]
*Stages in Life
** [[Purushartha]]
** [[Varna Ashrama Dharma|Varna Ashrama Dharm]]
* Divination
**[[Jyotisha]] and [[Astrology]]
**Palmistry
**Graphology
**[[Vastu]]
|-
|}
{| width="100%"
|-
| | {{mp-topicheader-h3|Sects}}
* [[Spiritual Traditions]]
* [[Sampradāya|Sampraday]]s
* [[Śanmatas|Shanmatas]]
** [[Ganpatya]]
** [[Kaumara|Kaumar]]
** [[Śaiva|Shaiv]]
** [[Śākta|Shakt]]
** [[Saura]]
** [[Vaiśnava|Vaishnav]]
* [[Folk and Tribal]]
|-
|}
{| width="100%"
|-
| | {{mp-topicheader-h3|Outgrowths of Hinduism}}
{| align="right" border="0" width="400"
|-
|}
*Indian
** [[Bauddh Dharm]]
** [[Yungdrung Bon|Bonpa Dharm]]
** [[Jain Dharm]]
** Zarthushti Dharm
** [[Sikh Dharm]]
*[[The Spread of Hinduism#Iranian Plateau|Iranian]]
**Manicheism
**Mithraic Mysteries
*[[The Spread of Hinduism#Greece|Hellenic]]
**Hermeticism
**Orphism
**Platoism
**Pythagoreanism
|-
|}
{| width="100%"
|-
| | {{mp-topicheader-h3|Comparative Religion}}
* [[Zoroastrianism and Hinduism]]
* [[Daoism and Hinduism]]
* [[Sufism with Vaishnavism]]
|-
|}
{| width="100%"
|-
| | {{mp-topicheader-h3|Interactions with Abrahamic Religions}}
* [[Islam]]
* [[Christianity]]
* [[Judaism]]
|-
|}
||
{| width="100%"
|-
| |<div class="Sagely Quote" ></div>
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<div style="clear: both;"></div>
|-
|}
{| width="100%"
|-
| | {{mp-topicheader-h3|History}}
* [[Origins]]
* [[The Spread of Hinduism]]
* [[Contribution of Hindu Diaspora]]
* [[Shatata-Unnati|Continual Social Adaptability and Improvement]]
* [[The Hindu Renaissances]]
* [[Hindu Mythology Explained]]
* [[Buddhist Patronage by Hindu Monarchs]]
* [[Sanskrit]]
* [[Historical Racial Diversity of Hindus]]
* [[History of Ancient Geography]]
* [[History of Education]]
|-
|}
{| width="100%"
|-
| | {{mp-topicheader-h3|Temples}}
* [[List of UNESCO Hindu World Heritage Sites|UNESCO Hindu World Heritage Sites]]
* [[Temples in Europe]]
* [[Pilgrimages]]
* [[Temples]]
* [[Temple Types]]
* [[Temple Construction]]
|-
|}
{| width="100%"
|-
| | {{mp-topicheader-h3|Institutions}}
* [[Institutions]]
* [[Hindu Post-Secondary Institutes]]
*[[Gurukula Vyavastha]]
* [[Spiritual Digital Media]]
* [[Organizations]]
* [[Hindu-Inspired Organizations]]
|-
|}
{| width="100%"
|-
| | {{mp-topicheader-h3|Scriptures and Textbooks}}
* [[Overview Of Scriptures]]
* [[Veda]]
* [[Upanishad]]
* [[Smriti]]
* [[Agama|Agama & Tantra]]
* [[Upanga]]
* [[Vedanga]]
* [[Dharmaśāstras]]
* [[Itihasa]]
* [[Stotra]]
*[[Ideals and Values|Textbook for Children]]
*[[Hinduism in California Textbooks]]
|-
|}
{| width="100%"
|-
| | {{mp-topicheader-h3|People}}
* [[Women]]
* [[Sants|Saints]]
* [[Sants|Ascetics]]
* [[Sants|Great Sages]]
* [[Revolutionaries]]
* [[Hindu World War Warriors]]
|-
|}
{| width="100%"
|-
| | {{mp-topicheader-h3|Politics}}
* [[Rulership in Hinduism]]
* [[Political Philosophy]]
* [[Political History]]
* [[Martial History]]
* [[Kingdoms]]
* [[Kingdoms: Restoration of Hindu Rulership]]
* [[Indian Freedom Fighters]]
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|-
|}
{| width="100%"
|-
| | {{mp-topicheader-h3|Arts}}
* [[Arts]]
* [[Philosophy of Indian Art and Texts]]
* [[Symbols]]
* [[Dance]]
* [[Music]]
* [[Sculpture]]
* [[Poetry]]
|-
|}
{| width="100%"
|-
| | {{mp-topicheader-h3|Civilization}}
* [[Agriculture]]
* [[House]]
* [[Town Planning]]
* [[Social Structure]]
**[[Theory of Collectivism]]
** [[Theory of Varna]]
* [[Politics and Governance]]
* [[Economy]]
* [[Trade and Shipping]]
* [[Sports and Games]]
|-
|}
{| width="100%"
|-
| | {{mp-topicheader-h3|Sciences}}
* [[Sanatan Dharm a Religion or Science]]
* [[Philosophy of Indian Science and Texts]]
* [[Metallurgy]]
* [[Mathematics]]
**[[Mathematics of the Vedas]]
* [[Astronomy]]
* [[Cosmology]]
* [[Physical Sciences]]
* [[Engineering and Technology]]
*Homeopathy
**[[Ayurveda]] and [[History of Ayurveda]]
**Siddha Medicine
|-
|}
{| width="100%"
|-
| | {{mp-topicheader-h3|Physical Knowledge}}
*[[Yoga]]
**[[History of Yoga]]
*Martial Arts
**[[Kalaripayattu]]
|-
|}
{| width="100%"
|-
| | {{mp-topicheader-h3|Hindupedia's Semantics and Index}}
* [[:Category:Glossary|Glossary]]
* [[:Category:Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism|Articles from Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism by Swami Harshananda]]
* [[:Category:Shabdakalpadrumah|Translated entries from the Shabdakalpadrumah]]
* [[Special:AllPages|Article Index]]
* [[Pronunciation Guide]]
|-
|}

__NOTOC__
__NONSFOOTER__
__NOFOOTER__
__NOAUTOLINKS__

Main Page

2026-07-08T05:38:13Z

Himanshu Bhatt:

There are [[Special:Statistics | '''{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}''']] articles on Hindupedia. Now, we are introducing DharmaGPT which is powered by this content.

Hindupedia, the Hindu Encyclopedia, is devoted to educating the public about all aspects of Hinduism ranging from history and philosophy to current events that impact Hindus. We are the only online Hindu encyclopedia that provides the public with a traditional perspective on our religion and way of life.

{| class="cleantable" style="width: 100%;"
|- style="vertical-align: top;"
|width="50%"|
{| width="100%"
|-
||{{mp-topicheader-h3|General Introduction}}
* [[Who is a Hindu?]]
* [[Hindu|Origin of the Name "Hinduism"]]
* [[Overview|Introduction to Sanatan Dharm]]
* [[Sanātan Dharm Principle|Sanatan Dharm Principle]]
* [[Ārya Samudāy|Arya Family of Religions]]
* [[Ideals and Values]]
* [[Conversion]] or [[Śuddhi|Suddhi]]
* [[Unique Features]]
* [[Key Beliefs]]
|-
| |{{mp-topicheader-h3|Core Practices}}
*[[Ethics of Hinduism|Ethics]]
**[[Right Worldview]]
**[[Sadachara|Right Conduct]]
**[[Gundosh|Sin and Virtue]]
**[[Kshama and Pashchanutap|Forgiveness and Repentance]]
**[[Tapas|Penance]]
**[[Expiation of Sins]]
**[[Vinaya|Humility]]
**[[Shanti|Peace]]
**[[Animal rights|Animal Rights and Vegetarianism]]
**[[Environmentalism]]
**[[Rta and Spiritual Authority|Divine Will and Authority]]
*[[Means to Liberation|Three Approaches to Salvation]] ([[Yoga Traya|Three Yogas]] and [[Svarga and Naraka|Heaven and Hell]])
**[[Bhakti Marga]] ([[Worship]])
***[[Mantra Marga]] ([[Japa]] or [[Fundamentals of Mantra Sadhana or Practice|Chanting]])
***[[Nirguna Puja|Worship of God Without Icons]]
***[[Murti Puja|Worship of God Through Icons]]
***[[Worship of God as Mother]]
***[[Sangrahan & Kripa|Propitiation & Grace]]
***[[Yajna|Sacrifice]]
**[[Gyana Marga]] ([[Tapas#Tapas as austerities|Austerities]])
***[[Ascetics|Asceticism]]
***[[Monasticism]]
**[[Karma Marga]] ([[Nishkam Karma|Altruism]])
|-
|}
{| width="100%"
|-
| |{{mp-topicheader-h3|Core Concepts}}
*Metaphysical
**[[Darshana|Metaphysical Worldviews]] and [[Cosmogony]]
**[[Theology]]
***[[Divinity]]
***[[Brahm]] ([[God]])
***[[Devata|Demigods]] ([[Deities]])
***Godly Manifesting ([[Avatara|Avatar]])
**Salvation ([[Moksha]])
**Causation ([[Karma]])
***[[Cycle of Birth & Death]] and [[Atma|the Soul]]
***[[Bandha, Bandhana]] and [[Ātma-māyā|Maya]]
*Psychophysical
**[[Devayāna|Devayana]]
**[[Principle of Transcendence]]
**[[Consciousness Studies]]
*Physical
**[[Cosmology]]
**[[Kalakash Samsthan|Time & Space]]
**[[Heliocenteric Theory Of Gravitation]]
|-
|}
{| width="100%"
|-
| |{{mp-topicheader-h3|Individual and Social Life}}
* [[Hindu View of Life]]
* [[Karma in Individual Life]]
* [[Shraddha|Faith]] and [[Dharma|Religion]]
*Lifestyle Customs
**[[Devapujā|Devapuja]]
**[[Dinacharya]]
**[[Snāna|Snāna]]
**[[Upavāsa|Upavāsa]]
**[[Vratas and Utsavas]]
**[[Charan Sparsh]]
**[[Yoga]]
*Festivities
** [[Festivals]]
** [[Soḍaśa-samskāras|Sodasha-samskaras]]
** [[Shraddh]]
** [[Pañcāṅga|Calendar]]
*Stages in Life
** [[Purushartha]]
** [[Varna Ashrama Dharma|Varna Ashrama Dharm]]
* Divination
**[[Jyotisha]] and [[Astrology]]
**Palmistry
**Graphology
**[[Vastu]]
|-
|}
{| width="100%"
|-
| | {{mp-topicheader-h3|Sects}}
* [[Spiritual Traditions]]
* [[Sampradāya|Sampraday]]s
* [[Śanmatas|Shanmatas]]
** [[Ganpatya]]
** [[Kaumara|Kaumar]]
** [[Śaiva|Shaiv]]
** [[Śākta|Shakt]]
** [[Saura]]
** [[Vaiśnava|Vaishnav]]
* [[Folk and Tribal]]
|-
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{| width="100%"
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| | {{mp-topicheader-h3|Outgrowths of Hinduism}}
{| align="right" border="0" width="400"
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*Indian
** [[Bauddh Dharm]]
** [[Yungdrung Bon|Bonpa Dharm]]
** [[Jain Dharm]]
** Zarthushti Dharm
** [[Sikh Dharm]]
*[[The Spread of Hinduism#Iranian Plateau|Iranian]]
**Manicheism
**Mithraic Mysteries
*[[The Spread of Hinduism#Greece|Hellenic]]
**Hermeticism
**Orphism
**Platoism
**Pythagoreanism
|-
|}
{| width="100%"
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| | {{mp-topicheader-h3|Comparative Religion}}
* [[Zoroastrianism and Hinduism]]
* [[Daoism and Hinduism]]
* [[Sufism with Vaishnavism]]
|-
|}
{| width="100%"
|-
| | {{mp-topicheader-h3|Interactions with Abrahamic Religions}}
* [[Islam]]
* [[Christianity]]
* [[Judaism]]
|-
|}
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{| width="100%"
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| |<div class="Sagely Quote" ></div>
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<div style="clear: both;"></div>
|-
|}
{| width="100%"
|-
| | {{mp-topicheader-h3|History}}
* [[Origins]]
* [[The Spread of Hinduism]]
* [[Contribution of Hindu Diaspora]]
* [[Shatata-Unnati|Continual Social Adaptability and Improvement]]
* [[The Hindu Renaissances]]
* [[Hindu Mythology Explained]]
* [[Buddhist Patronage by Hindu Monarchs]]
* [[Sanskrit]]
* [[Historical Racial Diversity of Hindus]]
* [[History of Ancient Geography]]
* [[History of Education]]
|-
|}
{| width="100%"
|-
| | {{mp-topicheader-h3|Temples}}
* [[List of UNESCO Hindu World Heritage Sites|UNESCO Hindu World Heritage Sites]]
* [[Temples in Europe]]
* [[Pilgrimages]]
* [[Temples]]
* [[Temple Types]]
* [[Temple Construction]]
|-
|}
{| width="100%"
|-
| | {{mp-topicheader-h3|Institutions}}
* [[Institutions]]
* [[Hindu Post-Secondary Institutes]]
*[[Gurukula Vyavastha]]
* [[Spiritual Digital Media]]
* [[Organizations]]
* [[Hindu-Inspired Organizations]]
|-
|}
{| width="100%"
|-
| | {{mp-topicheader-h3|Scriptures and Textbooks}}
* [[Overview Of Scriptures]]
* [[Veda]]
* [[Upanishad]]
* [[Smriti]]
* [[Agama|Agama & Tantra]]
* [[Upanga]]
* [[Vedanga]]
* [[Dharmaśāstras]]
* [[Itihasa]]
* [[Stotra]]
*[[Ideals and Values|Textbook for Children]]
*[[Hinduism in California Textbooks]]
|-
|}
{| width="100%"
|-
| | {{mp-topicheader-h3|People}}
* [[Women]]
* [[Sants|Saints]]
* [[Sants|Ascetics]]
* [[Sants|Great Sages]]
* [[Revolutionaries]]
* [[Hindu World War Warriors]]
|-
|}
{| width="100%"
|-
| | {{mp-topicheader-h3|Politics}}
* [[Rulership in Hinduism]]
* [[Political Philosophy]]
* [[Political History]]
* [[Martial History]]
* [[Kingdoms]]
* [[Kingdoms: Restoration of Hindu Rulership]]
* [[Indian Freedom Fighters]]
* [[Hindu Political Parties]]
* [[Concept of Motherland]]
* [[Patriotism]]
|-
|}
{| width="100%"
|-
| | {{mp-topicheader-h3|Arts}}
* [[Arts]]
* [[Philosophy of Indian Art and Texts]]
* [[Symbols]]
* [[Dance]]
* [[Music]]
* [[Sculpture]]
* [[Poetry]]
|-
|}
{| width="100%"
|-
| | {{mp-topicheader-h3|Civilization}}
* [[Agriculture]]
* [[House]]
* [[Town Planning]]
* [[Social Structure]]
**[[Theory of Collectivism]]
** [[Theory of Varna]]
* [[Politics and Governance]]
* [[Economy]]
* [[Trade and Shipping]]
* [[Sports and Games]]
|-
|}
{| width="100%"
|-
| | {{mp-topicheader-h3|Sciences}}
* [[Sanatan Dharm a Religion or Science]]
* [[Philosophy of Indian Science and Texts]]
* [[Metallurgy]]
* [[Mathematics]]
**[[Mathematics of the Vedas]]
* [[Astronomy]]
* [[Cosmology]]
* [[Physical Sciences]]
* [[Engineering and Technology]]
*Homeopathy
**[[Ayurveda]] and [[History of Ayurveda]]
**Siddha Medicine
|-
|}
{| width="100%"
|-
| | {{mp-topicheader-h3|Physical Knowledge}}
*[[Yoga]]
**[[History of Yoga]]
*Martial Arts
**[[Kalaripayattu]]
|-
|}
{| width="100%"
|-
| | {{mp-topicheader-h3|Hindupedia's Semantics and Index}}
* [[:Category:Glossary|Glossary]]
* [[:Category:Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism|Articles from Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism by Swami Harshananda]]
* [[:Category:Shabdakalpadrumah|Translated entries from the Shabdakalpadrumah]]
* [[Special:AllPages|Article Index]]
* [[Pronunciation Guide]]
|-
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Environmentalism

2026-07-08T05:24:50Z

Himanshu Bhatt: /* Aikatmyam */ added internal and external references

{{Author|Himanshu Bhatt}}
The ecology of the world has been considered sacred to Hindus because plans are living beings, and hence, children of the earth albeit not sentient. As a consequence, plants have been implemented in [[worship]] and ceremonies. Specific communities, such as Bishnois, Bhils, and Swadhyayis, have a close connection with the ecosphere and treat it as a part of their spirituality to protect the environment. For example, Swadhyayis have built Vrikshamandiras (tree [[temples]]) and Nirmal Nirs (water-harvesting sites.) Scriptures too have promoted environmentalism. The ''Varaha [[Purana]]'' says that one who plants five mango trees does not go to hell, and the ''[[Vishnu]] Dharmottara''<ref> ''Vishnu Dharmottara'' 3.297.13 </ref> claims that one who plants a tree will not fall into hell. The ''Matsya Purana'' describes "''The Festival of Trees''" wherein participants plants trees. Also in the ''Matsya Purana''<ref> ''Matsya Purana'' 154.506-512 </ref> Parvati is asked what she achieves by "''creating and rearing trees like sons,''" to which Parvati replied that humans who do so as well will receive heavenly rewards, and that through her environmental mission she will "''protect the universe to safeguard it...''" Kautilya's ''Arthashastra'' prescribes varying levels of fines for people who destroy trees, groves, and forests. That the ecology played a significant role in their compilation can be seen even in some of the titles of texts. For example, the Aranyanakas (''Belonging to the wilderness'') and Upanishads (''Up-down-sitting,'' referring to gurus and their pupils seated in their forest ashram.)
<blockquote>
"Hinduism comes closest to being a nature religion. Rivers, rocks, trees, plants, animals, and birds all play their part, both in mythology and everyday worship. This harmony is most evident in remote places like this, and I hope it does not lose its unique character in the ruthless urban advance." - Ruskin Bond
</blockquote>
It has been common for many communities to implement sustainable development when constructing a temple. Almost every temple in southern India dedicated to Shakti, [[Shiva]], or Vishnu have a sthala vriksha ("''tree of a [sacred] place"''), which was the tree sacred to that area whereupon the temple's construction happened.<ref> P. 770 ''Encyclopedia of Religion and Nature'' By Bron Taylor </ref> Some of the temples' ceremonies also involve their trees, such as circumambulation around the trees. Tirumala Tirupati temple has a billboard which reads, "''Vriksho rakshati rakshatah''," meaning "''Trees protect us - protect them''." Some spiritual leaders like Veer [[Bhadra]] Mishra and Sathya [[Sai Baba]] have used the World Wildlife Fund towards cleaning up the natural environment.

Eco-friendly symbolisms can be seen in [[Hindu]] architecture, artwork, and even dances. Ecofeminist Mallika Sarabhai, a participant of the Chipko Andolan, sees environmental echos within the Bharat Natyam [[dance]], which she is a professional performer of. She communicates the message of trees protecting rural [[women]] through her dance performances.

Plants have been utilized not only in ceremonies but also for medicinal purposes. [[Ayur Veda|Ayurvedic homeopathy]] implementing plants towards providing medicine is known as ''vrikshayurveda'' and plant science in general is known as ''Vanaspati Vidya''.
 
{{Cquote|You (The Supreme God) are the dark blue butterfly, and the green parrot with red eyes. You are the thundercloud, the seasons and the oceans.|4=Shvetashvatara Upanishad 4.4}}

==Ishavasyam==
The presence of [[Brahm]] or God Almighty is seen everywhere (making [[Theology#Immanency and Transcendence of God (Panentheism)|Hinduism panentheistic]]), and this can be seen in shastras like the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]''<ref> [https://vedabase.io/en/library/bg/6/30/ Bhagavad Gita 6.30] </ref>, ''[[Bhagavata Purana]]''<ref> [https://vedabase.io/en/library/sb/11/2/45/ Bhagavata Purana 11.2.45] </ref>, and ''[[Brahma Samhita]]''<ref> [[Brahma]] Samhita 5.38 </ref>. This principle is ''Ishavasyam'' and it helps humans identify God Almighty within ([[Antaryamin]].) It is an important principle because it refers to the omnipresence of Brahm, meaning it would exist everywhere, within living and non-living objects, and so all living things in particular have value.

==Aikatmyam==
Aikatmyam is the doctrine wherein Hindus identify with everything that exists in the universe.<ref> "''Eka eva dwaita [[darsana]] hina [[atma]] yatra bhavati''"[https://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m12/m12b096.htm#fr_750] </ref> It is the interconnectedness of all. Because of this, it means caretaking of the environment they live in to sustain all life - humans, animals, and plants.

In ''Atharva Veda'', Book 12, it features the magnificent [[Atharva Veda Prithvi Sukta|"Bhumi Sukta" (or "Prithvi Sukta")]][https://sacred-texts.com/hin/av/av12001.htm], which praises the Earth as a living, cosmic entity, detailing its creation, support of humanity, and the interconnectedness of earthly and celestial realms.[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/395083723_Vedic_Bhumi_Sukta_and_International_Norms_A_Comparative_Framework]

==Loksangraha==
The doctrine of loksangraha (''welfare of the world'') proposes that humans be the caretakers of the planet and its creatures - treating them well is good karma (resulting in merit), while treating them poorly is bad karma (resulting in sin.) The related doctrine of trikarana suddhi (pure thoughts, words, deeds) also applies to both sentient and non-sentient living beings. The [[Ahimsa Paramo Dharma|Vow of Ahimsa]] applies to plants too, and outright killing of plants is forbidden because it kills the life of the plant, who is sacred in its own right, and because a provides sustenance for humans and animals.
 
{{Cquote|Peace be to Earth and to airy spaces! Peace to the heaven, peace to the waters, peace to the plants, and peace to the trees!|4=Atharva Veda 19.9.14}}
 
<blockquote>
"But do the many Hindu philosophies and communities value nature and privilege the existence of plants, trees, water? Although the short answer is yes, Hindus have answered this question in many different ways that have been documented in excellent texts. Plants and trees are valued so highly in Hindu sacred texts that their destruction is connected with doomsday scenarios." - Mary Evelyn Tucker<ref> P. 180 ''Religion and Ecology: Can the Climate Change?'' By Mary Evelyn Tucker</ref>
</blockquote>
[[image:Sarla Behn.jpg|thumb|200px|Sarla Behn was a disciple of Mahatma Gandhi]]
Sarla Behn (born Catherine Mary Heilman), a Swiss woman who became Mahatma Gandhi's disciple in India, was one of the main organizers of the Chipko Andolan (''Hug the Tree Movement'') in India. She had used verses from the ''[[Bhagavata Purana]]'' wherein [[Krishna]] mentions his deep admiration for Vrindavan forest. Participants of the movement had tied rakhis on trees and sung verses from the ''[[Bhagavata]] Purana''.<ref> P. 10 ''[[Dharma]] and Ecology of Hindu Communities
Sustenance and Sustainability'' By Pankaj Jain </ref> She helped create awareness of the environment in India. She stood against massive deforestation operations and was successful. Her organization was the Parvatiya Paryavaran Samrakshan [[Samiti]] (''Mountain Environment Protection Committee'') Dharamghar in Uttarakhand, which is become the environmentalist capital of India. She also initiated the Vyapak Lok Shikshan (Comprehensive Public Education) program to educate the public in India about helping the environment. She also wrote the ''Sanrakshan Ya Vinash'' (''Conservation or Destruction'') and ''Revive Our Dying Planet''.
 
{{Cquote|The Earth is my mother and I am her child!|4=Atharva Veda 12.1.12}}
 
[[image:Vandana Shiva.jpg|thumb|200px|Vandana Shiva is an environmental activist, eco-feminist, and scholar who has authored over 20 books and 500 essays]]
Vandana Shiva is a part of the Women's Environment & Development Organization and created the [[Bija]] Vidyapeeth college for sustainable living.
 
{{Cquote|Ether, air, fire, water, earth, planets, all creatures, directions, trees and plants, rivers and seas, they are all organs of God’s body. Remembering this a devotee respects all species.|4=Srimad Bhagavatam 11.2.41}}
 
T.T. Devasthanam (the organization of the temple) had began the Shri Venkateswara Vanabhivriddhi Schemes in 1981 wherein a donation made to the temple is used for purchasing and planting trees and plants. The donor is in turn given recognition by being granted a special darshan (viewing of the idol in the temple's inner sanctum.) Over 2,500,000 trees are said to have been planted on the hills and plains as a result of this program.

In 1991 a group of Hindus took action to address the environmental hardships such as its deforestation and pollution, and together with community involvement and a grant from the World Wide Fund (WWF) they organized a program to start restoring the land for Krishna.<ref> P. 378 ''Contemporary Hinduism: Ritual, Culture, and Practice'' By Robert Rinehart and Robin Rinehart </ref>

Some notable environmentalist other than the ones mentioned include, D.V. Shridharan, a writer for ''Indic Academy'', and professor Vijaya Nagarajan who writes and lectures students on Hinduism within the Religious Students department and the environment within the Environmental Studies department at University of San Francisco.

Some major environmental initiatives have begun, started by Hindu activists. Sanrakahan is one such initiative, begun by [[Divya]] Jyoti Jagrati Sansthan (whose founder is Sri Ashutosh Maharaj.) Isha Outreach, Isha Based, and Project GreenHands are another, begun by Isha Foundation. Ayudh India and Amrita SeRVe is another, begun by Mata Amritanandamayi Math.

Communities and temples have also been established, which are eco-friendly. Govardhan Eco Village is an [[Vaishnava]] eco-friendly village. Sadhana Forest is an eco-friendly utopia within Auroville (the township founded by The Mother of Sri [[Aurobindo]] Ashram.) Badrikashram in another eco-farming utopia, located in Rajpura Town, Punjab.[https://badrikashram.com/about/] One of Europe's largest sustainable and eco-friendly villages is the Krishna Valley in Hungary. ISKCON’s Alachua Temple hosts its Eco Farm Fall Festival to make visitors more ecologically conscious. Yash Bhatt and Arjun Thakkar in Gujarat have developed a way to turn flowers (i.e., offered in puja) into organic manure to enrich gardens. Swami Narayan Temple in Kingsbury, U.K. is world's largest eco-friendly worship hall. Plans for an eco-friendly £10M temple in Northampton, U.K. have been approved. Gangadhareshwara Shiva Temple in Bengaluru reuses milk offered as propitiation and is turned into butter milk for temple visitors. Shivalaya-Dwadash Jyotirling Dham in Sadar reuses offerings made to the Shivlings by containing the milk offered to be able to perpetually use it with a visitor's the push of a button. Parleshwar and Mahalakshmi temples in Mumbai collect and convert offerings into compost, which is fed to 150 trees in vicinities of the temples every month. Kundam festival of Sri Bannari Amman Temple in Bannari promotes eco-tourism, as do the Sidheswar Temple of Athamallik and Nanda Devi Temple of Munsyari, and the Agung Mountain and the Besakih, Tanah Lot, and Uluwatu temples of Indonesia. The Deogar airport terminal building and runways are being designed with inspiration from the eco-friendly Shikhars of the Baidyanath Temple.

Sugathakumari [the daughter of Hindu revivalist Bodheswarananda and a her mother was a Sanskrit teacher] had spent 3 years at university researching 'Comparative Study of the Concept of [[Moksha]] in Indian [[Schools of Philosophy]]' [but didn't finish this thesis.] She is an eco-feminist and has participated in a number of environmentalist missions. For example, she was a prominent figure in the Save Silent Valley protest.

==Divine Nature==
<blockquote>
“The one who plants trees, knowing that he will never sit in their shade, has at least started to understand the meaning of life.” — Rabindranath Tagore
</blockquote>
The nature of God is such that God is nature, and more. The Supreme utilizes nature in particular.

'Physitheism' is the theological definition of venerating the natural environment.

==Monasticism==
<blockquote>
"The culture of the forest has fueled the culture of Indian society. The culture that has arisen from the forest has been influenced by the diverse processes from renewal of life which are always at play in the forest, varying from species to species, from season to season, in sight and [[sound]] and smell. The unifying principle of life in diversity, of democratic pluralism, thus became the principle of Indian civilization." - Rabindranath Tagore
</blockquote>
[[Monasticism]] or [[Gyana Marga]], which is not a requirement for Hindus to attain Moksh, has been practiced to give more focus to Brahm or to expiate all karmas (sin), which are defilements to the soul. [[Ascetics]] have historically taken sanctuary in forests, which is which the Vanaprastha (''Forest-dweller'') stage of life, the Hindu practices asceticism in the forest. A large number of monks, while they lived within a monastic community in the forests, did not even have monasteries (maths.) It was very common for Buddhist monks to have monasteries, but in the case of Sanatan ascetics, it was not the norm.

Monasticism is not as common in the modern era because the tradition was banned under Islamist rule and ascetics were executed. Also, with the technological progress of society, possessions have become greater attachments for people, and asceticism seems more impractical. Ascetics do exist, but usually in monasteries that are within cities or towns.

==Related Articles==
*[[Ideals and Values/Environmental Awareness]]
*[[Animal rights|Animal rights and Vegetarianism]]
*[[Ethics of Hinduism]]
*[[Sanātan Dharma Principle]]
*[[Samyag Darshan|Right Worldview]]
*[[Sadachara|Right Conduct]]
*[[Karma Marga]]

==External Resources==
;Articles
*[https://www.bhaktivedantamanor.co.uk/home/?tag=climate-change "Could Diwali now be the festival of ‘solar lights’?"] By Gopal Patel (Published: Tuesday, November 22, 2016)
*[https://www.downtoearth.org.in/blog/environment/gandhi-at-150-green-movements-have-gandhian-streak-67038 “Gandhi at 150: Green movements have Gandhian streak” ]By John S. Moolakkattu (Published: Tuesday, October 01, 2019)
*[https://ethnobiology.org/ethno-ecology-bishnois-and-swadhyayis "Ethno-ecology of Bishnois and Swadhyayis"] By Dr. Pankaj Jain, Ph.D
*[https://www.psychiatrictimes.com/view/climate-change-and-hinduism "Climate Change and Hinduism"] By Nyapati R. Rao, MD, MS, DLFAPA (Published: April 20, 2021)
*[https://swarajyamag.com/magazine/the-connected-cosmos "The Connected Cosmos"] By Sumedha Verma Ojha (Published: Mar 9, 2018)
*[https://www.bvashram.org/update-building-rooms-sadhus-forests-odisha/ "Update on Building Rooms for Sadhus in the Forests of Odisha"] By Jahnava Nitai Das (Published: Dec 21, 2016)
*[https://www.indiadivine.org/trees-beautiful-gift-nature/ "Trees – A Beautiful Gift of Nature"] By Adarsh M. Kalla (Published November 6, 2017)
*[https://fore.yale.edu/files/jainism.pdf#:~:text=Chapple%20shows%20a%20distinctly%20South%20Asian%20environmental%20rhetoric,of%20modernization%20on%20traditional%20Indian%20culture%20and%20civilization. "Jainism and Ecology Bibliography"] By Christopher Key Chapple
*[https://www.ekumaon.com/2020/02/hari-narayan-das-dedicated-to.html “Hari Narayan Das dedicated to Environmental Protection - पर्यावरण संरक्षण को समर्पित हरी नारायण दास।” By eKumaon] (Published February 12, 2020)
*[https://youtu.be/h00vg0HBZ6w “India’s original eco-warriors: Meet the Bishnoi community who won’t cut down living trees“]
;[[Organizations]] and Initiatives
*[http://www.hinduclimatedeclaration2015.org/english Hindu Declaration on Climate Change]
*[https://news.yale.edu/2019/02/15/hindu-climate-activists-take-lead-combating-climate-change Hindu Earth Ethics and Climate Action]
*[https://www.hinduclimateaction.org/ Hindu Climate Action] - a service project of the Oxford Centre for Hindu Studies
*[https://eco.brahmakumaris.org/the-bhumi-project/ The Bhumi Project] - A collaboration between the Oxford Centre for Hindu Studies and Brahma Kumaris World Spiritual University
*[https://eco.brahmakumaris.org/ Brahma Kumaris Environment Initiative]
*[https://vrikshamandir.com/ Vrikshamandir]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Ethical ideals]]
[[Category:Core concepts]]

Environmentalism

2026-07-08T05:20:46Z

Himanshu Bhatt: /* Aikatmyam */

{{Author|Himanshu Bhatt}}
The ecology of the world has been considered sacred to Hindus because plans are living beings, and hence, children of the earth albeit not sentient. As a consequence, plants have been implemented in [[worship]] and ceremonies. Specific communities, such as Bishnois, Bhils, and Swadhyayis, have a close connection with the ecosphere and treat it as a part of their spirituality to protect the environment. For example, Swadhyayis have built Vrikshamandiras (tree [[temples]]) and Nirmal Nirs (water-harvesting sites.) Scriptures too have promoted environmentalism. The ''Varaha [[Purana]]'' says that one who plants five mango trees does not go to hell, and the ''[[Vishnu]] Dharmottara''<ref> ''Vishnu Dharmottara'' 3.297.13 </ref> claims that one who plants a tree will not fall into hell. The ''Matsya Purana'' describes "''The Festival of Trees''" wherein participants plants trees. Also in the ''Matsya Purana''<ref> ''Matsya Purana'' 154.506-512 </ref> Parvati is asked what she achieves by "''creating and rearing trees like sons,''" to which Parvati replied that humans who do so as well will receive heavenly rewards, and that through her environmental mission she will "''protect the universe to safeguard it...''" Kautilya's ''Arthashastra'' prescribes varying levels of fines for people who destroy trees, groves, and forests. That the ecology played a significant role in their compilation can be seen even in some of the titles of texts. For example, the Aranyanakas (''Belonging to the wilderness'') and Upanishads (''Up-down-sitting,'' referring to gurus and their pupils seated in their forest ashram.)
<blockquote>
"Hinduism comes closest to being a nature religion. Rivers, rocks, trees, plants, animals, and birds all play their part, both in mythology and everyday worship. This harmony is most evident in remote places like this, and I hope it does not lose its unique character in the ruthless urban advance." - Ruskin Bond
</blockquote>
It has been common for many communities to implement sustainable development when constructing a temple. Almost every temple in southern India dedicated to Shakti, [[Shiva]], or Vishnu have a sthala vriksha ("''tree of a [sacred] place"''), which was the tree sacred to that area whereupon the temple's construction happened.<ref> P. 770 ''Encyclopedia of Religion and Nature'' By Bron Taylor </ref> Some of the temples' ceremonies also involve their trees, such as circumambulation around the trees. Tirumala Tirupati temple has a billboard which reads, "''Vriksho rakshati rakshatah''," meaning "''Trees protect us - protect them''." Some spiritual leaders like Veer [[Bhadra]] Mishra and Sathya [[Sai Baba]] have used the World Wildlife Fund towards cleaning up the natural environment.

Eco-friendly symbolisms can be seen in [[Hindu]] architecture, artwork, and even dances. Ecofeminist Mallika Sarabhai, a participant of the Chipko Andolan, sees environmental echos within the Bharat Natyam [[dance]], which she is a professional performer of. She communicates the message of trees protecting rural [[women]] through her dance performances.

Plants have been utilized not only in ceremonies but also for medicinal purposes. [[Ayur Veda|Ayurvedic homeopathy]] implementing plants towards providing medicine is known as ''vrikshayurveda'' and plant science in general is known as ''Vanaspati Vidya''.
 
{{Cquote|You (The Supreme God) are the dark blue butterfly, and the green parrot with red eyes. You are the thundercloud, the seasons and the oceans.|4=Shvetashvatara Upanishad 4.4}}

==Ishavasyam==
The presence of [[Brahm]] or God Almighty is seen everywhere (making [[Theology#Immanency and Transcendence of God (Panentheism)|Hinduism panentheistic]]), and this can be seen in shastras like the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]''<ref> [https://vedabase.io/en/library/bg/6/30/ Bhagavad Gita 6.30] </ref>, ''[[Bhagavata Purana]]''<ref> [https://vedabase.io/en/library/sb/11/2/45/ Bhagavata Purana 11.2.45] </ref>, and ''[[Brahma Samhita]]''<ref> [[Brahma]] Samhita 5.38 </ref>. This principle is ''Ishavasyam'' and it helps humans identify God Almighty within ([[Antaryamin]].) It is an important principle because it refers to the omnipresence of Brahm, meaning it would exist everywhere, within living and non-living objects, and so all living things in particular have value.

==Aikatmyam==
Aikatmyam is the doctrine wherein Hindus identify with everything that exists in the universe.<ref> "''Eka eva dwaita [[darsana]] hina [[atma]] yatra bhavati''"[https://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m12/m12b096.htm#fr_750] </ref> It is the interconnectedness of all. Because of this, it means caretaking of the environment they live in to sustain all life - humans, animals, and plants.

In ''Atharva Veda'', Book 12, it features the magnificent "Bhumi Sukta" (or "Prithvi Sukta"), which praises the Earth as a living, cosmic entity, detailing its creation, support of humanity, and the interconnectedness of earthly and celestial realms.

==Loksangraha==
The doctrine of loksangraha (''welfare of the world'') proposes that humans be the caretakers of the planet and its creatures - treating them well is good karma (resulting in merit), while treating them poorly is bad karma (resulting in sin.) The related doctrine of trikarana suddhi (pure thoughts, words, deeds) also applies to both sentient and non-sentient living beings. The [[Ahimsa Paramo Dharma|Vow of Ahimsa]] applies to plants too, and outright killing of plants is forbidden because it kills the life of the plant, who is sacred in its own right, and because a provides sustenance for humans and animals.
 
{{Cquote|Peace be to Earth and to airy spaces! Peace to the heaven, peace to the waters, peace to the plants, and peace to the trees!|4=Atharva Veda 19.9.14}}
 
<blockquote>
"But do the many Hindu philosophies and communities value nature and privilege the existence of plants, trees, water? Although the short answer is yes, Hindus have answered this question in many different ways that have been documented in excellent texts. Plants and trees are valued so highly in Hindu sacred texts that their destruction is connected with doomsday scenarios." - Mary Evelyn Tucker<ref> P. 180 ''Religion and Ecology: Can the Climate Change?'' By Mary Evelyn Tucker</ref>
</blockquote>
[[image:Sarla Behn.jpg|thumb|200px|Sarla Behn was a disciple of Mahatma Gandhi]]
Sarla Behn (born Catherine Mary Heilman), a Swiss woman who became Mahatma Gandhi's disciple in India, was one of the main organizers of the Chipko Andolan (''Hug the Tree Movement'') in India. She had used verses from the ''[[Bhagavata Purana]]'' wherein [[Krishna]] mentions his deep admiration for Vrindavan forest. Participants of the movement had tied rakhis on trees and sung verses from the ''[[Bhagavata]] Purana''.<ref> P. 10 ''[[Dharma]] and Ecology of Hindu Communities
Sustenance and Sustainability'' By Pankaj Jain </ref> She helped create awareness of the environment in India. She stood against massive deforestation operations and was successful. Her organization was the Parvatiya Paryavaran Samrakshan [[Samiti]] (''Mountain Environment Protection Committee'') Dharamghar in Uttarakhand, which is become the environmentalist capital of India. She also initiated the Vyapak Lok Shikshan (Comprehensive Public Education) program to educate the public in India about helping the environment. She also wrote the ''Sanrakshan Ya Vinash'' (''Conservation or Destruction'') and ''Revive Our Dying Planet''.
 
{{Cquote|The Earth is my mother and I am her child!|4=Atharva Veda 12.1.12}}
 
[[image:Vandana Shiva.jpg|thumb|200px|Vandana Shiva is an environmental activist, eco-feminist, and scholar who has authored over 20 books and 500 essays]]
Vandana Shiva is a part of the Women's Environment & Development Organization and created the [[Bija]] Vidyapeeth college for sustainable living.
 
{{Cquote|Ether, air, fire, water, earth, planets, all creatures, directions, trees and plants, rivers and seas, they are all organs of God’s body. Remembering this a devotee respects all species.|4=Srimad Bhagavatam 11.2.41}}
 
T.T. Devasthanam (the organization of the temple) had began the Shri Venkateswara Vanabhivriddhi Schemes in 1981 wherein a donation made to the temple is used for purchasing and planting trees and plants. The donor is in turn given recognition by being granted a special darshan (viewing of the idol in the temple's inner sanctum.) Over 2,500,000 trees are said to have been planted on the hills and plains as a result of this program.

In 1991 a group of Hindus took action to address the environmental hardships such as its deforestation and pollution, and together with community involvement and a grant from the World Wide Fund (WWF) they organized a program to start restoring the land for Krishna.<ref> P. 378 ''Contemporary Hinduism: Ritual, Culture, and Practice'' By Robert Rinehart and Robin Rinehart </ref>

Some notable environmentalist other than the ones mentioned include, D.V. Shridharan, a writer for ''Indic Academy'', and professor Vijaya Nagarajan who writes and lectures students on Hinduism within the Religious Students department and the environment within the Environmental Studies department at University of San Francisco.

Some major environmental initiatives have begun, started by Hindu activists. Sanrakahan is one such initiative, begun by [[Divya]] Jyoti Jagrati Sansthan (whose founder is Sri Ashutosh Maharaj.) Isha Outreach, Isha Based, and Project GreenHands are another, begun by Isha Foundation. Ayudh India and Amrita SeRVe is another, begun by Mata Amritanandamayi Math.

Communities and temples have also been established, which are eco-friendly. Govardhan Eco Village is an [[Vaishnava]] eco-friendly village. Sadhana Forest is an eco-friendly utopia within Auroville (the township founded by The Mother of Sri [[Aurobindo]] Ashram.) Badrikashram in another eco-farming utopia, located in Rajpura Town, Punjab.[https://badrikashram.com/about/] One of Europe's largest sustainable and eco-friendly villages is the Krishna Valley in Hungary. ISKCON’s Alachua Temple hosts its Eco Farm Fall Festival to make visitors more ecologically conscious. Yash Bhatt and Arjun Thakkar in Gujarat have developed a way to turn flowers (i.e., offered in puja) into organic manure to enrich gardens. Swami Narayan Temple in Kingsbury, U.K. is world's largest eco-friendly worship hall. Plans for an eco-friendly £10M temple in Northampton, U.K. have been approved. Gangadhareshwara Shiva Temple in Bengaluru reuses milk offered as propitiation and is turned into butter milk for temple visitors. Shivalaya-Dwadash Jyotirling Dham in Sadar reuses offerings made to the Shivlings by containing the milk offered to be able to perpetually use it with a visitor's the push of a button. Parleshwar and Mahalakshmi temples in Mumbai collect and convert offerings into compost, which is fed to 150 trees in vicinities of the temples every month. Kundam festival of Sri Bannari Amman Temple in Bannari promotes eco-tourism, as do the Sidheswar Temple of Athamallik and Nanda Devi Temple of Munsyari, and the Agung Mountain and the Besakih, Tanah Lot, and Uluwatu temples of Indonesia. The Deogar airport terminal building and runways are being designed with inspiration from the eco-friendly Shikhars of the Baidyanath Temple.

Sugathakumari [the daughter of Hindu revivalist Bodheswarananda and a her mother was a Sanskrit teacher] had spent 3 years at university researching 'Comparative Study of the Concept of [[Moksha]] in Indian [[Schools of Philosophy]]' [but didn't finish this thesis.] She is an eco-feminist and has participated in a number of environmentalist missions. For example, she was a prominent figure in the Save Silent Valley protest.

==Divine Nature==
<blockquote>
“The one who plants trees, knowing that he will never sit in their shade, has at least started to understand the meaning of life.” — Rabindranath Tagore
</blockquote>
The nature of God is such that God is nature, and more. The Supreme utilizes nature in particular.

'Physitheism' is the theological definition of venerating the natural environment.

==Monasticism==
<blockquote>
"The culture of the forest has fueled the culture of Indian society. The culture that has arisen from the forest has been influenced by the diverse processes from renewal of life which are always at play in the forest, varying from species to species, from season to season, in sight and [[sound]] and smell. The unifying principle of life in diversity, of democratic pluralism, thus became the principle of Indian civilization." - Rabindranath Tagore
</blockquote>
[[Monasticism]] or [[Gyana Marga]], which is not a requirement for Hindus to attain Moksh, has been practiced to give more focus to Brahm or to expiate all karmas (sin), which are defilements to the soul. [[Ascetics]] have historically taken sanctuary in forests, which is which the Vanaprastha (''Forest-dweller'') stage of life, the Hindu practices asceticism in the forest. A large number of monks, while they lived within a monastic community in the forests, did not even have monasteries (maths.) It was very common for Buddhist monks to have monasteries, but in the case of Sanatan ascetics, it was not the norm.

Monasticism is not as common in the modern era because the tradition was banned under Islamist rule and ascetics were executed. Also, with the technological progress of society, possessions have become greater attachments for people, and asceticism seems more impractical. Ascetics do exist, but usually in monasteries that are within cities or towns.

==Related Articles==
*[[Ideals and Values/Environmental Awareness]]
*[[Animal rights|Animal rights and Vegetarianism]]
*[[Ethics of Hinduism]]
*[[Sanātan Dharma Principle]]
*[[Samyag Darshan|Right Worldview]]
*[[Sadachara|Right Conduct]]
*[[Karma Marga]]

==External Resources==
;Articles
*[https://www.bhaktivedantamanor.co.uk/home/?tag=climate-change "Could Diwali now be the festival of ‘solar lights’?"] By Gopal Patel (Published: Tuesday, November 22, 2016)
*[https://www.downtoearth.org.in/blog/environment/gandhi-at-150-green-movements-have-gandhian-streak-67038 “Gandhi at 150: Green movements have Gandhian streak” ]By John S. Moolakkattu (Published: Tuesday, October 01, 2019)
*[https://ethnobiology.org/ethno-ecology-bishnois-and-swadhyayis "Ethno-ecology of Bishnois and Swadhyayis"] By Dr. Pankaj Jain, Ph.D
*[https://www.psychiatrictimes.com/view/climate-change-and-hinduism "Climate Change and Hinduism"] By Nyapati R. Rao, MD, MS, DLFAPA (Published: April 20, 2021)
*[https://swarajyamag.com/magazine/the-connected-cosmos "The Connected Cosmos"] By Sumedha Verma Ojha (Published: Mar 9, 2018)
*[https://www.bvashram.org/update-building-rooms-sadhus-forests-odisha/ "Update on Building Rooms for Sadhus in the Forests of Odisha"] By Jahnava Nitai Das (Published: Dec 21, 2016)
*[https://www.indiadivine.org/trees-beautiful-gift-nature/ "Trees – A Beautiful Gift of Nature"] By Adarsh M. Kalla (Published November 6, 2017)
*[https://fore.yale.edu/files/jainism.pdf#:~:text=Chapple%20shows%20a%20distinctly%20South%20Asian%20environmental%20rhetoric,of%20modernization%20on%20traditional%20Indian%20culture%20and%20civilization. "Jainism and Ecology Bibliography"] By Christopher Key Chapple
*[https://www.ekumaon.com/2020/02/hari-narayan-das-dedicated-to.html “Hari Narayan Das dedicated to Environmental Protection - पर्यावरण संरक्षण को समर्पित हरी नारायण दास।” By eKumaon] (Published February 12, 2020)
*[https://youtu.be/h00vg0HBZ6w “India’s original eco-warriors: Meet the Bishnoi community who won’t cut down living trees“]
;[[Organizations]] and Initiatives
*[http://www.hinduclimatedeclaration2015.org/english Hindu Declaration on Climate Change]
*[https://news.yale.edu/2019/02/15/hindu-climate-activists-take-lead-combating-climate-change Hindu Earth Ethics and Climate Action]
*[https://www.hinduclimateaction.org/ Hindu Climate Action] - a service project of the Oxford Centre for Hindu Studies
*[https://eco.brahmakumaris.org/the-bhumi-project/ The Bhumi Project] - A collaboration between the Oxford Centre for Hindu Studies and Brahma Kumaris World Spiritual University
*[https://eco.brahmakumaris.org/ Brahma Kumaris Environment Initiative]
*[https://vrikshamandir.com/ Vrikshamandir]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Ethical ideals]]
[[Category:Core concepts]]

Main Page

2026-07-08T03:29:47Z

Himanshu Bhatt: added another article within brackets of a different topic

There are [[Special:Statistics | '''{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}''']] articles on Hindupedia. Now, we are introducing DharmaGPT which is powered by this content.

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{| class="cleantable" style="width: 100%;"
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||{{mp-topicheader-h3|General Introduction}}
* [[Who is a Hindu?]]
* [[Hindu|Origin of the Name "Hinduism"]]
* [[Overview|Introduction to Sanatan Dharm]]
* [[Sanātan Dharm Principle|Sanatan Dharm Principle]]
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* [[Ideals and Values]]
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* [[Unique Features]]
* [[Key Beliefs]]
|-
| |{{mp-topicheader-h3|Core Practices}}
*[[Ethics of Hinduism|Ethics]]
**[[Right Worldview]]
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**[[Expiation of Sins]]
**[[Vinaya|Humility]]
**[[Shanti|Peace]]
**[[Animal rights|Animal Rights and Vegetarianism]]
**[[Environmentalism]]
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*[[Means to Liberation|Three Approaches to Salvation]] ([[Yoga Traya|Three Yogas]])
**[[Bhakti Marga]] ([[Worship]])
***[[Mantra Marga]] ([[Japa]] or [[Fundamentals of Mantra Sadhana or Practice]]|Chanting)
***[[Nirguna Puja|Worship of God Without Icons]]
***[[Murti Puja|Worship of God Through Icons]]
***[[Worship of God as Mother]]
***[[Sangrahan & Kripa|Propitiation & Grace]]
***[[Yajna|Sacrifice]]
**[[Gyana Marga]] ([[Tapas#Tapas as austerities|Austerities]])
***[[Ascetics|Asceticism]]
***[[Monasticism]]
**[[Karma Marga]] ([[Nishkam Karma|Altruism]])
|-
|}
{| width="100%"
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| |{{mp-topicheader-h3|Core Concepts}}
*Metaphysical
**[[Darshana|Metaphysical Worldviews]] and [[Cosmogony]]
**[[Theology]]
***[[Divinity]]
***[[Brahm]] ([[God]])
***[[Devata|Demigods]] ([[Deities]])
***Godly Manifesting ([[Avatara|Avatar]])
**Salvation ([[Moksha]])
**Causation ([[Karma]])
***[[Cycle of Birth & Death]] and [[Atma|the Soul]]
***[[Bandha, Bandhana]] and [[Ātma-māyā|Maya]]
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|-
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{| width="100%"
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|-
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{| width="100%"
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| | {{mp-topicheader-h3|Sects}}
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|-
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{| width="100%"
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| | {{mp-topicheader-h3|Outgrowths of Hinduism}}
{| align="right" border="0" width="400"
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*Indian
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|-
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Theology

2026-07-08T03:27:58Z

Himanshu Bhatt: /* Dualistic Energies of God */

{{Author|Himanshu Bhatt}}
[[Image:Vishnu making universes.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Vishnu]] depicted as God (in [[Vaiśnava|Vaiśnava]] sectarian context) as making and ending universes while being within them, demonstrating panentheism.]]
[[Image:Gayatri Ma.jpg|thumb|250px|The monotheistic prayer Gayatri Mantra personified as God, demonstrating [[monotheism]] in itself.
 
The [[mantra]] demonstrates henotheism when it is called Sarva-[[devata]] Svarupini ("''Universal Form of All Deities''.")]]
<blockquote>
“The Hindu religion is the only one of the world’s great faiths dedicated to the idea that the Cosmos itself undergoes an immense, indeed an infinite, number of deaths and rebirths. It is the only religion in which the time scales correspond to those of modern scientific [[cosmology]]. Its cycles run from our ordinary day and night to a day and night of Brahma, 8.64 billion years long. Longer than the age of the Earth or the Sun and about half the time since the Big Bang.” - Carl Sagan, ''Cosmos''
</blockquote>
Panentheism is the first and foremost theology of the Sanatan Dharm while henotheism and monotheism are secondary but they are all in conformity with each other. This is because while recognizing there is only One Supreme Being above all ([[Brahm]] or [[God]]), the immanence and transcendence of It is a doctrine that goes beyond the generic monotheism preached by other religions. While accepting there is One God above all, it does not enforce worshiping only The One. So it is monotheistic because it believes there is God, but also henotheistic because others worshipping It in another form is accepted as still worshiping the One God. Worship as polytheism (i.e., praying to ancestors) is acceptable being it does not reject The One but venerates others as well. Once a human attains Moksh, it is united with Brahm or Parmatma. Brahm is not confined to space and so is everywhere, including within ourselves. This principle is Ishavasyam. Individuals on the other hand are also connected to all that exists, and this is the [[Environmentalism#Aikatmyam|principle of aikatmyam]]. Because of this omnipresence, the central Hindu theology is panentheism. It is monotheist too because there is just one God above all other spirits. It is henotheist because, while Brahm is The Supreme, other beings worthy of worship exist, which may be pious humans or angels ([[Devatā|demi-gods]].) Hindu theology is often aptly termed monistic theism and even open monotheism by some scholars, but is not purely polytheistic as outsiders perceive it to be. [[Bhakti Marga|Worship (Bhakti Yoga]]) is one of the three yogas to attain Moksh.<ref>The other two are [[Gyāna Mārga|Gyāna Yoga]] and [[Karma Mārga|Karma Yoga]].</ref> Monotheism is known in [[Overview Of Scriptures|Hindu scriptures]] as ekantikvad, and some sects practice it strictly, such as the [[Arya]] Samaj, Mahima, and certain [[Śaiva]] (i.e., Viraśaiva, Alakhgir) and the Vaiśnava (i.e., Pushtimarga, Ekasarana) sampradays.

Hinduism has often been considered to be polytheistic because of one leading denomination, Smartism, which follows the [[Advaita]] philosophy of absolute monism, and includes worship of all kinds of personal forms of God. Absolute monists see one unity with all personal forms of God as different aspects of one Supreme Spirit, like a single beam of light separated into colors by a prism. Thus Smartas consider all personal forms of God as equal including Devi, Vishnu, Śiva, Ganesh and Skanda but generally limit the recognized forms to be six. Other denominations of Hinduism don't adhere to the Smarta viewpoint, but are quite unlike Western perceptions of monotheism. Additionally, like Judeo-Christian traditions which believe in angels, Hindus also believe in other less powerful entities, such as [[deva]]s.<ref name = hop1>{{cite book |title=THE RELIGIONS OF INDIA|author=Edward Washburn Hopkins|url=http://books.google.com/?id=Dj33XvXqJO8C |publisher= Jr. Ginn & Co |pages=204 |year= 1896 |editor=Morris Jastrow, |isbn=978-1-60303-143-1}}</ref>

Sometimes the orthodox members of religions interpret religions with a puritan mindset. An example is that many Christians believe any form of worship not including Jesus as being 'idol worship', while Muslims consider idol worship specifically practicing worship through statues but revering the black stone at the Kaaba and circumambulating Kaaba as not idolatry. [Within the Hindu community too prejudices exist among certain people but the general belief is that 'all religions lead to God'.] This leads to religions discrediting other religions. It is resulted in Hinduism being classified as 'pagan cults' and/or a 'polytheistic religion with no heaven'. The underlying principle of the divine is that it has a Supreme Soul (literally 'Parmatma'), making Hinduism monotheistic in belief. Because Hindus believe that Parmatma possesses the universe, which It also transcends, Hinduism believes in panentheism. And because of the principles 'all religions lead to God' and 'All God is One', and that God can be worshiped in those various ways in various forms, Hinduism believes in henotheism.

Contemporary Hinduism can be categorized into four major sects:
# [[Vaiśnava|Vaiśnavism]]
# [[Śaiva|Śaivism]]
# [[Śākta|Śaktism]]
# Smartism
Vaiśnavism, Śaivism, and Śaktism [[worship]] [[Narayan]], [[Śiva]] and [[Devi]] - the Divine Mother as the Supreme Being respectively or considering all [[Hindu]] [[deities]] as aspects of the Supreme Being or Brahm.<ref>See [[Advaita]], or impersonalism.</ref> Other minor sects such as [[Ganapatya]] and [[Surya|Saura]] focus on [[Ganesha|Ganesh]] and [[Surya]] as the Supreme.

==Nature of God==
:''See also: [[God#Nature of God|Nature of God]]'' [[Image:Durga Ma.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Durga|Durga Ma]] as depicted as God (in [[Shakta]] sectarian context), the God of gods, demonstrating henotheism.]]
[[Image:God in all beings.jpg|thumb|250px|God is considered [[Antaryamin]] (Inner Dweller) or [[Caitya-purusa|Chaitya Purush]] (Inner Being.) While God is omnipresent in inanimate objects too, it is Its presence within living beings that enables a relationship between humans and It, and for humans to attain [[Moksha|Moksh]]. (This is an image of God in [[Vaiśnava]] context.)]]
The One Above All is called Brahm and Parmatma in Sanatan Dharm. This [[acintya|Supreme Being is beyond imagination]] and experience, and as such, transcends the universe. The [[Darshana|darshanas (metaphysical worldviews)]] discuss this universe being prakriti which releases from either Brahm Itself or from human under the influence of ignorance (i.e., [[Maya Panchakam|Maya]].) Brahm is also believed by most Hindus to incarnate in various avataras, which may be to answer a prayer of a devotee, [[test]] a human, or promote spirituality (i.e., Krishna.)

Brahm or God Almighty is spoken of as being ''alaukika'' ("''beyond this world''.") This world is seen as prakriti (nature) which God created. This nature of this world is such that karmas cause beings to be possessed with defilements. God is tri-guṇatit, meaning It is transcendental to the modes of material nature.

God is:
#Sarvavyapin (omnipresent)
#Sarvajna (omniscient)
#Sarvaśaktiman (omnipotent)
#Akal (without beginning, and forever)
#Tri-gunatit (transcendent of the 3 modes of material nature)
The sarvavyapin aspect of God is such that it pervades everything, both material and spiritual, and is also called ''Ishavasyam'' ("''God present in all.''") Sarvajna means to know all, and this is an aspect often highlighted when speaking of Moksh, because salvation means Brahmgyana ("''to know Brahm''") or to acquire Brahmvidya. Sarvaśaktiman means the power of Brahm is such that there is nothing it cannot do, and no other power is greater. ''Akal'' means "''timeless''" and refers to the self-existent state (''swayambhu'') of God, and that it will exist forever. Tri-gunatit means to be transcendent of this material universe which is imperfect.

===Dualistic Energies of God===
This is an understanding of Brahm based on its energies in this universe. While Brahm is the Supreme above all, the God Almighty, it is said to apply two forms of energies in this world. This means that the energy which surrounds us in this material realm is different from that of the spiritual world (Moksh), as is the energy which is with our souls. This is spoken of in different sects and [[Darshana|darshans]]. For example, in the Śaiva sect, Śiva is said to be Brahm while his other half is Prakriti (the divine energy possessing this world.) In the [[Sankhya darsana|Samkhya Yoga]] darshan too, Brahm (Purusha) has a counterpart referred to as Prakriti, which is the nature that surrounds us in this reality. In the ''Bhagvad Gita'' too, Krishna says that Brahm is the total energy while the energy here in this reality he calls ''Parmatma''. In Vaiśnavism, this is notion of the Gita is elaborated wherein the energy of Brahm present in this universe is Mahamaya (or hiraṇmaya-[[mahat]]-[[tattva]]), whereas in the spiritual one it is Yogamaya (or jivan śakti.) The material energy is impacted by the three modes of material nature whereas spiritual energy is not, which is why prakriti is eternal and mutable (parimaminitya), whereas Yogamaya is eternal and immutable (parinamnitya.) The total energy of Brahm is called swarup śakti.

Personification of God's two energies has been presented in some instances as well. In Śaiva context, Śiva represents the spiritual energy and Śakti Ma represents the material energy. In Vaiśnavism too, Brahm is Krishna or Narayan and his energy (both spiritual and material) is a female, usually portrayed as Vishnu's wife, Śri (''Mantramayi Kriya Śakti''.)

====References to 3 aspects of God====
[[Image:Trimurti.jpg|thumb|250px|God represented in a syncretist context as [[Trimurti]] ("''Triune God''"), showing [[Brahmā]], [[Vishnu]], and [[Mahesh]] as God in Its 3 aspects.]]
Because the energies in the universe have normally been considered to be dualistic, they, together with God's total energy in the spiritual real, would be 3 aspects of God. From this logic, many Hindu thinkers have believed there are 3 aspects of God we can come to the conclusion of. Various scriptures have written on the One Supreme Lord being characterized of 3 aspects, in Hinduism and in the [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]]. In a conversation mentioned in the ''Brihadaranyaka [[Upanishad|Upaniṣad]]''<Ref> Chapter 3, Part 9 of ''Brihadaranyaka Upaniṣad'' </ref> between [[Yajnavalkya]] and Vidaghdha, the latter asks how many Devas (gods) there are, to which the former replies 33, but Vidaghdha keeps asking, and before coming to the answer of a single 1 God, he had said there are 3 gods [which can be taken to mean that single God has 3 aspects.] No other story legitimizes 3 aspects of Brahm more than the one of the ''[[Rig Veda]]'' wherein Ka (an epithet of the unseen presence or Parabrahm) or Apo (primordial waters) produced the universal womb Hiranyagarbha (Prajapati) with Prajapati within the womb having come into being the "one divine spirit", and Agni (souls)[https://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10121.htm]

Parallel to the 3 aspects of Brahm is the the [[Vaiśnava#Pāñcharātra Āgama|Pāñchrātra]], which consists of 5 venerable forms of Narayan (para, vyuha, vibhava, [[arca]], and antaryamin), the 3 aspects which as para, vyuha, and antaryamin fall within the same categories as the classifications of Brahm do in many other analyses. The vibhava aspect of God is basically formed from one or 2 of the other aspects (i.e., avatara of vyuha and consist of antaryamin.) Arca refers to representative icons of God which are venerated, which are created by matter. In this analysis, the Pāñchrātra holds consistent with the triune characterization of God. Some schools of Śaivism too break down the aspects of God into 3, like Śiva being Parabrahm, Śakti being Aparabrahm, and Yamala being Tapas or Agni. The last is called Tapas or Agni normally, as it is imperishable and is the same energy as the soul (Yogamaya.) That is why it is also called Apām Napāt (''Child of Apo''.)

The "Ka Sukta" (aliases "Hiranyagarbha Sukta", "Prajapati Sukta") of the ''Rig Veda'' is one the most popular cosmogonies in the Arya dharmas. What has been overlooked are the triple aspects detailed within the hymn. In it, Apo (God as 'primordial waters'), which "''possesses generational fire''" (Agni), incubates the Hiranyagarbha (womb containing Prajapati, "''born Only-Lord of all created beings''"). In other words, it ambiguously states Apo is God in the highest form (i.e., Parabrahm), Prajapati this material universe's Aparabrahm, and Agni the life-giving spark within all creatures. (This can be likened to the Pāñchrātrik para, vyuha, and antaryamin.) The hymn goes further to state that [[Devatā#Divine Council|the Devanam or ''people who've taken the title of God'']] (i.e., Devtas on the Divine Council of 33) return to God, meaning that the Devtas are representatives of God on Earth but they are none of the 3 aspects of God and aren't of equal status to God either.

As the material energy is Mahamaya and spiritual (superior) energy is Yogamaya, these energies can also help break down the Vak (cosmic speech.) The ''Rig Veda'' itself declares, "''Vak resides in four quarters (pada). The wise Brahmins who possess insight know them all. Three quarters are hidden in secret and do not stir; human beings speak only the fourth quarter.''"<ref>''Rig Veda'' 1.164.45</ref> The first 3 aspects of Vak itself—para, pashyanti, and madhyama—are spiritual, while the last (Vaikhari) is material energy. Therefore, it can be presumed that this together with synthesizing the commonalities in the creation myths, that the Aparabrahm or Universe is the lowest form of Vak.

"Purush Sukta" states that all creatures in this universe are 1/4 of the Purush (God) and that the others are spiritual—this would be in line with the trinitarian concept that the other 3/4 of Purush are the Parabrahm, Aparabrahm, and Antaryamin. All living beings here in the material world being 1/4 of Purush means that we are eternal, since are a part of the Purush Itself, and that we are of the same spiritual substance as Purush.

Below is a table summarizing and forming the connections between the trinity stated in various texts or beliefs.
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Derivation
! Heavenly Being
! All-Pervasive Being in Universe
! Inner Being
|-
!Vishwakarman Sukta (''Rig Veda''[https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rvsan/rv10081.htm][https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10081.htm][https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rvsan/rv10082.htm][https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10082.htm])
|Vishwakarma/Apo (Primordial Waters)/Garbha/Dhātar/Vidhātar/Sacrificial Seer<ref>ṛṣirhotā</ref>/Ascetic Father<ref>nyasīdatpitā</ref>/One Dev<ref>deva ekaḥ</ref>/Lord of Speech<ref>vācas patiṃ</ref>/One, Only One<ref>para ekamāhuḥ</ref>
|Universe
|
|-
!Ka Sukta (''Rig Veda''[https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rvsan/rv10121.htm][https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10121.htm])
|Apo
|Hiranyagarbha (Prajapati)/Universe
|Agni
|-
!Vak Sukta (''Rig Veda''[https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rvsan/rv10125.htm][https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10125.htm])
|Apsu (Primordial Waters<ref>Yonirapsvantaḥ</ref>)
|Universe
|Vak
|-
!Nasadiya Sukta (''Rig Veda''[https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rvsan/rv10129.htm][https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10129.htm])
|Tad Ekam (That One)
|Sat (The Existent/Manifestation)/Universe
|Asat (The Non-Existent/Potentiality)
|-
!Aghamarṣaṇa Sukta (''Rig Veda''[https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rvsan/rv10190.htm][https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10190.htm])
|Dhātar
|Sat (The Existent/Manifestation)/Ṛta (Cosmic Order) and Satya (Cosmic Truth)
|Tapas (Cosmic Heat)
|-
!Devāgāna Sukta (''Rig Veda''[https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rvsan/rv10072.htm][https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10072.htm])
|Āsur Ek/Brahmaṇaspati/Dev Ek
|Sat (The Existent/Manifestation)
|Vak
|-
!Purush Sukta (''Rig Veda''[https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rvsan/rv10090.htm][https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10090.htm])
|Adhi Purush
|Virāj/Universe
|Vak/Purush (other souls)
|-
!''Bhagavad Gita''<ref> “''O best of the embodied souls, the physical manifestation that is constantly changing is called adhibhūta; the universal form of God, which presides over the celestial gods in this creation, is called adhidaiva; I, who dwell in the heart of every living being, am called Adhiyajña, or the Lord of all sacrifices.''” - [https://www.holy-bhagavad-gita.org/chapter/8/verse/4 ''Bhagvad Gita'' 8.4] </ref>
|Parabrahm
|Aparabrahm
|Parmatma<Ref> “''Within the body also resides the Supreme Lord. He is said to be the Witness, the Permitter, the Supporter, Transcendental Enjoyer, the ultimate Controller, and the Paramātmā (Supreme Soul).''” - [https://www.holy-bhagavad-gita.org/chapter/13/verse/23 ''Bhagvad Gita'' 13.23] </ref>
|-
!''Bhagavat Purana''
|Narayan
|Mahamaya
|Yogamaya
|-
!''Isha Upaniṣad'' 6-7
|Uttam [Purush]
|Kshar
|Akshar
|-
!''Katha Upaniṣad'' (1.3.10–11)
|Purush
|Avyaktam
|Mahat (Mahan [[Atma]])
|-
!''Mahānārāyan Upaniṣad'' 24
|Tvashtā
| -
| -
|-
!''Maitrāyaṇīya Upaniṣad''
|Brahmā
|Vishnu
|Mahesh
|-
!''Sams'aya-taducchedavādah''
|Manomaya Purush ([[Avyaya]])
|Vangmaya (Kshar)
|Pranamaya Purush (Akshar)
|-
!''Sasongko Jati''
|Principle of Lord<ref>Suksma Kawekas</ref>
|Director of Life<ref>Suksma Sejati</ref>
|Lord of Life<ref>Roh Suci</ref>
|-
!''Sāttvat Saṃhitā''
|Para
|Vyuha
|Antaryamin
|-
!''Swaminarayan Bhashyam'' / ''Vachanamrut''
|Parabrahm
|Aparabrahm
|Aksharbrahm
|-
!''Vijñāna Bhairava Tantra''
|Śiva
|Śakti
|Yamala
|-
!''[[Vayu]] [[Purana]]'' 1.2
|Purush
|Manifested Prakriti
|Unmanifested Prakriti
|-
!''[[Yoga]] Sutra'' 2.20
|Drashtā
|Pratyaya-anupashya
|Shuddha
|-
|}

===Formlessness===
{{Cquote|Knowing That which is soundless, touchless, formless, undecaying; also tasteless, odorless, and eternal; beginningless, endless and immutable; beyond the Unmanifested: (knowing That) man escapes from the mouth of death.|4=Katha Upaniṣad 3.15}}
 
Brahm has been written of to be either Nirguna (Parabrahm) and Shaguna (Aparabrahm), including being both. Nirguna refers to God without physical and personality attributes (i.e., a body) while Shaguna is the opposite. Worshiping God as either is fine. Brahm is believed to take vyuhas or emanations, especially to communicate with humans in the physical world (i.e., to provide revelations), and has been seen particularly in Vaiṣnavism as both heavenly and earthly incarnations. Avatars of Śiva, Ganesh, [[Durga]], and others have also been documented and worshipped. 
{{Cquote|Brahm has indeed has 2 two modes, formless as well as manifested.|4=Brihad-Aranyaka Upaniṣad 2.3.1}}
 
Nirguna bhakti was a popular method of worshipping in the medieval era in particular when several sects appeared. Worshipping Vishnu in the formless manner was practiced by Ramanand [[Sampraday]] and its succeeding sects, including Kabir Panth, Ravidas Panth, Satnam Panth, and others. Mahima Dharm was a peculiar Vaiśnava sect because it adheres only to the ''Bhagvat Purana'' and normally referred to Vishnu as ''Alakh'' or ''Sunya'' (“''Void''.”) [[Temples]] of this sect never include [[idols]] which are venerated because the heavenly Vishnu, God before the creation of all, is considered unmanifested. Some Śaiva sects too have practiced worship without an idol, denying that God (Śiva) has a form. These sects include Alakhgirs and Nath Panthis, both of whom call Śiva ''Alakh'' (“''Invisible''.”) Manikkavasagar was a well-known saint from the Bhakti era that worshipped Śiva as formless.<ref> ''Shiva in the City of Nectar: Fifty-four divine tales of Shiva in ancient India'' By Preetha Rajah Kannan </ref> Arulnanti was a another Śaiva theologian from southern India at the time.
 
{{Cquote|Although the Supreme Lord is described as having no hands and legs, He nonetheless accepts all sacrificial offerings.|4=Śvetāśvatara Upaniṣad 3.19}}
 
Temples wherein Brahm is worshipped as formless are known as ''Sunya Mandirs''. Most of these are Vaiśnava belonging to the Ekasarana, Mahima, and Satnami sects, but Śaiva sects of Brahmā Kumaris are notable. There are also temples of Vishnu, Śiva and other gods that don’t belong to a particular sect.
 
{{Cquote|The Entity who is one and without a second, and one without any colours; who has created the colourful quinquelemental world for reasons unknown with the help of His many powers; in whom this entire universe dissolves; is no other than Parama Puruśa. Let that Entity guide our intellect along the path of supreme righteousness. |4=Śvetāśvatara Upaniṣad 4.1.12}}

==Both Immanency and Transcendence of God (Panentheism)==
{{Cquote|I take refuge in that self-existent Being in Whom is this Universe, and Who is beyond this (differentiated Nature) as also beyond that (Undifferentiated.)|4=[https://vedabase.io/en/library/sb/8/3/3/ Bhagvata Purana 8.3.3]}}
 
Karl Krause coined the term 'panentheism' inspired by his readings on Hinduism.<ref> P. 170 ''The Oxford Handbook of Natural Theology'' By Russell Re Manning; ''Karl Krause (1781–1832) borrowed Indian ideas in formulating his own panentheist doctrine of God as a non-personal essence (Wesen) with which the world must eventually be reunited.''"</ref> In Sanskrit, this is called ''Ishavasyam'' or ''vibhudyatvad'' (“''doctrine of pervading and surpassing''.”) While pantheism equates the visible universe with God, panentheism declares that God is omnipresent in Its creation and transcends Its creation too. This means God is the visible universe and more. Heaven and hell may not be in this universe, but another wherein God is also omnipresent. It would make sense that if God is all-pervasive that we would be within It. In other words, everything is submerged or within God. Purusha [[Sukta]] states that The Supreme is both immanent and transcendent - "''Sa bhumin vishvato vritva atyatishthat dashangulam.''" Even when Hindus greet each other by saying "''Namaste''," it means "''I bow to God within you''," showing panentheism in the very greeting. The ''Kaṭha Upaniṣad'' 2.2.12-13 states, “''Whatever we see is a manifestation of [[Brahman]].''”<ref> “''sarvaṁ khalv idaṁ brahma taj jalā[[niti]] śānta upāsīta''” </ref> Satguru Sivaya Subramuniyaswami, said that "''Panentheism is the view that the universe is part of the being of God, as distinguished from pantheism (all-is-God doctrine"), which identifies God with the total reality. In contrast, panentheism holds that God pervades the world, but is also beyond it. He is immanent and transcendent, relative and Absolute. This embracing of opposites is called dipolar. For the panentheist, God is in all, and all is in God.''"

{{Cquote|It is you from whom this universe of forms emerges, and it is you within whom it stays. It is you in whom it finally disappears. |4=Vedasara Shivastotram}} 

Professor Charles Hartshorne in his discussion of panentheism discussed Hinduism in 1953. Professor Lorilai Biernacki considers Hinduism to be one of the most panentheistic traditions.[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/panentheism/] Other [[Ārya Samudāy]] dharmas have also been written on by scholars as panentheist - Christopher Key Chapple on Jainism, Geoffrey Samuel on Buddhism, William M. Reynolds on [[Sikhism]]<ref> P. 90 ''Expanding Curriculum Theory: Dis/positions and Lines of Flight'' By William M. Reynolds and ‎Julie A. Webber </ref>, Ernest Lee Tuveson on Hermeticism<ref>P. 255 ''Gnosis and Hermeticism from Antiquity to Modern Times'' By R. van den Broek </ref>, and Dirk Baltzly on Neoplatonism.

<blockquote>
"It is in the [[Vedas]] that we find for the first time not merely traces or indications of Pantheism, but Pantheism itself in its full growth and maturity." - Constance E. Plumptre<ref> ''General Sketch of the History of Pantheism: Volume 1'' By Constance E. Plumptre </ref>
</blockquote>
{{Cquote|This entire cosmic manifestation is pervaded by Me in My unmanifest form. All living beings dwell in Me, but I do not dwell in them.|4=[https://www.holy-bhagavad-gita.org/chapter/9/verse/4 Bhagvad Gita 9.24]}}
 
Ishavasyam is a term which demonstrates the omnipresent nature of Brahm, wherein It is everywhere and is transcendent of the objects it possesses. In a story from Krishna's life, once when Krishna was an infant he was suspected to have placed mud into his mouth. Yashoda then said, “''If you have not taken any mud, then open your mouth. I shall see for myself.''” Upon seeing in his mouth, she saw the universe (i.e., galaxies, starts. ) This one event shows how the universe itself is within God Almighty.
 
{{Cquote|The Supreme Lord walks and does not walk. He is far away, but He is very near as well. He is within everything, and yet He is outside of everything.|4=[https://vedabase.io/en/library/iso/5/ Isha Upaniṣad 5]}}
 
In the below verse, [[Yama]] is saying the Brahm is present in the inanimate and animate objects of the world.
{{Cquote|I am the food. I am the eater of food.|4=Taittiriya Upaniṣad 3.10.6}}
 
{{Cquote|He who, dwelling in all things,
Yet is other than all things, 
Whom all things do not know, 
Whose body all things are, 
Who controls all things from within, 
He is your soul, the Inner Controller, the Immortal.|4=Brihad-Aranyaka Upaniṣad 3.7.15}}
 
The verse below illustrates that God is the Complete Whole, meaning all-pervasive in this universe and yet, transcendent of it:
{{Cquote|God is perfect and complete, and because It is completely perfect, all emanations from It, such as this phenomenal world, are perfectly equipped as complete wholes. Whatever is produced of the Complete Whole is also complete in itself. Because It is the Complete Whole, even through so many complete units emanate from It, It remains the complete balance.|4=Isha Upaniṣad invocation}}
 
Mahatma Gandhi was very fond of quoting from this Upaniṣadic couplet:
{{Cquote|Whatever is ephemeral in this changing universe is Ishavasya (enveloped by Isha.)|4=Isha Upaniṣad}}
 
The omnipresence of Brahm is related to the interconnectedness of the soul (aikatmyam), because it is this relationship which also helps connect the soul to Brahm for achieving Moksh - realizing Aham Brahmasmi and tapping into the [[Antaryamin]] (Brahm within.)

{{Cquote|That microcosm [within you] is That Universe [outside of you], That Universe [outside of you] is that microcosm [within you.]<ref>Yat pinde tatha Brahmānde yatha Brahmande tatha pinde[https://www.yogapedia.com/definition/9326/yat-pinde-tat-brahmande]</ref>|4=Yajur Veda}}

This concept is mentioned as ''Pind Brahmand [[Nyaya]]. ''

==Oneness of God (Monotheism)==
[[Image:Surya with attendents.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Surya]] as God (in [[Saura]] sectarian context) being worshipped by his attendants and crowds of humans, demonstrating monotheism.]]
[[Image:Cosmic Vishnu.jpg|thumb|250px|Krishna too is sometimes depicted as comprising of the whole universe and to have his abodes outside of the universe (as stated in the ''[[Bhagavad Gita|Bhagvad Gita]]''), demonstrating panentheism.]]
[[Image:Cosmic Jina.jpg|thumb|250px|The whole universe in [[Jain Dharm|Jainism]] too is depicted as a person - referred to as 'Lok Purusha', demonstrating panentheism.]]
[[Image:Cosmic Buddha.jpg|thumb|250px|The whole universe in [[Bauddh Dharm|Buddhism]] too is sometimes depicted as a person, demonstrating panentheism.]]
''Brahm'' and ''Parmatma'' are the generic terms for The One Above All. The Sanskrit term for this is
''ekantikvad'' or ''ekamata.'' How Hindus have practiced monotheism is by worshiping Parmatma by worshiping It as an Ishta-Dev. Even the worship of solely Krishna as Parmatma or God Almighty by followers was referred to ''Ekantika [[Dharma]]'' and ''[[Ekayana]]''. The latter term was used also by Vaiśnavas of the [[Rudra]] Sampraday for worshipers of only Vishnu. Śaiva sects too have enforced monotheism, such as the Alakh Panth and Virasaivs. Monotheism in worship is enforced by a few sects but worshiping God Almighty along with others (demi-gods and ancestors) isn’t forbidden by most sects.

==Oneness of Deities (Henotheism)==
:''See also: [[Worship]], [[God#Oneness of God|Oneness of God]]''
<blockquote>
"This concept of God is panentheistic and even the Vedic theism is nothing but panentheism. It is very well expressed in philosophical hymns like ''[[Puruṣa]] sūkta'', ''Hiranyagarbha sūkta'' and even ''Nāsadīya sūkta''." - Sahebrao Genu Nigal<ref> P. 81 ''Vedic Philosophy of Values'' By Sahebrao Genu Nigal </ref>
</blockquote>It is understood that any kind of worship is accepted by The One Above All, regardless of name or form addressed in worship. The Sanskrit term for this is ''sarvekāntatva'' (“''state of all being a part of one''.”) Even a worshiper who is not Hindu and worships God [or a god] at their church or home, is worshiping God (only in a different way.) This particular viewpoint was so profound to modern scholars studying Hinduism that new terms had to be invented in English just to describe it - 'henotheism'. Then from 'henothenism' came another another term - 'kathenotheism' - meaning to worship 1 god at a time (while recognizing there may be more than a single divine being.) Then in 1828 German philosopher Karl Krause coined the term 'panentheism'.

 
{{Cquote|Of the eternals you are The Chief Eternal, of the sentients you are The Chief Sentient 
The One Chief of the many, that assembles and who is desirable 
Dark (unseeable) and present in the soul who is watching and unwavering 
That eternal peace is a guiding force [within]|4=Katha Upaniṣad 2.2.13<ref> Nityo nityanam cetanas cetananam 
eko bahunam yo vidadhati kaman 
tam atma-stham ye ’nupasyanti dhiras 
tesham shantih sasvati netaresam</ref>}}

 
Even the earlier Mandalas of ''[[Rig Veda]]''<ref>Ṛgveda books 1 and 9</ref> which contain hymns dedicated to devas, are thought to have a tendency toward monotheism.<ref>Macdonell, Arthur Anthony. Vedic Mythology. Forgotten Books (May 23, 2012). P. 17. ISBN 1440094365.</ref> Often quoted isolated pada of the ''Ṛig Veda''<ref>Ṛgveda 1.164.46</ref> states (trans. Ralph T.H. Griffith):

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! English
! Sanskrit
|-
|
{{Cquote|
:They call him Indra, Mitra, Varuṇa, Agni, and he is heavenly nobly-winged Garutmān.
:To what is One, sages give many a title they call it Agni, Yama, Mātariśvan.}}
|
{{Cquote|
:Indraṃ mitraṃ varuṇamaghnimāhuratho divyaḥ sa suparṇo gharutmān
:ekaṃ sad viprā bahudhā vadantyaghniṃ yamaṃ mātariśvānamāhuḥ}}
|-
|}

Further, the ''Rig Veda'' states, “There is only one God, [[worship]] Him“<Ref> Ṛg Veda, 6.45.16 </ref> and “Do not worship any one beside Him“<ref> Ṛg Veda 8.1.1 </ref>. Recognizing that there is a Supreme God above any other divinities is seen in the Vaiśnava mantra “Dev devaya namo nama” and Śaiva mantra “Aum nama Shivay sarvaya deva devaya vai namaha,” both of which proclaim their respective Supreme as the “God of gods.”
 
{{Cquote|Patiṁ patīnāṁ paramaṁ parastāt|4=Śvetāśvatara Upaniṣad 6.7}}
 
The ''[[Brahma Samhitā]]''<ref>Brahma Samhitā 5.45</ref> declares, ''Lord Vishnu is milk; Lord Śiva is yogurt''. Other aspects of God are expansions or aspects of Vishnu or Śiva which is detailed in various [[Purānas]]. Vaiṣnavites, like other Hindus, have tolerance for other beliefs because [[Krishna]], an [[avatara]] of Vishnu, said so in the Gitā. Krishna says:
{{Cquote|Whatever deity or form a devotee worships, I make his or her faith steady. However, their wishes are only granted by Me alone."<ref>Gitā 7.21-22</ref>|4=Bhagvad Gita 7.21-22}}
Krishna also says in the Gitā:
{{Cquote|O [[Arjuna]], even those devotees who worship other lesser [[deities]] e.g., devas, with faith, they also worship Me, but in an improper way because I am the Supreme Being. I alone am the enjoyer of all sacrificial services (Seva, [[Yajna]]) and Lord of the universe."<ref>Gitā 9.23</ref>|4=[https://www.holy-bhagavad-gita.org/chapter/9/verse/3 Bhagvad Gita 9.23]}}
 
The theology of henotheism also applies to the treating of ancestors or other beings as venerable. Because divinity is extended to them by many Hindus, it does not mean that there is a violation of the belief in a One God Above All, but that piety is offered to them in respect.
 
{{Cquote|The Lord of lords is Supreme and beyond them (deities.)|4=Śvetāśvatara Upaniṣad 6.7}}

===Smarta view===
The system prevalent in Hinduism is defined by the Smartha philosophy; this theory allows for the veneration of numerous deities, but on the understanding that all of them are but manifestation of the one divine power.<ref>It is a belief sometimes called kathenotheism.</ref> That ultimate [[divinity]] is termed Brahm or Atman and is believed to have no specific form, name or attribute.<ref>{{cite book
| author = Sivaya Subramuniyaswami
| url = http://books.google.com/?id=EWlHPAkjBKUC&pg=PA425
| title = Dancing with Siva: Hinduism's Contemporary Catechism
| publisher = Himalayan Academy Publications
| year = 2004
| isbn = 0-945497-96-2}}</ref> Only a Smartha, or follower of the [[Advaita Vedanta|Advaita]] philosophy, would have no problem worshiping every imaginable deity with equal veneration; as the view is that all names and forms of deities are merely manifestations of the same God. Other Hindu sects such as [[Vaiśnavism]] and Śaivism conform more closely to a Western understanding of what a monotheistic faith is. For instance, a Vaiṣnavite considers Vishnu as being the one and only true God, an attitude that resonates with that of the [[Abrahamic religions]]. However, it is [[Advaita]] philosophy that defines the Smartha sect of mainstream Hinduism, and imparts to Indic spiritual and religious traditions their renowned liberalism.

===Swaminarayan view===
[[Swami Sahajananda]], founder of the Swaminarayan Sampraday, said in verse 115 of its scripture, “''[[Śikśapatri]] said, ‘[[Sri Krishna]] Bhagvan and Sri Krishna Bhagvan's incarnations alone are worthy of meditation. Similarly, Sri Krishna Bhagvan's images are worthy. And men or [[devas]], even if they are devotees of Sri Krishna Bhagvan or Brahmvetta,<ref>It is knower of [[divinity]].</ref> They are still not worthy of meditation and thus one should not meditate upon them.’''"

The ''[[Brahma Samhitā]]''<ref>It means ''Brahma Samhitā'' 5.45</ref> declares, Lord Vishnu is milk; [[Śiva|Lord Śiva]] is yogurt.<ref>http://vedabase.net/bs/5/45/en Sri Bramha Samhita 5.45</ref> Followers of Swaminaryan are [[Vaiṣnavas]], but differ from the viewpoint attested by Gaudiya Vaiṣnavas who emphasize Śiva as a subordinate demigod expansion of Krishna. For example, Swaminaryan states:
<ref>[http://www.swaminarayanwales.org.uk/Shikshapatri/shikshapatridetails.asp?shlockcode=85 Shree Swaminarayan Temple Cardiff - Scriptures - Shikshapatri]</ref>
{{Cquote|And the oneness of Narayan and Śiva should be understood, as the Vedas have described both to be Brahmarupa (or form of Brahm, i.e., Saguna Brahm), thus indicating that Vishnu and Śiva are different forms of the one and same God. And that [[Ishvara]] is Sri Krishna Bhagvan,<ref> (Sri Swaminarayan Bhagvan</ref> who is supreme [[Para Brahman|Parabrahm]], [[Purushottama|Purushottam]], our [[Ishta-deva]]<ref>It means principal deity.</ref> worthy of worship, and the cause of all incarnations.|4=Shikshapatri 47.84.108}}

===Vivekanandian view===
According to the speech of [[Swami Vivekananda]] in Chicago during 1906, the monotheism of Hindu is not only for Hindu. It can effective for every human living on the earth. The verse,

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! English
! Sanskrit
|-
|{{Cquote|
:It means the rain water fallen from the sky go to the ocean, the same worship of every deity goes to only one God." (Here in this verse God is mentioned as Keshav (one of the name of Krishna). It doesn't matter, you are Hindu or not.
:Every worship goes to that God.}}
|{{Cquote|
:akāsāt patitaM toyam yathā gacchati sāgaram
:sarvadeva namaskārān kesavam prati gacchati}}
|-
|}

==Relation Between Brahm and Individuals==
Sanatan Dharm is essentially to understand the relationship between the Self and self, which is why the phrases "''Aham Brahmasmi''" and "''Ayamatma Brahm''", both of which mean, "''I am part of the Supreme''."

==Upaniṣad Era==
In the time period that the [[Upaniṣads]] were written, worship of gods within Hindus is turning into worship of primarily one god. The ''Chāndogya [[Upaniṣad]]'' states,
{{Cquote|God is only one, not a second.“|4=Chāndogya [[Upaniṣad]] Ch. 6.2.1}}
 
The ''Rudra Upaniṣad'' from the ''[[Atharva]] Shiras Upaniṣad'' reads of Rudra declaring himself as Brahm, and describing his attributes. The text also reads:
{{Cquote|O Rudra, O Ishana, O Maheshwara, O Mahadeva, O lord, for thou art Parabrahm, the one and only god!<Ref> P. 443 ''Researches Into the Nature and Affinity of Ancient and Hindu Mythology'' By Vans Kennedy </ref>}}

==Bhakti movement==
:''See also: [[The Hindu Renaissance#Medieval Renaissance|Bhakti movement]], [[Bhakti]], [[Bhakti Marga|Bhakti Yoga]]''
Krishnaism is one notable instance of Vaiṣnava monotheism popularized in the [[Bhakti movement]]. Krishnaism refers to Krishna with the title ''Svayam Bhagvan'', meaning 'Lord Himself' and it is used exclusively to designate Krishna as the Supreme Lord.<ref name=Gupta20071>Gupra, 2007, p.36 note 9.</ref> Certain other [[Sampradaya|traditions]] of Hinduism consider Krishna to be the source of all emanations,<ref name = jsn>''[[Bhagwan Swaminarayan]] bicentenary commemoration volume, 1781-1981.'' p. 154: ...Shri [[Vallabhacharya]] [and] Shri Swaminarayan...Both of them designate the highest reality as Krishna, who is both the highest avatara and also the source of other avataras. To quote R. Kaladhar Bhatt in this context. "In this transcendental devotion (Nirguna [[Bhakti]]), the sole Deity and only" is Krishna. [http://books.google.com/books?id=_Q0YAAAAIAAJ&q=Avatara+Swaminarayan+Krishna+origina%3B&dq=Avatara+Swaminarayan+Krishna+origina%3B New Dimensions in Vedanta Philosophy - Page 154], Sahajā[[nanda]], [http://books.google.com/books?q=+subject:%22Vedanta%22 Vedanta]. 1981</ref> and the source of Vishnu himself or to be the same as [[Narayana|Narayan]].<ref name = "Delmonico2004">{{cite journal
| author = Delmonico, N.
| year = 2004
| title = The History Of Indic Monotheism And Modern Chaitanya Vaishnavism
| journal = The Hare Krishna Movement: the Postcharismatic Fate of a Religious Transplant
| url = http://books.google.com/?id=mBMxPdgrBhoC&pg=PA31&dq=Vaisnava+monotheism
| accessdate = 2008-04-12
| publisher = Columbia University Press
| isbn = 978-0-231-12256-6
}}</ref><ref name = "Elkman1986">{{cite book
| author = Elkman, S.M.
| coauthors = Gosvami, J.
| year = 1986
| title = Jiva Gosvamin's Tattvasandarbha: A Study on the Philosophical and Sectarian Development of the Gaudiya Vaishnava Movement
| publisher = Motilal Banarsidass Pub
| isbn =

}}</ref><ref name = Dimock1989>{{cite book
| author = Dimock Jr, E.C.
| coauthors = Dimock, E.C.
| year = 1989
| title = The Place of the Hidden Moon: Erotic Mysticism in the Vaisnava-Sahajiya Cult of Bengal
| publisher = University Of Chicago Press
| isbn =

}} [http://books.google.com/books?id=EAYa1BtUTm0C&pg=PA132&dq=Svayam+bhagavan&sig=jcyEA-4tyPoddQmWg-FnYKDBgEY page 132]
</ref> The term is seldom used to refer to other forms of Krishna and/or Vishnu within the context of certain religious texts such as the ''[[Bhagvata Purāṇa|Bhagvata Purāṇa]]''.

Though Krishna is recognized as ''Svayam Bhagvan'' by many,<ref name = "RKm">{{cite book
|author=Mepathur Narayana Bhattatiri
|title=Narayaneeyam-Bhagavata, Condensed Edition
|publisher=Sri Ramakrishna Math
|location=
|year=2003
|pages=
|isbn=81-7120-419-8
|oclc=
|doi=
|accessdate=
}}pp.234-239</ref> he is also perceived and understood from an eclectic assortment of perspectives and viewpoints.<ref name=Mahony1987>{{cite journal
| author = Mahony, W.K.
| year = 1987
| title = Perspectives on Krishna's Various Personalities
| journal = History of Religions
| volume = 26
| issue = 3
| pages = 333–335
| accessdate = 2008-04-12
| doi = 10.1086/463085
| jstor=1062381
}}</ref> When Krishna is recognized to be ''Svayam Bhagvan'', it can be understood that this is the belief of Gaudiya Vaiṣnavism,<ref name=Kennedy1925>{{cite book
| author = Kennedy, M.T.
| year = 1925
| title = The Chaitanya Movement: A Study of the Vaiṣnavism of Bengal
| publisher = H. Milford, Oxford university press
| isbn =

}}</ref> the Vallabha Sampradaya,<ref name = "flood">{{cite book
| author = Flood, Gavin D.
| authorlink = Gavin Flood
| title = An introduction to Hinduism
| publisher = Cambridge University Press
| location = Cambridge, UK
| year = 1996
| isbn = 0-521-43878-0
| url = http://books.google.com/?id=KpIWhKnYmF0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=gavin+flood
| accessdate = 2008-04-21
| page = 341
}}"Early [[Vaiṣnava]] worship focuses on three deities who become fused together, namely Vasudeva-Krishna, Krishna-Gopala and Narayana, who in turn all become identified with Vishnu. Put simply, Vasudeva-Krishna and Krishna-Gopala were worshiped by groups generally referred to as Bhagvatas, while Narayana was worshiped by the Pancaratra sect."</ref> and the [[Nimbarka Sampradaya]], where Krishna is accepted to be the source of all other manifestations and the source of Vishnu himself. This belief is drawn primarily from the famous statement of the Bhagvatam<ref name=Gupta2007/>:<ref name = Rosen>''Essential [[Hinduism]]'' S. Rosen, 2006, Greenwood Publishing Group [http://books.google.com/books?id=VlhX1h135DMC&pg=PA124&dq=Krishna+is+the+original+Personality+of+Godhead&client=firefox-a&sig=2Yojs3j3lTcocPQ7RaIqBnpLrq0 p.124] ISBN 0-275-99006-0</ref>
 
{{Cquote|All of the descents and incarnations are either plenary portions or portions of the plenary portions of the Lord, but Lord Śrī Krishna is the original Personality of Godhead.|4=Srimad Bhagvatam<ref>Śrimad Bhagvatam1.3.28</ref>}}
 
Vaiṣnavism is one of the earliest implicit manifestations of monotheism in the traditions of Vedas. ''Svayam Bhagvān'' is a [[Sanskrit]] term for the original deity of the Supreme God worshiped across many traditions of the Vaiṣnavism as the source of all, the monotheistic absolute Deity.<ref name=Delmonico2004>{{cite journal
| author = Delmonico, N.
| year = 2004
| title = The History Of Indic Monotheism And Modern Chaitanya Vaishnavism
| journal = The Hare Krishna Movement: the Postcharismatic Fate of a Religious Transplant
| url = http://books.google.com/?id=mBMxPdgrBhoC&pg=PA31&dq=Vaisnava+monotheism
| accessdate = 2008-04-12
| publisher = Columbia University Press
| isbn = 978-0-231-12256-6
}}</ref><ref name = "Elkman1986">{{cite book
| author = Elkman, S.M.
| coauthors = Gosvami, J.
| year = 1986
| title = Jiva Gosvamin's Tattvasandarbha: A Study on the Philosophical and Sectarian Development of the Gaudiya Vaisnava Movement
| publisher = Motilal Banarsidass Pub
| isbn =
}}</ref>
<ref name = "Klostermaier1974">{{cite journal
| author = Klostermaier, K.
| year = 1974
| title = The Bhaktirasamrtasindhubindu of Visvanatha Cakravartin
| journal = Journal of the American Oriental Society
| volume = 94
| issue = 1
| pages = 96–107
| accessdate = 2008-04-12
| doi = 10.2307/599733
| jstor = 599733
| publisher = American Oriental Society
}}
</ref> Within [[Hinduism]], Krishna is worshiped from a variety of perspectives.<ref name=Mahony1987>{{cite journal
| author = Mahony, W.K.
| year = 1987
| title = Perspectives on Krishna's Various Personalities
| journal = History of Religions
| volume = 26
| issue = 3
| pages = 333–335
| accessdate = 2008-04-12
| jstor=1062381
| doi=10.1086/463085
}}</ref> However, the Svayam Bhagvan concept refers to the Supreme Being of the Orthodox Gaudiya Vaiṣnavism,<ref name=Kennedy1925>{{cite book
| author = Kennedy, M.T.
| year = 1925
| title = The Chaitanya Movement: A Study of the Vaiṣnavism of Bengal
| publisher = H. Milford, Oxford university press
| isbn =
}}</ref> the Vallabha Sampradaya and the [[Nimbarka]] Sampradaya, where Krishna is worshiped as the source of all other avataras (including Vishnu).<ref name=Ojha1978>{{cite book
| author = Ojha, P.N.
| year = 1978
| title = Aspects of Medieval Indian Society and Culture
| publisher = BR Pub. Corp.; New Delhi: DK Publishers' Distributors
| isbn =
}}</ref>
<ref>[http://srimadbhagavatam.com/1/3/28/en1 ''Bhag'' 1.3.28] Chapter 3: Krishna Is the Source of All Incarnations</ref>
<ref name = McDaniel>See McDaniel, June, ''"Folk Vaishnavism and Thākur Pañcāyat: Life and status among village Krishna statues"'' in {{Harvnb|Beck|2005|p=39}}</ref> A distinguishing feature of the Vaisnava teachings is that God, Krishna or Vishnu,<ref name="Elkman1986"/> is a real person and His variegated creation is also real.<ref name="Elkman1986"/><ref name= Thomson>{{cite journal
| author = Richard Thompson, Ph. D.
| year = December 1994
| title = Reflections on the Relation Between Religion and Modern Rationalism
| url = http://www.iskcon.com/icj/1_2/12thompson.html
| accessdate = 2008-04-12
}}</ref>

Krishna worshiped in Vaiṣnava religion as the Supreme came into being as soon as all creatures came into existence. [[Brahma]] was the first Vaiṣnava. In Gaudiya Vaiṣnavism, Śiva Mahadeva is also a Vaiṣnava; in Śaivism, by contrast, Śiva is the supreme God. The ancient Prajapaties are all Vaiṣnavas. [[Narada]] who is the born child of Brahma, is a Vaiṣnava. Thus pure monotheistic Vaiṣnava religion began with the beginning of history.<ref name="Thomson"/> In the recent times man arrived once again at the instinctive monotheism of the Aryans and Vaiṣnavas.<ref name=Dalmia-luderitz1992>{{cite journal
| author = Dalmia-luderitz, V.
| year = 1992
| title = Hariscandra of Banaras and the reassessment of Vaisnava bhakti in the late nineteenth century
| journal = Devotional Literature in South Asia: Current Research, 1985-8
| url = http://books.google.com/?id=BE40dp6SCFUC&pg=PA281&dq=Vaisnava+monotheism
| accessdate = 2008-04-12
| publisher = Cambridge University Press
| isbn = 978-0-521-41311-4
}}</ref>

A different viewpoint, opposing this theological concept, is the concept of Krishna as an ''avatara'' of Narayan or Vishnu. However, although its is usual to speak of Vishnu as the source of the avataras, this is only one of the names of god of Vaiṣnavism, who is also known as Vishnu to some Vaiṣnava, Narayan to some, Vasudeva, or any of the other Vaiśnava persons, and behind each of those names there is a divine figure with attributed supremacy in Vaisnavism.<ref name = Krishna4>
{{Harvnb|Matchett|2000|p=4}}</ref> The theological interpretation of ''Svayam Bhagvān'' differs with each tradition and the translated from the Sanskrit language, the term literary means "[[Bhagvan]] Himself" or "directly Bhagvan".<ref name=Gupta2007/> Gaudiya Vaiṣnava tradition often translates it within its perspective as ''primeval Lord'' or ''original Personality of Godhead'', but also considers the terms such as ''Supreme Personality of Godhead'' and ''Supreme God'' as an equivalent to the term ''Svayam Bhagvan'', and may also choose to apply these terms to Vishnu, Narayan and many of their associated avatars.<ref> name=Knapp2005>{{cite book
| author = Knapp, S.
| year = 2005
| title = The Heart of Hinduism: The Eastern Path to Freedom, Empowerment and Illumination -
| publisher = iUniverse
| isbn =</ref>

"Krishna is the primeval Lord, the original Personality of Godhead, so He can expand Himself into unlimited forms with all potencies."<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=a2KPChj7lTwC&pg=PA161 page 161]</ref><ref name= ICJKnott>{{cite journal
| author = Dr. Kim Knott,
| year = 1993
| title = Contemporary Theological Trends In The Hare Krishna Movement: A Theology of Religions
| url = http://www.iskcon.com/icj/1_1/knott.html
| accessdate = 2008-04-12
}}..."''[[Bhakti]]'', the highest path, was that of surrender to [[Lord Krishna]], the way of pure devotional service to the Supreme Personality of Godhead".</ref>
Others have translated it simply as "the Lord Himself".<ref name="KK">{{cite book |author=K. Klostermaier |title=The Charles Strong Trust Lectures, 1972-1984 |publisher=Brill Academic Pub |location= |year=1997 |isbn=90-04-07863-0 |quote= For his worshippers he is not an avatara in the usual sense, but Svayam Bhagvan, the Lord himself.|url= http://books.google.com/?id=F_0UAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA109&dq=Svayam+bhagavan |accessdate= |page=206 | others = Crotty, Robert B.}} p.109 Klaus Klostermaier translates it simply as "the Lord Himself"</ref> Followers of Vishnu-centered sampradayas of Vaiṣnavism rarely address this term, but believe that it refers to their belief that Krishna is among the highest and fullest of all ''avatars''<ref name = Pal1958>{{cite book
| author = [[Bipin]] Chandra Pal
| year = 1964, 132 pages
| title = Shree Krishna: Letters Written to a Christian Friend
| publisher = Yugayatri/New India Printing
& Publishing Co.
| quote = First edition published in 1938 under the title of 'Europe asks: who is Shree Krishna'.
| isbn =</ref>

Sri Krishna stands at the top of this series. He is therefore called by his votaries as Purna Avatara or the highest and fullest incarnation of the Lord. and is considered to be the "''paripurna avatara''", complete in all respects and the same as the original.<ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://www.tirumala.org/sapthagiri/122002/purana.htm
|title=Sapthagiri
|publisher=www.tirumala.org
|accessdate=2008-05-03
|last=
|first=
}}</ref> Parashara Maharishi, [[Vyāsa]]'s father had devoted the largest [[Aṅṣa]]<ref>It means part.</ref> in ''[[Vishnu Purāṇa]]'' to the description of Sri Krishna Avatara the ''Paripoorna Avatara''. And according to Lord Krishna's own instructions ''upadeṣa'', "he who knows the secrets of His (Krishna's) Janma<ref>It means birth.</ref> and [[Karma]]<ref>It means actions.</ref> will not remain in [[saṅsāra]]<ref>''punar janma naiti-maam eti''.</ref> and attain Him after leaving the mortal coil."<ref>Bhagvad Gita 4.9</ref> [[Parāsara]] Maharishi ends up [[Añṣa]] 5 with a phalashruti in an identical vein (''Vishnu Purāna''<ref>Vishnu Purāna 5.38.94</ref>.)

The prime supporters of the Krishna-centered theology, Gaudiya Vaiṣnavas and followers of the Vallabha [[Sampradāya]] Nimbarka Samprā[[daya]], use the ''[[Gopala Tapani Upaniṣad]]'',<ref>{{cite book |author=B. V. Tripurari |title=Gopala-tapani Upaniṣad |publisher=Audarya Press |location= |year=2004 |pages= |isbn=1-932771-12-3 }}</ref> ''[[Vedanta Sutras]]''<ref name=Gupta2007/> and other Hindu scriptures such as the ''Bhagvata Purāna'' and the ''[[Brahma Vaivarta Purāna]]'', among others, to support their view that Krishna is indeed the ''Svayam Bhagvan''. This belief was summarized by the 16th century author [[Jiva Goswami]] in some of his works, such as ''Krishna-sandarbha''.<ref name=Gupta2007>{{cite book
| author = Gupta, Ravi M.
| coauthors =
| year = 2007
| title = Caitanya Vaisnava Vedanta of Jiva Gosvami
| publisher = Routledge
| isbn = 0-415-40548-3
}}</ref><ref name=Gupta2004>{{cite book
| author = Gupta, Ravi M.
| coauthors =
| year = 2004
| title = Caitanya Vaisnava Vedanta: Acintyabhedabheda in Jiva Gosvami's Catursutri tika
| publisher = University Of Oxford
| isbn =

}}</ref> While Krishna himself if mentioned in one of the earliest texts of Vedic literature - ''Rig Veda''.<ref>
Sunil Kumar Bhattacharya ''Krishna-cult in Indian Art''. 1996
M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd. ISBN 81-7533-001-5 p.126: "According to (D.R.Bhadarkar), the word Krishna referred to in the expression 'Krishna-drapsah' in the Ṛgveda, denotes the very same Krishna".</ref>

In the sixth book of the [[Hindu epic]] ''[[Mahābhārata]]'', the Bhishma Parva<ref>It is better known as the ''[[Bhagavad Gitā|Bhagvad Gitā]]''.</ref> Krishna offers numerous quotations that reaffirm the belief that he himself is the ''Svayam Bhagvan''. Verse [http://www.asitis.com/7/7.html 7.7] of the ''[[Bhagavad Gitā|Bhagvad Gitā]]'', is often used to support the opinion that Krishna himself is the ''Svayam Bhagvan'', and that no impersonal form of Brahm supersedes his existence, as it is a common view that ''Bhagvad Gitā'' was propounding Krishna-theism before first major proponents of [[Advaita Vedanta|monism of the Smarta school]].<ref name = "IST">{{cite book
|author=
|authorlink=
|editor = S. Devadas Pillai
|others=
|title=Indian Sociology Through Ghurye: A Dictionary
|edition=
|language=
|publisher=South Asia Books
|location=Columbia, Mo
|year=1997
|origyear=
|quote=
|isbn=81-7154-807-5
|oclc=
|doi=
|url=http://books.google.com/?id=P3uD22Ghqs4C&pg=PA283
|accessdate=
|page=403
}}</ref>

==Related Articles==
*[[Cosmogony]]
*[[Cosmology]]
*[[Darshana]]
*[[Divinity]]
*[[Brahm]]
*[[God]]
*[[Devatā]]
*[[Deities]]
*[[Worship]]
*[[Murti Puja]]

==External Resources==
*[http://enlightened-spirituality.org/panentheism.html "Panentheism and the Reality of God"] By Timothy Conway, Ph.D. (Published: October 2, 2015)
*[https://www.academia.edu/19511326/Panentheism_and_Hindu_Tantra_Abhinavagupta_s_Grammatical_Cosmology “Panentheism and Hindu Tantra: Abhinavagupta’s Grammatical Cosmology”] By Loriliai Biernacki

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

[[Category:Theology]]
[[Category:Hindu philosophical concepts]]
[[Category:Forms of worship]]

Visesha

2026-07-08T03:26:48Z

Himanshu Bhatt: added category

Visesha means attribute/qualifier.

In metaphysics, Visesha means any quality that helps the observer differentiate between two living/nonliving entities. Essential existence of all entities is absolute, undifferentiated and attribute-less. The difference is only apparent, and that difference is caused by the viseshas assumed by the entity in the phenomenal/temporal context.

The worldview that holds that Viseshas comprise phenomenal world, assuming Viseshas is the beginning and dissolution of Viseshas as the culmination of cycle of existence, is Vaiseshika [[Darsana]].

Vaiseshika is also physics, as it deals with the physical viseshas or physical attributes of entities.

The worldview that holds that atman assumes Viseshas in its bound state and in its liberated state it is one with [[brahman]] and void of viseshas, is Visistadvaita. (Visista+ [[advaita]] = [[advaita]] of atman and [[brahman]], while holding viseshas for atman in the unliberated state. This is in contrast with [[Advaita]] where atman never has viseshas, only the upadhi (gross/subtle body) has viseshas).

Visista is [[a]] derivative of Visesha, used in the sense of "special".

Vishaya and Visesha are related words - meaning matter and attribute respectively. Vishaya is one that has a visesha.

In grammar, Viseshana which means adjective, is called so because it explains [[guna]]/visesha of [[a]] noun.

Visesha is associated with Nature; temparaments, principles, faculties, and all that constitutes nature is a visesha in the general sense.

Vaiseshika enumerates nine gunas, that emerge because of the association of Purusha with Prakriti. They are [[buddhi]] (intellect), sukha (pleasure), dukha (pain/grief), iccha (like), dvesha (dislike), prayatna (effort), [[dharma]] (righteousness), [[adharma]] (unrighteousness), sanskara (impression of action). Mimamsakas support the same view.

According to Sankhya, sukha (pleasure), dukha (pain/grief) and moha (attraction) are caused by the three gunas Satva, Rajas and Tamas. [[Yoga darsana]] holds the same view.

[[Category:Darshana]]

Main Page

2026-07-08T03:25:30Z

Himanshu Bhatt:

There are [[Special:Statistics | '''{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}''']] articles on Hindupedia. Now, we are introducing DharmaGPT which is powered by this content.

Hindupedia, the Hindu Encyclopedia, is devoted to educating the public about all aspects of Hinduism ranging from history and philosophy to current events that impact Hindus. We are the only online Hindu encyclopedia that provides the public with a traditional perspective on our religion and way of life.

{| class="cleantable" style="width: 100%;"
|- style="vertical-align: top;"
|width="50%"|
{| width="100%"
|-
||{{mp-topicheader-h3|General Introduction}}
* [[Who is a Hindu?]]
* [[Hindu|Origin of the Name "Hinduism"]]
* [[Overview|Introduction to Sanatan Dharm]]
* [[Sanātan Dharm Principle|Sanatan Dharm Principle]]
* [[Ārya Samudāy|Arya Family of Religions]]
* [[Ideals and Values]]
* [[Conversion]] or [[Śuddhi|Suddhi]]
* [[Unique Features]]
* [[Key Beliefs]]
|-
| |{{mp-topicheader-h3|Core Practices}}
*[[Ethics of Hinduism|Ethics]]
**[[Right Worldview]]
**[[Sadachara|Right Conduct]]
**[[Gundosh|Sin and Virtue]] ([[Svarga and Naraka|Heaven and Hell]])
**[[Kshama and Pashchanutap|Forgiveness and Repentance]]
**[[Tapas|Penance]]
**[[Expiation of Sins]]
**[[Vinaya|Humility]]
**[[Shanti|Peace]]
**[[Animal rights|Animal Rights and Vegetarianism]]
**[[Environmentalism]]
**[[Rta and Spiritual Authority|Divine Will and Authority]]
*[[Means to Liberation|Three Approaches to Salvation]] ([[Yoga Traya|Three Yogas]])
**[[Bhakti Marga]] ([[Worship]])
***[[Mantra Marga]] ([[Japa]])
***[[Nirguna Puja|Worship of God Without Icons]]
***[[Murti Puja|Worship of God Through Icons]]
***[[Worship of God as Mother]]
***[[Sangrahan & Kripa|Propitiation & Grace]]
***[[Yajna|Sacrifice]]
**[[Gyana Marga]] ([[Tapas#Tapas as austerities|Austerities]])
***[[Ascetics|Asceticism]]
***[[Monasticism]]
**[[Karma Marga]] ([[Nishkam Karma|Altruism]])
|-
|}
{| width="100%"
|-
| |{{mp-topicheader-h3|Core Concepts}}
*Metaphysical
**[[Darshana|Metaphysical Worldviews]] and [[Cosmogony]]
**[[Theology]]
***[[Divinity]]
***[[Brahm]] ([[God]])
***[[Devata|Demigods]] ([[Deities]])
***Godly Manifesting ([[Avatara|Avatar]])
**Salvation ([[Moksha]])
**Causation ([[Karma]])
***[[Cycle of Birth & Death]] and [[Atma|the Soul]]
***[[Bandha, Bandhana]] and [[Ātma-māyā|Maya]]
*Psychophysical
**[[Devayāna|Devayana]]
**[[Principle of Transcendence]]
**[[Consciousness Studies]]
*Physical
**[[Cosmology]]
**[[Kalakash Samsthan|Time & Space]]
**[[Heliocenteric Theory Of Gravitation]]
|-
|}
{| width="100%"
|-
| |{{mp-topicheader-h3|Individual and Social Life}}
* [[Hindu View of Life]]
* [[Karma in Individual Life]]
* [[Shraddha|Faith]] and [[Dharma|Religion]]
*Lifestyle Customs
**[[Devapujā|Devapuja]]
**[[Dinacharya]]
**[[Snāna|Snāna]]
**[[Upavāsa|Upavāsa]]
**[[Vratas and Utsavas]]
**[[Charan Sparsh]]
**[[Yoga]]
*Festivities
** [[Festivals]]
** [[Soḍaśa-samskāras|Sodasha-samskaras]]
** [[Shraddh]]
** [[Pañcāṅga|Calendar]]
*Stages in Life
** [[Purushartha]]
** [[Varna Ashrama Dharma|Varna Ashrama Dharm]]
* Divination
**[[Jyotisha]] and [[Astrology]]
**Palmistry
**Graphology
**[[Vastu]]
|-
|}
{| width="100%"
|-
| | {{mp-topicheader-h3|Sects}}
* [[Spiritual Traditions]]
* [[Sampradāya|Sampraday]]s
* [[Śanmatas|Shanmatas]]
** [[Ganpatya]]
** [[Kaumara|Kaumar]]
** [[Śaiva|Shaiv]]
** [[Śākta|Shakt]]
** [[Saura]]
** [[Vaiśnava|Vaishnav]]
* [[Folk and Tribal]]
|-
|}
{| width="100%"
|-
| | {{mp-topicheader-h3|Outgrowths of Hinduism}}
{| align="right" border="0" width="400"
|-
|}
*Indian
** [[Bauddh Dharm]]
** [[Yungdrung Bon|Bonpa Dharm]]
** [[Jain Dharm]]
** Zarthushti Dharm
** [[Sikh Dharm]]
*[[The Spread of Hinduism#Iranian Plateau|Iranian]]
**Manicheism
**Mithraic Mysteries
*[[The Spread of Hinduism#Greece|Hellenic]]
**Hermeticism
**Orphism
**Platoism
**Pythagoreanism
|-
|}
{| width="100%"
|-
| | {{mp-topicheader-h3|Comparative Religion}}
* [[Zoroastrianism and Hinduism]]
* [[Daoism and Hinduism]]
* [[Sufism with Vaishnavism]]
|-
|}
{| width="100%"
|-
| | {{mp-topicheader-h3|Interactions with Abrahamic Religions}}
* [[Islam]]
* [[Christianity]]
* [[Judaism]]
|-
|}
||
{| width="100%"
|-
| |<div class="Sagely Quote" ></div>
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<div style="clear: both;"></div>
|-
|}
{| width="100%"
|-
| | {{mp-topicheader-h3|History}}
* [[Origins]]
* [[The Spread of Hinduism]]
* [[Contribution of Hindu Diaspora]]
* [[Shatata-Unnati|Continual Social Adaptability and Improvement]]
* [[The Hindu Renaissances]]
* [[Hindu Mythology Explained]]
* [[Buddhist Patronage by Hindu Monarchs]]
* [[Sanskrit]]
* [[Historical Racial Diversity of Hindus]]
* [[History of Ancient Geography]]
* [[History of Education]]
|-
|}
{| width="100%"
|-
| | {{mp-topicheader-h3|Temples}}
* [[List of UNESCO Hindu World Heritage Sites|UNESCO Hindu World Heritage Sites]]
* [[Temples in Europe]]
* [[Pilgrimages]]
* [[Temples]]
* [[Temple Types]]
* [[Temple Construction]]
|-
|}
{| width="100%"
|-
| | {{mp-topicheader-h3|Institutions}}
* [[Institutions]]
* [[Hindu Post-Secondary Institutes]]
*[[Gurukula Vyavastha]]
* [[Spiritual Digital Media]]
* [[Organizations]]
* [[Hindu-Inspired Organizations]]
|-
|}
{| width="100%"
|-
| | {{mp-topicheader-h3|Scriptures and Textbooks}}
* [[Overview Of Scriptures]]
* [[Veda]]
* [[Upanishad]]
* [[Smriti]]
* [[Agama|Agama & Tantra]]
* [[Upanga]]
* [[Vedanga]]
* [[Dharmaśāstras]]
* [[Itihasa]]
* [[Stotra]]
*[[Ideals and Values|Textbook for Children]]
*[[Hinduism in California Textbooks]]
|-
|}
{| width="100%"
|-
| | {{mp-topicheader-h3|People}}
* [[Women]]
* [[Sants|Saints]]
* [[Sants|Ascetics]]
* [[Sants|Great Sages]]
* [[Revolutionaries]]
* [[Hindu World War Warriors]]
|-
|}
{| width="100%"
|-
| | {{mp-topicheader-h3|Politics}}
* [[Rulership in Hinduism]]
* [[Political Philosophy]]
* [[Political History]]
* [[Martial History]]
* [[Kingdoms]]
* [[Kingdoms: Restoration of Hindu Rulership]]
* [[Indian Freedom Fighters]]
* [[Hindu Political Parties]]
* [[Concept of Motherland]]
* [[Patriotism]]
|-
|}
{| width="100%"
|-
| | {{mp-topicheader-h3|Arts}}
* [[Arts]]
* [[Philosophy of Indian Art and Texts]]
* [[Symbols]]
* [[Dance]]
* [[Music]]
* [[Sculpture]]
* [[Poetry]]
|-
|}
{| width="100%"
|-
| | {{mp-topicheader-h3|Civilization}}
* [[Agriculture]]
* [[House]]
* [[Town Planning]]
* [[Social Structure]]
**[[Theory of Collectivism]]
** [[Theory of Varna]]
* [[Politics and Governance]]
* [[Economy]]
* [[Trade and Shipping]]
* [[Sports and Games]]
|-
|}
{| width="100%"
|-
| | {{mp-topicheader-h3|Sciences}}
* [[Sanatan Dharm a Religion or Science]]
* [[Philosophy of Indian Science and Texts]]
* [[Metallurgy]]
* [[Mathematics]]
**[[Mathematics of the Vedas]]
* [[Astronomy]]
* [[Cosmology]]
* [[Physical Sciences]]
* [[Engineering and Technology]]
*Homeopathy
**[[Ayurveda]] and [[History of Ayurveda]]
**Siddha Medicine
|-
|}
{| width="100%"
|-
| | {{mp-topicheader-h3|Physical Knowledge}}
*[[Yoga]]
**[[History of Yoga]]
*Martial Arts
**[[Kalaripayattu]]
|-
|}
{| width="100%"
|-
| | {{mp-topicheader-h3|Hindupedia's Semantics and Index}}
* [[:Category:Glossary|Glossary]]
* [[:Category:Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism|Articles from Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism by Swami Harshananda]]
* [[:Category:Shabdakalpadrumah|Translated entries from the Shabdakalpadrumah]]
* [[Special:AllPages|Article Index]]
* [[Pronunciation Guide]]
|-
|}

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Main Page

2026-07-08T03:25:14Z

Himanshu Bhatt: added new article into brackets and moved another 1 to another spot on the page

There are [[Special:Statistics | '''{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}''']] articles on Hindupedia. Now, we are introducing DharmaGPT which is powered by this content.

Hindupedia, the Hindu Encyclopedia, is devoted to educating the public about all aspects of Hinduism ranging from history and philosophy to current events that impact Hindus. We are the only online Hindu encyclopedia that provides the public with a traditional perspective on our religion and way of life.

{| class="cleantable" style="width: 100%;"
|- style="vertical-align: top;"
|width="50%"|
{| width="100%"
|-
||{{mp-topicheader-h3|General Introduction}}
* [[Who is a Hindu?]]
* [[Hindu|Origin of the Name "Hinduism"]]
* [[Overview|Introduction to Sanatan Dharm]]
* [[Sanātan Dharm Principle|Sanatan Dharm Principle]]
* [[Ārya Samudāy|Arya Family of Religions]]
* [[Ideals and Values]]
* [[Conversion]] or [[Śuddhi|Suddhi]]
* [[Unique Features]]
* [[Key Beliefs]]
|-
| |{{mp-topicheader-h3|Core Practices}}
*[[Ethics of Hinduism|Ethics]]
**[[Right Worldview]]
**[[Sadachara|Right Conduct]]
**[[Gundosh|Sin and Virtue]] ([[Svarga and Naraka|Heaven and Hell]]))
**[[Kshama and Pashchanutap|Forgiveness and Repentance]]
**[[Tapas|Penance]]
**[[Expiation of Sins]]
**[[Vinaya|Humility]]
**[[Shanti|Peace]]
**[[Animal rights|Animal Rights and Vegetarianism]]
**[[Environmentalism]]
**[[Rta and Spiritual Authority|Divine Will and Authority]]
*[[Means to Liberation|Three Approaches to Salvation]] ([[Yoga Traya|Three Yogas]])
**[[Bhakti Marga]] ([[Worship]])
***[[Mantra Marga]] ([[Japa]])
***[[Nirguna Puja|Worship of God Without Icons]]
***[[Murti Puja|Worship of God Through Icons]]
***[[Worship of God as Mother]]
***[[Sangrahan & Kripa|Propitiation & Grace]]
***[[Yajna|Sacrifice]]
**[[Gyana Marga]] ([[Tapas#Tapas as austerities|Austerities]])
***[[Ascetics|Asceticism]]
***[[Monasticism]]
**[[Karma Marga]] ([[Nishkam Karma|Altruism]])
|-
|}
{| width="100%"
|-
| |{{mp-topicheader-h3|Core Concepts}}
*Metaphysical
**[[Darshana|Metaphysical Worldviews]] and [[Cosmogony]]
**[[Theology]]
***[[Divinity]]
***[[Brahm]] ([[God]])
***[[Devata|Demigods]] ([[Deities]])
***Godly Manifesting ([[Avatara|Avatar]])
**Salvation ([[Moksha]])
**Causation ([[Karma]])
***[[Cycle of Birth & Death]] and [[Atma|the Soul]]
***[[Bandha, Bandhana]] and [[Ātma-māyā|Maya]]
*Psychophysical
**[[Devayāna|Devayana]]
**[[Principle of Transcendence]]
**[[Consciousness Studies]]
*Physical
**[[Cosmology]]
**[[Kalakash Samsthan|Time & Space]]
**[[Heliocenteric Theory Of Gravitation]]
|-
|}
{| width="100%"
|-
| |{{mp-topicheader-h3|Individual and Social Life}}
* [[Hindu View of Life]]
* [[Karma in Individual Life]]
* [[Shraddha|Faith]] and [[Dharma|Religion]]
*Lifestyle Customs
**[[Devapujā|Devapuja]]
**[[Dinacharya]]
**[[Snāna|Snāna]]
**[[Upavāsa|Upavāsa]]
**[[Vratas and Utsavas]]
**[[Charan Sparsh]]
**[[Yoga]]
*Festivities
** [[Festivals]]
** [[Soḍaśa-samskāras|Sodasha-samskaras]]
** [[Shraddh]]
** [[Pañcāṅga|Calendar]]
*Stages in Life
** [[Purushartha]]
** [[Varna Ashrama Dharma|Varna Ashrama Dharm]]
* Divination
**[[Jyotisha]] and [[Astrology]]
**Palmistry
**Graphology
**[[Vastu]]
|-
|}
{| width="100%"
|-
| | {{mp-topicheader-h3|Sects}}
* [[Spiritual Traditions]]
* [[Sampradāya|Sampraday]]s
* [[Śanmatas|Shanmatas]]
** [[Ganpatya]]
** [[Kaumara|Kaumar]]
** [[Śaiva|Shaiv]]
** [[Śākta|Shakt]]
** [[Saura]]
** [[Vaiśnava|Vaishnav]]
* [[Folk and Tribal]]
|-
|}
{| width="100%"
|-
| | {{mp-topicheader-h3|Outgrowths of Hinduism}}
{| align="right" border="0" width="400"
|-
|}
*Indian
** [[Bauddh Dharm]]
** [[Yungdrung Bon|Bonpa Dharm]]
** [[Jain Dharm]]
** Zarthushti Dharm
** [[Sikh Dharm]]
*[[The Spread of Hinduism#Iranian Plateau|Iranian]]
**Manicheism
**Mithraic Mysteries
*[[The Spread of Hinduism#Greece|Hellenic]]
**Hermeticism
**Orphism
**Platoism
**Pythagoreanism
|-
|}
{| width="100%"
|-
| | {{mp-topicheader-h3|Comparative Religion}}
* [[Zoroastrianism and Hinduism]]
* [[Daoism and Hinduism]]
* [[Sufism with Vaishnavism]]
|-
|}
{| width="100%"
|-
| | {{mp-topicheader-h3|Interactions with Abrahamic Religions}}
* [[Islam]]
* [[Christianity]]
* [[Judaism]]
|-
|}
||
{| width="100%"
|-
| |<div class="Sagely Quote" ></div>
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<div style="clear: both;"></div>
|-
|}
{| width="100%"
|-
| | {{mp-topicheader-h3|History}}
* [[Origins]]
* [[The Spread of Hinduism]]
* [[Contribution of Hindu Diaspora]]
* [[Shatata-Unnati|Continual Social Adaptability and Improvement]]
* [[The Hindu Renaissances]]
* [[Hindu Mythology Explained]]
* [[Buddhist Patronage by Hindu Monarchs]]
* [[Sanskrit]]
* [[Historical Racial Diversity of Hindus]]
* [[History of Ancient Geography]]
* [[History of Education]]
|-
|}
{| width="100%"
|-
| | {{mp-topicheader-h3|Temples}}
* [[List of UNESCO Hindu World Heritage Sites|UNESCO Hindu World Heritage Sites]]
* [[Temples in Europe]]
* [[Pilgrimages]]
* [[Temples]]
* [[Temple Types]]
* [[Temple Construction]]
|-
|}
{| width="100%"
|-
| | {{mp-topicheader-h3|Institutions}}
* [[Institutions]]
* [[Hindu Post-Secondary Institutes]]
*[[Gurukula Vyavastha]]
* [[Spiritual Digital Media]]
* [[Organizations]]
* [[Hindu-Inspired Organizations]]
|-
|}
{| width="100%"
|-
| | {{mp-topicheader-h3|Scriptures and Textbooks}}
* [[Overview Of Scriptures]]
* [[Veda]]
* [[Upanishad]]
* [[Smriti]]
* [[Agama|Agama & Tantra]]
* [[Upanga]]
* [[Vedanga]]
* [[Dharmaśāstras]]
* [[Itihasa]]
* [[Stotra]]
*[[Ideals and Values|Textbook for Children]]
*[[Hinduism in California Textbooks]]
|-
|}
{| width="100%"
|-
| | {{mp-topicheader-h3|People}}
* [[Women]]
* [[Sants|Saints]]
* [[Sants|Ascetics]]
* [[Sants|Great Sages]]
* [[Revolutionaries]]
* [[Hindu World War Warriors]]
|-
|}
{| width="100%"
|-
| | {{mp-topicheader-h3|Politics}}
* [[Rulership in Hinduism]]
* [[Political Philosophy]]
* [[Political History]]
* [[Martial History]]
* [[Kingdoms]]
* [[Kingdoms: Restoration of Hindu Rulership]]
* [[Indian Freedom Fighters]]
* [[Hindu Political Parties]]
* [[Concept of Motherland]]
* [[Patriotism]]
|-
|}
{| width="100%"
|-
| | {{mp-topicheader-h3|Arts}}
* [[Arts]]
* [[Philosophy of Indian Art and Texts]]
* [[Symbols]]
* [[Dance]]
* [[Music]]
* [[Sculpture]]
* [[Poetry]]
|-
|}
{| width="100%"
|-
| | {{mp-topicheader-h3|Civilization}}
* [[Agriculture]]
* [[House]]
* [[Town Planning]]
* [[Social Structure]]
**[[Theory of Collectivism]]
** [[Theory of Varna]]
* [[Politics and Governance]]
* [[Economy]]
* [[Trade and Shipping]]
* [[Sports and Games]]
|-
|}
{| width="100%"
|-
| | {{mp-topicheader-h3|Sciences}}
* [[Sanatan Dharm a Religion or Science]]
* [[Philosophy of Indian Science and Texts]]
* [[Metallurgy]]
* [[Mathematics]]
**[[Mathematics of the Vedas]]
* [[Astronomy]]
* [[Cosmology]]
* [[Physical Sciences]]
* [[Engineering and Technology]]
*Homeopathy
**[[Ayurveda]] and [[History of Ayurveda]]
**Siddha Medicine
|-
|}
{| width="100%"
|-
| | {{mp-topicheader-h3|Physical Knowledge}}
*[[Yoga]]
**[[History of Yoga]]
*Martial Arts
**[[Kalaripayattu]]
|-
|}
{| width="100%"
|-
| | {{mp-topicheader-h3|Hindupedia's Semantics and Index}}
* [[:Category:Glossary|Glossary]]
* [[:Category:Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism|Articles from Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism by Swami Harshananda]]
* [[:Category:Shabdakalpadrumah|Translated entries from the Shabdakalpadrumah]]
* [[Special:AllPages|Article Index]]
* [[Pronunciation Guide]]
|-
|}

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Shatata-Unnati

2026-07-08T03:17:44Z

Himanshu Bhatt: /* Comparison in societal reformation (India and Europe) */

{{Author|Himanshu Bhatt}}
'Shatata-Unnati' is ''continual change'', 'abhyas' means improvement, 'kram-parivartanam' is ''incremental reformation'', while 'shodhanam' is ''refinement''. All of these terms are descriptive of Hindu society throughout the ages.

Continual social betterment has been one of the defining characteristics of Hindu society. All major cultures have had evils in their histories, including Hindu societies, but the shining examples to enforce positive changes and adaptability to a changing world are the Hinduism, Christianity, and Judaism.

In an era wherein colonial norms meant imprisonment or executions for speaking out against imperial rule, Mahatma Gandhi challenged the ideas of forcing nations to be subservient, fighting oppression by violence, and purging one's own nation of evils (i.e., inequality and superstition.) Today, much of the world still looks to Gandhi's perseverance to bring positive change into society.

Transformation of India's political systems made India into the world's largest democracy, and for accomplishing that, [[Indian Freedom Fighters#INC's Hindu activist roots|Hindu doctrines were rationalize to promote democracy]]. Even in India's political spectrum, Hindu principles were used to make liberalism and communism resonate with people, like Ram Rajya being a communist utopia. Some of the Communist Party of India's [[Indian Freedom Fighters#CPI's Hindu activist roots|founders were idealogues for both communism and Hinduism]], such as Swami Kumaranand, Swami Satyabhakt, and Swami Sahajanand Saraswati, as well as Keezhedathu Damodaran, Radhamohan Gokulji, and Rahul Sankrityayan.

==Comparison in societal reformation (India and Europe)==
:''See also: [[Contribution of Hindu Diaspora]]'', ''[[The_Spread_of_Hinduism#Europe|The Spread of Hinduism in Europe]]''
Whereas even in modern times, in most European Christian societies, witch-hunts and slavery were the norm, in Indian Hindu societies, widow-burning was the norm among certain communities (usually northwestern) and caste prejudice was prevalent. Both the Christian and Hindu communities worked to extinguish these and other evils.

Historical societal injustices have been acknowledged and reconciled. Even today, the lasting legacy of important Hindu reformers is visible wherein quotas employment and educational quotas are implemented for social upward mobility to ensure poorer castes and women do not fall behind.

During the colonial era, as human rights improved in Western societies as results from agricultural/economic advancements, Western writers of non-Christian societies took a chauvinistic, parochialist, and Eurocentric approach towards Hindu societies, claiming that they:
#Would never improve in human rights, morality, or rationality
#Are permanently stagnant
#Cannot produce modern or political economic institutions

Critics of the colonial era were proven wrong in these concrete ways:
#Large-scale societal reforms led by Hindu activists themselves improved Hindu societies — i.e., promoting window remarriage and caste integration while also creating quotas for females and historically-disadvantaged castes
#Rapid expansion of education and intellectual mobility — i.e., growth of global Hindu academic presence
#Global economic and corporate leadership — i.e., entrepreneurship and CEOs of major multinational companies like Adobe, Google, and Microsoft
#Democratic political evolution — i.e., maintaining electoral democracies like Hindu-majority nations, providing peaceful transfers of power, and granting significant autonomy to judiciary, press, and civil societies
#Religious and philosophical continuity + adaptation
#Ritual practice has diversified massively by religion and class — i.e., clerics ([[Rta and Spiritual Authority|priests]] and [[ascetics|monks]]) are from many backgrounds
#Reinterpretation of scriptures became internationally influential — i.e., Aldous Huxley loved the perennialism of Upanishads, Erwin Schrödinger the idea of aikatmyam, and Henry David Thoreau that of [[Theology#Both Immanency and Transcendence of God (Panentheism)|Ishavasyam]]
#Non-Hindus from outside of the Indian Subcontinent have converted to Sanatan Dharm and have promoted the religion — James Donald Walters who founded Ananda Sangha, Richard Alpert who founded Hanuman Foundation, John Edwin Favors who founded iFast[https://ifastdc.com/][https://ifastglobal.com/], and Robert Hansen who founded Saiva Siddhanta Church[https://www.himalayanacademy.com/]
#Hindu-based intellectual practices have popularized globally — i.e., [[Ayurveda|Ayurvedic medicine]], divination, political activism, [[Animal rights#Influence upon Westerners|animal rights]], [[Animal_rights#Vegetarianism|vegetarianism]], and [[yoga]]

==Hindu-led social betterment==
What is extraordinary in the case of India is that it was the religious institutions ([[Organizations|Hindu organizations]] and [[Hindu Post-Secondary Institutes|schools]]) that made revolutionary changes, not normally secular or non-Hindu ones. Practicing Hindus saw that superstitious and chauvinistic practices had become institutionalized (caste system and misogyny) within Hindu society, so they formed associations to help, uplift, educate the destitute. They would even go steps further to privilege the marginalized through reservations.

Even women who were more exploratory and not members of specific religions engaged with Hinduism positively. The best example might be Annette Beveridge, an Englishwoman who was the daughter of a Unitarian Christian herself became affiliated with Keshub Chandra Sen in England. She was drawn to his lectures and this fascination with his philosophy inspired her to begin life in India, where she even established<ref>Its expenses were financed by Ananda Mohan Bose and Durga Mohan Das, Dwarkanath Ganguly was its headmaster, and others Brahmos involved with the school were Sibnath Sastri and Monomohun Ghose.</ref> the Hindu Mahila Vidyalaya (''Hindu Women's School''.) Her husband Henry Beveridge was an orientalist (westerners intrigued with Asian cultures) working in India, meaning they were not Westerners critical of Hindu identity. Mrs. Emily Phear was an honorary teacher, and she too was involved in Brahmo Samaji circles for societal development. (Her husband Sir John Budd Phear helped Brahmo Samaj legally.) A non-Hindu that likewise began a girls school (Hindu Female School[https://www.bethunecollegiateschool.com/]) with Brahmos and other Hindus was John Bethune, whose accomplices were Dakshinaranjan Mukherjee, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Ramgopal Ghosh, and Madanmohan Tarkalanka (the last even taught at the school without pay.) Others foreign women in India that engaged positively with Hindu activist organizations were Mary Carpenter[https://southasianbritain.org/people/mary-carpenter/] and Sophia Dobson Collet with Brahmo Samaj, Alma B.R.A. with Arya Samaj, and Mary Hobson with Prarthana Samaj[https://puneprarthanasamaj.org/].

Hindu women that set women's rights activism into motion were Arya Samaj's Lajwanti Sood and Satyavati Devi, and Brahmo Samaj's Kadambini Ganguly and Sarala Devi Chaudhurani. Swarnakumari Devi was both an Arya Samaji and a Brahmo Samaji.
[[image:Dr. Anandi Gopal Joshi.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Dr. Anandi Gopal Joshi in 1886 marking a milestone with 2 other Asian women.]]
What is also worth mentioning is that there were women not members of sociopolitical organizations who pursued and achieved new societal achievements, showing that many Hindu women thought for themselves. Dr. Anandibai Joshi was India's first female doctor to trained in Western medicine. Her education and trip to U.S. was funded by [[Shatata-Unnati#Shahu's royal authority to implement reforms|Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj]]. Upon return, he even funded her return journey and offer her supervisory role at Kolhapur's largest hospital[https://old.rcsmgmc.ac.in/]. Foundations[https://anandibai.org/resources/], institutions (i.e., Dr. Anandi Gopal Higher Education & Medical Facilities), awards (i.e., IRDS's[https://ngosindia.org/uttar-pradesh-ngos/irds-institute-for-research-documentation-in-social-sciences-lucknow/] Anandibai Joshi Award for Medicine), and scholarships (i.e., Dr. Anandi Gopal Scholarship Scheme) are named after her in commemoration. (Dr. Anandi Gopal Higher Education & Medical Facilities itself is a collaboration between the U.S. university she graduated in (DUCM[https://drexel.edu/medicine/news-events/publications/pulse/spring-2018/]) and SMCW. She let people know that she was not ashamed of being a Hindu. She was often pressured by Christian missionaries to convert[https://knowledge.lancashire.ac.uk/id/eprint/48487/1/bharadwaj-et-al-2023-journey-across-the-world-to-study-medicine-the-anandi-joshi-story.pdf]. Dr. Anandi had written her thesis, "Obstetrics among the Aryan Hindus", containing references from both the traditional Ayurvedic (''Susruta Samhita'' and ''Charaka Samhita'') and modern American medical literatures. (Mentionable is that although her husband Gopalrao Joshi's relentless, public letter-writing campaigns and essays targeted Lokmanya Tilak for being not liberal enough and Justice Ranade for being too liberal Tilak's ''Kesari'' and ''Mahratta'' newspapers glorified Dr. Joshi as a rolemodel for women.)

===Female upliftment===
:''See also: [[Indian Freedom Fighters]] 
;Theosophical Society wing
[[image:Paris Women's Congress.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Dr. Reddy and 3 Indian women at the Paris Women's Congress (1926.)]]
The top 3 champions who politically improved Indian women's rights in the modern era were foreigners — Dr. Annie Besant, Dorothy Jinarajadasa, and Margaret Cousins. They did not tell Indian women to leave Hinduism but rather they themselves became Hindu in practice and Indian in habit. They then sought to restore the Vedic-era of womanhood wherein women had authority (i.e., to become clerics, scholars, and leaders.) Emma Mitchell (American) and Francesca Arundale (English) greatly contributed to building of Hindu educational institutions (i.e., Central Hindu College.)

Dr. Muthulakshmi Reddy is a big name in female rights, and she was influenced by Dr. Besant in her college years (1907-1912) and was guided by Dr. Besant in both her social reform and political work. She worked with Dr. Besant and others to establish the Women's Indian Association (1917.) After Dr. Besant's death, she took over the presidency of the WIA. Gandhi was another major mentor but Reddy never formally joined the INC but sometimes protested colonial injustices (i.e., Gandhi's arrest.)

;Ramakrishna Mission wing
[[image:Nivedita & Vivekanand.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Nivedita with Vivekanand.]]
[[Niveditā, Sister|Sister Nivedita (Margaret Noble)]], a convert from Ireland became a disciple of [[Swami Vivekananda|Swami Vivekanand]] and joined Aurobindo's Dawn Society and had also founded and ran girls' schools in Kolkata (i.e., Ramakrishna Sarada Mission Sister Nivedita Girls' School[https://www.sisterniveditagirlsschool.org/home.html] in Baghbazar) to educate girls who had little to no access to education (i.e., poorest of the poor.) She advocated for women's intellectual and moral development, influenced by Vivekanand's vision of strong Indian womanhood. Her work included lectures, fundraising (India, England, and U.S.), and writings that promoted gender equality in access to knowledge and opportunities. She had worked with Dr. Annie Besant at times. Likewise, Sister Christine, disciple of Vivekanand, is another example of a Westerner who utilized the Ramakrishna Mission and Vivekanand's circles as vehicles for improving female rights in India.

;INC wing
:''See also: [[Indian Freedom Fighters#INC's Hindu activist roots|INC's Hindu activist roots]] 
[[image:Nellie Sen Gupta.jpg|right|thumb|100px|N.S. Gupta.]]
Nellie Sen Gupta[https://www.thedailystar.net/in-focus/news/deshpriya-jatindra-mohan-nellie-sengupta-2036981] (nee Edith Ellen Gray) had married freedom fighter Jatindra Mohan Sen Gupta, and both joined the INC — she also founded Deepali Sangha, a women's organization aimed at promoting social and political awareness, leadership, training, and empowerment among women. Her husband passed away but she was advised to stay in the-then East Pakistan to take care of Hindu rights, which she did. Umadevi (born Wanda Dynowska), a Polish convert to Sanatan Dharm too championed women's rights in India and translated ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'', ''[[Mahabharata]]'', ''[[Ramayana]]'', and other [[Hindu Scriptures|Hindu and Bauddh literature]] into Polish. Mira Behn (born Madeleine Slade), the daughter of a British Royal Navy admiral, gave up her affluent lifestyle to become Gandhi's servant in India.
[[image:Sarla Behn Chipko Movement.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Sarla Behn's Chipko act[https://www.adda247.com/school/chipko-movement/].]]
Sarla Behn[https://growbilliontrees.com/blogs/knowledge/sarla-behn-tree-nurturing-nature-and-empowering-communities-for-a-sustainable-future?srsltid=AfmBOoq4h0d0skQBNr4w4zOvISuhYz02_EXtPvD3pUoQYjTlcvNHEbQ-#fullcontent] (born Catherine Mary Heilman) from England setup the Lakshmi Ashram Kausani in 1946 within Uttarakhand to uplift women, after having lived in the Sevagram Ashram[https://gandhiashramsevagram.org/] in Maharashtra. The organization educated rural hill girls academically, trained women of self-reliance and industrial skills (i.e., khadi weaving), taught personal care (i.e., literacy, hygiene, anti-liquor campaigns), and promoted [[Environmentalism|ecological awareness]] (Chipko Movement.) It also worked with the INC to encourage nationalist fervour. Lakshmi Ashram individual units were known as Mahila Mandals. This ashram attracted foreign residents intrigued with Sanatan Dharm even after independence, like David Hopkins, who relocated to there in the 1990's.
[[image:Durgabai Deshmukh.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Dr. D.D.]]
Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh, pupil of Gandhi and freedom fighter in the colonial era, established the Central Social Welfare Board (1953.) She later became president of the All India Women's Conference (1931.) Taraben Premchand is an important mention, as she was an important member of this organization, as well as the Jain Mahila Parishad[https://www.dbjainsabha.com], Jyoti Sangh[https://jyotisangh.org/about-us/] (local women's advancement group in Gujarat), and Shraddhanand Ashram[https://shraddhanandmahilashram.org/].

Madeleine Rolland was Women's International League for Peace and Freedom's[https://www.wilpf.org/] French section and never settled in India. However, upon engaging with Hindu culture in the 1920's, she translated Ananda Coomaraswamy's ''[[Nataraja Dasakam|The Dance of Shiva]]'' into French, introducing Hinduism to the-then residents of France. She also translated Rabindranath Tagore's writings of Sanatan themes and universal humanism, helping popularize them in Europe. She welcomed Gandhi on his visit to Marseille, France. [[image:Kanuparti Varalakshmamma.jpg|right|thumb|100px|'Sarada'.]]
Kanuparti Varalakshmamma (alias 'Sarada'), a devout Gandhian, used Hindu themes like providing ethical refences (i.e., Savitri, Sita) to depict women's morality, dignity, and conduct. She often engaged with the idea of a grihalakshmi (idea woman of the household.) She also founded the Stree Hitaishini Mandali for uplifting women. She used ''Andhra Patrika'', a newspaper created by a promoter of the ''Bhagavad Gita'', Kasinathuni Nageswara Rao, to preach her ideas.
[[image:Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit.jpg|right|thumb|100px|'Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit'.]]
It is also noteworthy that the 1st female head of government in the world was a [[Bauddh Dharm|Bauddh]] (Sirimavo Bandaranaike of Sri Lanka, non-INC member), and 2nd was a Hindu (Indira Gandhi, INC member.) Also Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit[https://news.un.org/en/story/2024/03/1147327] (born Swaroop Rani Nehru) played a significant role in global representation of women, particularly in the United Nations. She was the first woman to serve as the President of the UN General Assembly (1953-1954), a position she held to advocate for decolonization and the independence of countries in Asia and Africa. She was also the first Indian woman to hold a cabinet rank in a provincial government. Hansa Mehta[https://india.un.org/en/311450-hansa-mehta%E2%80%99s-life-story-continues-inspire] had an impact on the UN's constitution wording wherein "''all human beings''" instead of "all men" in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. (She was also one of only 2 women delegates working alongside Eleanor Roosevelt in the UN Human Rights Commission 1946-48.)
[[image:Nilla Cram Cook.jpg|right|thumb|100px|'Nilla Nagini Devi'.]]
Nilla Cram Cook, an American who settled at Gandhi's ashrams, had [[Conversion|converted to Hinduism]] in the 1930's but identified with the '[[Samyag Darshan#Samadarshan|sarva dharma sambhava]]' ideal, so considered herself a [[Bhakta|devotee]] of not only [[Krishna]] but of Jesus too, and so she later also translated the Quran and engaged with Islamic practices in a syncretic way with her Hindu and Christian customs. Her final literary work was ''The Way of the Swam: Poems of Kashmir'' (1958), which was mostly focused around the [[Saiva|Shaiv]] mystic poetess Lal Ded[https://hindupost.in/society-culture/lal-ded-her-life-and-works/#][https://homegrown.co.in/homegrown-voices/the-poetry-of-lal-ded-mysticism-resistance-the-female-voice-in-14th-century-kashmir] and others from Kashmir syncretic Sanatan-[[Bauddh Dharm|Bauddh]]-[[Sufism with Vaishnavism|Sufi]] tradition. She dedicated the book to Pandit. She didn't work on women's upliftment directly but did participate with Gandhi's Harijan Sevak Sangh. She had also written about Sarojini Naidu (1st Indian woman-president of the INC.)

;Other associations
[[image:Maharani Chimnabai Gaekwad II.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Maharani Chimnabai.]]
[[image:Sethu Parvathi Bayi.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Junior Queen Bayi.]]
The National Council of Women in India[https://www.ncwi.in/], founded 1925, was also a monumental organization to make progress for women — it mainly focused on female literacy, vocational training, public participation, and legal reform. It was primarily the initiative of Lady Meherbai Tata, a Mazdaean icon, and its first president was Maharani Chimnabai Gaekwad II, born Gajrabai Ghatge, a princess of Dewas (M.P.) She supported societal progress of women that did not compromise on Hindu identity (i.e., traditional customs like wearing sari and sindhoor or like celebrating Raksha Bandhan), which is how she framed her ''The Position of Women in Indian Life'' book. She financed schools for girls, as well as Hindu charities and temples. The Gaekwad family also funded libraries and women's institutions and social reform initiatives. She discussed the eradication or the purdah, child marriage, women's restrictions (i.e., obtaining education and employment), and other obstacles towards advancement. Following her presidentship, Sethu Parvathi Bayi took over. She was from the royal family of Travancore (Kerala), and her family was deeply connected to the Padmanabhaswamy Temple[https://spst.in/][https://www.padmanabhaswamytemple.com/]. She financed Hindu institutions as well. It is notable that Sucharu Deo, daughter of Brahmo leader K.C. Sen was a prominent member and she had also helped build the Maharani Girls' High School[https://school.banglarshiksha.gov.in/ws/website/index/19013701705] in Darjeeling (W.B.) together with her sister (Suniti) and Hemlata Sarkar, daughter of Brahmo leader Sibnath Sastri.

From Hindu-based institutions like sociopolitical organizations and schools came a number of philanthropic associations.
;Most influential persons for women's upliftment
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Area of Contribution
! Meaning
! Steps Taken
! Activists
! Organizations
! Founder's Affiliation(s)
|-
|Political rights and visibility
|1. Women appearing in public political spaces 2. Women being recognized as leaders (not just participants) 3. Changing social norms about women's public roles 4. Symbolic representation
|Helped institutionalize women's leadership through bodies like Women's Indian Association
|Dr. Annie Besant (women's political rights + organizational leadership), Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay (political participation, economic empowerment, cooperatives), Margaret Cousins[https://www.womensmuseumofireland.ie/exhibits/margaret-elizabeth-cousins] (Suffarage, WIA), Sarojini Naidu (mass mobilization of women in politics)
|
|
|-
|Modern institutional equality
|
|Helped institutionalize institutional equality through contributing policy influence (Hansa Mehta) and constitutional rights (Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh)
|Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh (welfare systems), Hansa Mehta
|
|
|-
|Foundational legal reform
|
|
|Raja Ram Mohan Roy (abolition of sati), Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar (widow remarriage)
|
|
|-
|Education
|
|
|Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar
|
|
|-
|}

====Hindu influence internationally====
Even outside of India during the 20th century, women's rights were not perfect, and so many women incorporated Hindu symbolism (i.e., worship) and concepts towards promoting societies where women would have equal rights.
[[image:M.J. Gage.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Matilda Joslyn Gage.]]
[[image: Charlotte Despard.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Charlotte Despard, an Anglo-Irish suffragist who supported Indian independence.]]
As [[Worship of God as Mother|worship of God as a female or mother]] has been common in Sanatan Dharm since its foundation, that made validating female upliftment in India quicker. Even in Western nations, prominent women's rights organizations implemented imagery of goddesses from pertinent ancient cultures, like U.K.'s Women's Freedom League and National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies, and the global International Woman Suffrage Alliance, to legitimize female equality and women being in positions of power. Some American and European feminists and women's rights activists, like Matilda Joslyn Gage<ref>"''While the sale of daughters was practiced in England for seven hundred years after the introduction of Christianity, we note that by the ancient law of India, a father was forbidden to sell his daughter in marriage, or receive the smallest present therefor.''" - P. 79-82 ''Woman, Church and State'' (1893) By Matilda Joslyn Gage</ref> (U.S. suffragist) and Helena Petrovna Blavatsky<ref>"''The pre- and post-Vedic woman was as free as man; and no impure terrestrial thought was ever mixed with the religious symbology of the early Aryans.''" 
"''This is proven by the fact that in the Vedic period their women were not placed apart from men in penetralia, or ‘Zenanas.’ Their seclusion began when the Mahomedans … had conquered the land and gradually enforced their ways and customs upon the Hindus.''" 
- P. 379-380 ''The Secret Doctrine: Volume I'' By Helena Blavatsky </ref> (European feminist), even used the examples of [[Worship of God as Mother|Hindu goddess-worship]] and Hindu queens to support their examples. And though Blavatsky did not officially align with any single religion to encourage recruitment for her Theosophical Society, she referenced Sanatan and Bauddh scriptures (Upanishads, and then Gita, then Bauddh shastras) more than others. (M.J. Gage[https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/the-feminist-inspired-witches-of-oz-180985334/] in her ''Woman, Church, and State'' even highlighted Hindu texts to counter the male-centric theology of the West and referenced ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'' to validate the concept of a female [[divinity]].) Even feminists of the colonial era like Victoria Woodhull that was skeptical of organized religion, respected "''Christna and Buddha''" (Krishna and Gautama.) Mary Lowe Dickinson at the World's Parliament Circles (1893) was so impressed by [[Swami Vivekananda|Swami Vivekanand]]'s speech, that she developed a fascination with female divinity of Hinduism, and in her editorials and public circles, argued that Hinduism's recognition of a feminine aspect within the divine was spiritually superior to the rigidly patriarchal, all-male Trinity of mainstream American Christianity. Emily Pitts Stevens and Charlotte LeMoyne Wills (wrote about the genderless [[Brahm]]) became disciples of Vivekanand. Laura de Force Gordon wrote about the immortal soul and continuous cycle of life. Alice Moore McComas wrote about the [[Environmentalism#Aikatmyam|interconnectedness (aikatmyam) of all things]]. In U.K., Charlotte Despard's specific pamphlets linked [[karma]] to political activism. Margaret Louise Sanger was influenced by Vivekanand and Rabindranath Tagore. Sarah Bull<ref> P. 483 ''Western Admirers of Ramakrishna and His Disciples'' By Gopal Stavig, Swami Shuddhidananda </ref>, who particularly focused on women's education and reform was connected to both Vivekanand and Sister Nivedita. Josephine MacLeod was a major promoter of Vivekanand in the West and was involved in transatlantic reform-intellectual networks. Viktoria Ocampo of Argentina was deeply influenced by Tagore, even hosting him in Argentina and promoting his ideas widely. Gabriela Mistral of Chile was too, and she applied Tagore's ideas to women's education, child welfare, and cultural reform. Mabel Dodge Luhan was fascinated with Sanatan philosophy and influenced by Vivekanand. Mentionable is Emma Calve of France, who wasn't a political feminist leader but influential in women's intellectual-cultural circles, and she was deeply influenced by Vivekanand.
[[image:Carol Patrice Christ.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Carol Patrice Christ.]]
After suffragists had attained complete institutional equality, they them progressed to the next stage of female liberation by ensuring that their own spiritual faith wasn't male-chauvinistic or making them subordinates of males. Feminists were inspired by goddess deity of Hinduism to then promote it within generic spirituality. Valerie Saiving, Isaac Bonewits and Naomi Goldenberg founded in the 1970's, Thealogy, a feminine-specific theology. Carol Patrice Christ launched the Goddess Movement, which provided 4 aspects of Goddess symbolism as reasons to needing a goddess in women's lives; 1) the Goddess as affirmation of female power, 2) the female body, 3) the female will, and 4) women's bond and heritage. She specifically used the Shakti concept to prove that a major global religion (Hinduism) explicitly defined the [[Brahmanda|material universe]]/nature/change ([[Darshana#Sankhya|Prakriti]]) as an inherently active, female, and sacred force. She was an ecofeminist, as were Charlene Spretnak and Miriam Simos were ecofeminists too. Merlin Stone wrote ''Ancient Mirrors of Womanhood: Our Goddess and Heroine Heritage'' (1979) and in a chapter analyzes goddesses like [[Durga]], [[Kali]], [[Lakshmi Puja|Lakshmi]], Parvati, and Saraswati. Devout Christian women feminists too drew on Hindu practices and ideas to support women's advocacy, and they include Ivone Gebara, Pearl Sydenstricker Buck, and Sally McFague.

'Matriarchal religion' is a philosophy stating that societies were Goddess worshippers with females having the same status and rights as men before male gods began being worshipped, and the latter led to patriarchy. Goddesses being worshipped contiguously in Hindu societies for thousands of years was the backing this thought utilized, in addition to feminist archaeology (i.e., ancient idols and temples of goddesses uncovered.)

==Start of modern reforms==
In modern India, most positive social changes within Indian Hindu societies came not first as enforcement or pressure from European rulers but from advocacy of forward-thinking Hindus. Raja Ram Mohan Roy had led the campaign to purge Hindu societies of Sati and caste prejudices. Roy worked with British imperial authority, specifically Lord William Bentinck to have sati outlawed. Roy himself was a religious leader that reiterated Upanishads for their principles.

Other institutions of positive social changes were mainly Hindu ones or were governed by Hindu religious leaders, not secular ones.

The Indian National Social Conference of 1887 was organized by Justice Ranade, Rai Raghunath Rao, Narendra Nath Sen Gupta, and Janki Nath Ghoshal. Ranade was founder of the Prarthana Samaj, a religious group.

Arya Samajis, Brahmo Samajis, and Prarthana Samajis were the most vocal and active forces advocating: 
#Widow Remarriage (i.e., Widow Remarriage Act 1856—initiative of Brahmo Samaj)
#Women's right to divorce (i.e., Native Marriage Act 1872—initiative of Brahmo Samaj) 
#Property rights for women 
#Opposition to child marriages (i.e., Age of Consent Act 1891—initiative of Brahmo Samaj and Prarthana Samaj, Child Marriage Restraint Act 1929—initiative of Arya Samaj) 
#Universal accessible education (built schools, including colleges and gurukuls) 
#Caste-based reservations (i.e., 50% quota of 1902—initiative of Shahu Maharaj, who later became an Arya Samaji)
[[image:Justice Ranade.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Mahadev Govind Ranade (alias 'Justice Ranade'.)]]
[[image:Jagannath Shankarshet.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Jagannath Shankarshet (alias 'Architect of Modern Mumbai'.)]]
The Indian Factories Act 1881's ratification was a landmark in workers' rights and the credit goes mainly to Sorabjee Shapoorjee Bengalee, and then Prarthana Samaj. He did work alongside the Prarthana Samaj to lobby the British authority through the First Factory Commission in 1875 (made to investigate the brutal conditions of Indian labour.) Prarthana Samaj's ''Subodh Patrika'' newspaper specifically critiqued mill owners. Rahnumai Mazdayasnan Sabha, its newspaper ''Rast Goftar'', and Bengalee himself referenced labour reformers Sasipada Banerji and Protap Chunder Mozumdar, and used the former's methods of worker upliftment as a blueprint for their own legislative arguments. Collaboration between the Sabha and Prarthana Samaj began with the latter's creation of the Theistic Association, on which the Parsi Naoroji Furdonji was its 1st Chairman. Ranade and Bhandarkar drove the Association from discussing only theism to improving society through finding solutions of work hardships. The Night School Initiative was launched, helping workers receive adequate training, particularly in labourer-heavy neighborhoods Byculla, Dongri, Khetwadi, and Thakurdwar. (From 1886-1890 alone, over 2,750 industrial workers successfully studied through this initiative.) Protap Chunder Mozoomdar, a Brahmo, began eight night schools in 1872 within Mumbai when he relocated to the city.<ref> P. 47 ''Peaceful Industrial Relations, Their Science and Technique'' (1957) By R. J. Soman </ref> Brahmos then established night schools within Kolkata by 1878.

Brahmo Samaj's K.C. Sen’s first visit to Mumbai in March-April 1864 engaged him with Bengalee, Furdonji, Ranade, and Bhandarkar (all then members of Young India.) They all discussed ways to develop India. They also shared strategies on how to bypass orthodox religious resistance—Furdonji within Zoroastrianism and Sen within Sanatan Dharm. Bengalee's First Labor Bill (1878) laid the groundwork for the later Indian Factories Act.

Prior to all of this, Jagannath Shankarshet[https://www.vishwakonkani.org/hall-of-fame/hon-jagannath-shankar-sheth/] spent the 1850s petitioning the British Parliament for local governance. As a result, it codified the Indian Councils Act of 1861, thus creating the Bombay Legislative Council as a political body to better govern the-then Bombay Presidency. Shankarshet was the main founder of Bombay Association. In its first leadership were also Dr. Ramachandra Vitthal Lad (alias 'Dr. Bhau Daji'), a Hindu intellectual who used his Sanskrit knowledge to decipher inscriptions, preserve manuscripts, and help reconstruct the forgotten timelines of ancient Guptas and Western Kshatrapa dynasties. Mentionable is the Parsi Sir Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy of the group. Shankarshet was a wealthy philanthropist that constructed and financed Sanatan and secular infrastructure, most notably the Bhavani Shankar Mandir[https://www.mcgm.gov.in/irj/go/km/docs/documents/D%20Ward/Heritage-Sites/73_Legacy%20of%20D%20Ward_Article_Bhavani%20Shankar%20Temple.pdf] (Mumbai), Sanskrit Seminary and Sanskrit Library (both in Mumbai too.) Elphinstone Educational Institution[https://elphinstone.ac.in/index.php] and Grant Medical College[https://gmcjjh.edu.in/] were his creations too. (Jeejeebhoy contributed to constructing the Grant Medical College.)

===Shahu's royal authority to implement reforms===
[[image:Shahu adoption.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Prince Yeshwantrao Ghatge being adopted by the royal family of Kohlapur.]]
[[image:Rajarshi.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Rajarshi Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj IV.]]
[[image:School foundation.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Foundation of Shri Shahu Chhatrapati Shikshan Sanstha.]]
The greatest champion on all of these sections for reforms was Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj[https://aissms.org/breaking-barriers-chhatrapati-shahu-maharaj-and-his-enduring-impact-on-progress-and-modernity/] (born Yeshwantrao Ghatge), '[[Rta and Spiritual Authority#Rishis|Rajarshi]]', the ruler of Kohlapur Kingdom who affiliated with organizations but probably the Arya Samaj[https://thearyasamaj.org] more than any other. Shahu definitely was not shy to publicly perform prayers, as he famously attended temples of goddesses Ambabai[https://www.mahalaxmikolhapur.com/home] and Bhavani[https://shrituljabhavani.org/] when having returned from his Europe trip in 1902. Also in 1902, Pratap Singh Maharaj of Idhar (Gujarat) introduced and educated him about the Arya Samaj. He provided patronage to the Arya Samaj.[https://navjyot.net/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/10.pdf]

The king passed many policies for for the upliftment of untouchable, nomadic, non-Brahmin communities and for females.<ref>Act of Free and Compulsory Primary Education (1917), Widow remarriage Act (1917), End of Balutedari (1918), Repeal of Kulkarni Watan (1918), Intercaste and Interreligious Marriages and Sanctioning of Registered Marriage Act (1919), Act relating to protection of Harassment of Women (1919), Divorce act (1919), Order on prohibition of Untouchability practice (1919), Illegitimate Children's Rights and Devadasi Prohibition Act (1920); 
[https://www.indiejournal.in/article/rajarshi-shahu-maharaj-and-his-tryst-with-the-arya-samaj "Rajarshi Shahu Maharaj & his tryst with the Arya Samaj Lessons for our times"] By Devkumar Ahire (Jun 26, 2023 6:42 PM)</ref>

;Prejudiced disgruntled castists promoting anti-Brahman hate, not universalism
While Shahu was affiliated with the Satyashodhak Samaj (SS) because it wanted to uplift the non-dwija castes, he did not feel they had any religious foundations, whereas the Arya Samaj was encompassed both a spiritual and social movement.<ref>"Beyond Reformism: Chhatrapati Shahu and Hinduism Reimagined" By Surajkumar Thube P. 124-144 ''Nidān: International Journal for Indian Studies, Volume 8'', Issue 1 (July 2023)</ref> Also, the SS of Pune was antithetical to social cohesion because it targeted the Brahman caste as an enemy, and while its main founder (Jyotirao Phule) made absurd claims like 'Shiv-Dharma'<ref>"''The real Shiv-Dharma that is ours, we are re-establishing it as Sarvajanik Satya Dharma.''" Chapter 4, ''Sarvajanik Satya Pustak''</ref> or 'Mahadev-Dharma' (worship of [[Shiva|Shiv]] as God and some local gods like Khandoba as avatars) being the true religion of Indians whereas every other Hindu belief and practice was an imposition by 'non-Indian Brahman invaders'. Being a chauvinist, he also criticized freedom fighter martyrs Lakshmi Bai, Nana Sahib, Tantia Tope for being Brahmans. He also wrote positively that freedom fighters lost the 1857 War of Independence against the British colonialists. He was also openly criticized by his own relative Baburao Phule, who accused the former of being a Christian convert who destroyed the Hindu religion.<ref>P. 58-59 ''The Caste Question: Dalits and the Politics of Modern India'' (2009) By Anupama Rao </ref>

Phule though anti-Brahman, was influenced by some Brahmans, such as Balshastri Jambhekar (a Hindu activist) who pushed scientific knowledge and history through Marathi, criticized caste segregation, and attacked other or kinds or orthodoxy like widowhood. He was also influenced by some Hindu activists who were not anti-Brahman (i.e., Karsandas Mulji.)

The organization would receive the most aid from Shahu (financial and social work), Karmvir (social work), and Padval (intellectual) but they themselves always kept a distance from the SS because of its explicitly castist vitriol. People would choose to align or become members of other associations for their inclusivity and harmonious vision for the future.

;Satyashodhak Samaj becoming less anti-Brahman
"''All Hindus are equal. No one is superior, no one is inferior. Let all flesh and blood be one. Four varnas are a real deceit. It's a tool to keep the non-Brahmins in slavery. There is no difference among the Hindus. Hindu is the only varna. If a Hindu eats or marries with another Hindu that's not ''[[adharma]].'' In contrast, what divide Hindus in the name of religion is not a dharma, but a trick by Brahmins. One who calls themselves a Hindu, whether they are Europeans or Africans, they are our coreligionists.''" - P. 39 ''Deshache Dushman'' (1925) By Dinkarrao Javalkar
[[image:Sasipada Banerji.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Sasipada Banerji (alias 'Sevabrata'.)]]
Notable is that Phule's friend Narayan Meghaji Lokhande, a labour organization leader, was close friends with Phule and used Khandoba-worship and the reverence of Sundays for Khandoba in his petition to British authority to achieve Sunday as a holiday for factory labourers (S.S. Bengalee's idea that he campaigned for over a decade.) (In some Satyashodhak branches, incoming members took an initialization oath in the name of "Khanderao".) Phule and Lokhande emulated Brahmans, like forming the political lobby group Deenbandhu Sarvajanik Sabha after Ranade's Poona Sarvajanik Sabha and forming the Bombay Mill Hands Association based and its mouthpiece ''Deenbandhu'' on the Working Men's Club (India's 1st labour welfare platform) and its mouthpiece ''Bharat Sramajibi'' (India's 1st labour journal) of Sasipada Banerji (Brahmo Samaji.) Mentionable is that Lokhande used phrases "''Hindu Bhau''", "''Hindu Dharma''" and "''Hindu Samaj''" in his writings.

Though Dinkarrao Javalkar portrayed himself as pan-Hindu when discussing the specific topic of Hindu unity, he still prejudicially criticized the Brahman caste in general<ref>"''This day will be counted among the most important days in the history of Hindus. There is no reason for you to fear jail. The Brahmans who eat ghee and roti should have that fear. To make the touchable people behave is in your hands. You are the sons of Hindus. You capture the tank saying 'har har Mahadev' and follow the advice of your leader Dr. Ambedkar Saheb. This is my own position.''" -Dinkarrao Javalkar at satyagraha with Keshavrao Jedhe and Dr. Ambedkar among a Mahar crowd</ref> and targeted some prominent Brahmans like Lokmanya Tilak. (Javalkar and Keshavrao Jedhe also portrayed themselves as pro-woman but derogatory remarks about women from the Brahman and certain other castes<ref>P. 44 ''19th Century Maharashtra: A Reassessment'' (2020) By Shraddha Kumbhojkar </ref> and both appealed to Dr. B.R. Ambedkar in 1927 to exclude Brahmans from the Mahad Satyagraha<ref> P. 27 ''Social Reform Movements in India: A Historical Perspective'' (1991) By V.D. Divekar</ref>.) Jedhe did protest with other activists (including Brahmans like Narhar Vishnu Gadgil, Seshdas Ranade, Shreedhar Mahadev Joshi, and members of Arya Samaj) for the right of Dalits to worship at Pune's Devdeveshwar Mandir[https://devdeveshwarsanthan.org/home.html]. Javalkar did write favourably about some like Ranade, Gopal Ganesh Agarkar, and Krishna Gopal Gokhale but even they were rarely mentioned. He rightfully partook in the Kalaram Mandir[https://www.shrikalaramsansthannasik.org/] Satyagraha in Nasik that protested for Dalits to be able to enter the temple. He was a communist and 10 years after his death, the Peasants and Workers Party (PWP) was formed.

SS branches outside of Pune were less hateful of Brahmans. It is also noteworthy, however, is that Nana Patil, a founder of the PWP, was affiliated with both the Satyashodhak and Prarthana associations [meaning that he, like most other Satyashodhaks didn't believe in Phule's religious ideology.] Some other PWP founders like Jedhe and Madhavrao Bagal were Satyashodhaks, they popularized Shiv Jayanti and Ganesh Chathuri. The latter and his son Vasantrao even wrote devotional pieces inspired from Bhakti Era saints (i.e., [[Tukaram]], [[Eknath]]) and valourizing pieces about Shahu. Tulshidas Jadhav, a Gandian within the PWP, championed the Bhakti Era's Warkari Movement, which was still popular in his time, because it was based on social equality and public seva. Also noteworthy is, that even some prominent members supported the Arya Samaj, like Krishnarao Bhalekar<ref>"''Bhalekar said that while Hinduism needed to be reformed , this reform should be brought about from within . He said he would defend Hinduism if it was under attack from Islam or Christianity.''" - P. 35 ''Non-Brahman Movement in Maharashtra'' (1989) By M.S. Gore </ref> (1 of the founders of SS with Phule) defended Dayanand Saraswati (Arya Samaj’s founder), when the latter’s procession was opposed by some orthodox Hindus in Pune, and Bhalekar organized a speech to be delivered by Saraswati at a dharmshal near a Rokdoba Temple in Pune. SS' Moro Vitthal Walvekar was directly affiliated with the Prarthana Samaj and played a crucial role in its associated media landscape (frequently serving as an editor of ''Subodha Patrika''.)

Bhalekar himself made the claim that the SS is the true follower of Sant Tukaram's [[Bhāgavata-dharma|Bhagwat Dharma]] ([[Krishna|Krishnaite]] [[Vaishnava|Vaishnavism]].) His son was Mukundrao Patil, who made the claim, "''The Satyasodhak Samaj is the true heir of the Hindu religion. Brahmanism is not Hinduism.''"<ref>''Dinmitra'' newspaper (1920s)</ref> Javalkar claimed SS is the true representative of the Hindu religion and that SS members are liberating Hinduism from the supremacy of the Brahmins. Shivram Janma Kamble (a Dalit) stated the SS is a revival movement of the true Hinduism. Kisan Faguji Bansode (a Dalit) argued "Shivdharma" was the true Hindu religion and that the SS advocates that version. Dr. Ramayya Venkayya Ayyavaru in ''Khristi Bandhujanans Vinanti'' or ''A Request to Our Christian Brothers'' (1887) wrote to missionaries that Indians did not need to be baptized and that monotheism has been embedded in Indian culture and that Indians. Previously, he, backed firmly by Lokhande and the urban Mumbai executive committee of the SS, aggressively fought against changing the name of the SS to 'Satya Dharma Samaj'.

There were those in his organization that promoted about how in ancient Sanatan society, there were no caste distinctions and that people were recognized by their merits. Their view was promoted by Tukaram Tatya Padval, who wrote ''Jatibhed Vivekshar'' (1861) after being inspired by Ashwaghosha's ''Vajrasuchi''. Phule republished copies of Padval's books, and the 2 developed a friendship. He did write at that in ancient India, certain sages were had Sudra or Avarna status but rose to the rank of a Brahman through their intellect, and used examples of Valmiki (wrote a ''Ramayan''), Sankhya, and Kabilar rishis. He also published copies of the ''Bhagavad Gita'', ''Yogasutra'', and compilations of the ''Rajayoga'' and ''Sankhya Karika.'' He further compiled the ''Tukarambaba ani Tyanche Shisya Yanchi Abhanga Gatha'' (1889) and ''Eknath Maharajancha Abhangachi Gatha'' (1903.) Padval, however, never became a member of Phule's organization and instead became a member of the Theosophical Society.

Krishnarao Arjun Keluskar, who was a member of the Mumbai SS had written positively of Krishna and the latter's ethics of the ''Bhagavad Gita'', as well as of Shivaji, Sant Tukaram, Gautam Buddha, and Govind Janardan Borkar (alias Shri Gajananaswami.) It was he who first influenced Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar with [[Bauddh Dharm]]. (Ambedkar had later converted to the dharm, but that's an Arya dharma, so is not damaging to Sanatan society or Indian society like converting to Islam would be.)

;Shahu forming his own Satyashodhak Samaj focused on upliftment (free of anti-Brahman distractions)
As a result of the Satyashodhak Samaj of Pune being too antagonistic of Brahmans, Shahu had instead founded his own branch in 1911 — Shri Shahu Satyashodhak Samaj. By an order, Shahu replaced the Brahman priests in the Patgaon Sansthan (Mauni Maharaj Math[https://durgbharari.in/maunibaba-patgaon/]) and Jyotiba Devasthan[https://shreejyotiba.com/?lang=E][https://maharashtratourism.gov.in/temple/jyotiba/] with Maratha priests. Bhaskarrao Jadhav and Anna Babaji Latthe were leaders of Shahu's Kolhapur Satyashodhak Samaj. Whereas Phule mostly only wrote positively of Shiva and local-born gods, Jadhav in his ''Marathas and their Religion'' wrote positively about Krishna and the ''Bhagavad Gita''. He further worked with Shahu to aid Arya Samaj in its activities and goals (i.e., train non-Brahmans to become priests too.) Noteworthy is that Latthe, who worked personally with Shahu Maharaj, was its first VP and that he worked to dismantle priestly ([[Jain Dharm|Jain priests]], not usually Brahmans) intermediation within the Jain clergy. (He was a big-time activist for general upliftment and for reform within the Jain community (i.e., wrote ''Jain Dharmacha Parichay''.)

Latthe founded the Dakshin Bharat Jain Sabha[https://dbjainsabha.com/], of which Dr. Bhaurao Patil (from a Jain family) became a member and through he wasn't a member of any SS branch, he did sometimes participate in its activities and himself founded the Rayat Shikshan Sansthan[https://rayatshikshan.edu/], which educated students in a multitude of topics, including Sanskrit. Patil (alias 'Karmvir Anna') was deeply influenced by Mahatma Gandhi and Vitthal Ramji Shinde.

;Shahu distancing himself formally from Satyashodhak Samaj
The SS had earned a bad reputation in Maharashtra with the general public, particularly for the outright anti-Brahman vitriol spewed in the SS's publications and events. Because the goal of Shahu and true reformers was to achieve a harmonious society with all people cooperating, it would not make sense to support an organization that's known for abusing persons (i.e., Brahmans) specifically over their caste identity.

In 1921, Shahu made a public statement in a Baroda newspaper that even though he granted significant support to the non-Brahman movement and introduced measures to eliminate Brahman dominance, he had never been affiliated with Phule's SS, and that he always accepted [[Rta and Spiritual Authority#Rishis|Vedic ritual authority]].

;Granting, accommodating, and expanding Arya Samaj
Shahu attended Arya Samaj sessions like the one at Navsari in 1918 and another at Bhavnagar in 1920<ref>P. 6. ''People's Raj Volume 30'' (1974) By Directorate-General of Information and Public Relations </ref>. He provided funding for Gurukul Boarding House to be built at Kerle, wherein large buildings and well-irrigated lands were granted to the Arya Samaj. Later, the Rajaram Anathalaya orphanage was added to this grant. He also brought educational institutions in his domain under the leadership of Arya Pratinidhi Sabha. Rajaram College's administration was also granted to the Arya Samaj.

;Spiritual Authority as Rajarshi
Shahu Maharaj, being a devout Sanatan wanted to proclaim the rights that warriors of history had and so participated in important ceremonies and worked with priests (i.e., Brahmans) to achieve the rights to learn and perform Vedic ceremonies. He established the Vedokta Committee for Marathas to be able to perform Vedic rites without requiring priests. In 1905, the Karveer Peeth's (or Kolhapur Math's) Shankaracharya declared full rights of Vedokta to Chhatrapati Shahu.

Tatyarao Joshirao was appointed by Shahu Maharaj as new royal purohit, replacing the Rajopadhye (creator of the infamous 'Vedokta Controversy'), who denied the Maharaj to perform Vedic rites. Joshirao was from a family that had traditional ownership of the historic Binkhambi Ganapati Mandir in Kolhapur.

Rajaram Shastri (alias 'Bhagavata'), a Brahman scholar, linguist, and researcher, openly challenged the religious orthodoxy, arguing from scripture that Shahu Maharaj had full rights to the Vedas. Vishnu Topkhane was another Brahman who greatly helped the Chhatrapati with his progressive reforms. Topkhane the educationalist helped the latter establish the Vidyapeeth High School near the Shri Karveer Niwasini Ambabai Mahalakshmi Temple. Freedom fighter Gokhale was someone who worked with Shahu. When the Vedokta Controversy broke out and the conservative press attacked the Maharaja, Gokhale privately and publicly validated Shahu Maharaj's stance, recognizing that social reform was a prerequisite for true political freedom. Ranade, though passed away before much Shahu's reforms began, was admired by the latter for his progressive ideals and actions.

Chhatrapati Shahu founded the Satyashodhak School for spiritual training in 1913, in which seminarians (predominantly from castes such as Marathas, Mahars, and Chambhars) were taught to recite and preach the poems (i.e., abhangs of Tukaram) of sants. He also created the Shivaji Vedic School (aliases 'Shahu Vedic School', 'Shahu Vedic Pathshala', 'Shri Shahu Vaidik Vidyalay') in 1920 and had invited scholars from Varanasi (spiritual capital of Sanatan Dharm) to ensure the highest standard of scriptural and linguistic training. The school trained seminarians (of all castes) to learn Sanskrit and become priests and conduct ceremonies. He further established and financed the office of the Kshatra Jagadguru (''Warrior Universal Teacher''), a pontiff seat open to anyone of any caste. The first Kshatra Jagadguru was Sadashivrao Lakshmanrao Sankpal Patil Benadikar, was an accomplished Sanskrit scholar who received his formal higher education at Rajaram College in Kolhapur. The Kshatra Jagadguru Peeth was the pontiff's seat at Patgaon (in the Bhudargad region of Kolhapur.) Patgaon was chosen because it was the historic site of the Mauni Maharaj Math, a highly respected spiritual center that had historically blessed Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj[https://pilgrimdata.in/temple/mouni-maharaj-math-temple-patgaon-bhudargarh-dist-kolhapur/]. The Kshatra Jagadguru had the Shri Sadashivrao Patil Shikshan Sanstha educationalist association named after him, and it runs schools[https://www.mwssm.org/][https://sspiop.com/] in Maharashtra still. Other organizations too use his name for schools like Sadashivrao Mandlik Mahavidyalaya (Kolhapur) of the ⁠Jay Shivray Education Society.

===Successive associations===
From Hindu-based institutions like sociopolitical organizations and schools came a number of philanthropic associations. Even other humanitarian associations that were not established by Hindu activists, were established by their influence. For example, Krishna Gopal Gokhale had participated in many sessions of the Prarthana Samaj as he was Ranade's pupil, and he later joined the Deccan Education Society, which he left to establish the Servants of India Society. Narayan Malhar Joshi was a member of Gokhale's group and later formed his own Social Service League[https://socialserviceleague.org.in/]. Hriday Nath Kunzru too was part of Gokhale's group and left to establish the Seva Samiti.

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Organization
! Demographic of Focus
! Region(s)
! Founder
! Founder's Affiliation(s)
! Achievement
|-
|Anath Balikashram Society
|Widows
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Andhra Mahila Sabha
|Females
|Andhra Pradesh
|Durgabai Deshmukh
|
|
|-
|Bharat Stree Mahamandal
|Females
|Bengal, Bihar, Punjab, Sindh, U.P.
|Sarala Devi Chaudhurani
|Arya Samaji, Brahmo Samaji, accepted Bijoy Krishna Chattopadhyaya as her guru
|
|-
|Buddhi Vardhak Sabha
|General public
|Gujarat
|Narmadashankar Labheshankar Dave
|
|Exposed people in positions of power that abused their privileges, build schools for girls
|-
|Central Social Welfare Board
|Females and children
|
|Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh
|
|
|-
|Hindu Widow Marriage Association
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Hindustani Seva Dal
|Females
|Every province
|Dr. Narayan Subbarao Hardikar
|
|Established the Hindustani Seva Mandal (later became Rashtriya Seva Dal) in 1923, established the Arya Bala Sabha, taught the Gita during his student days in Kolkata, was a fan of Lokmanya Tilak, and had enthusiastically worked with Lala Rai
|-
|Indian Reform Association
|Females
|West Bengal
|Keshub Chandra Sen
|
|Brahmo Samaji, founded ''Sulabh Samachar'' as weekly newspaper of group
|-
|Kasthurbha Gandhi Kanya Gurukulam[http://www.kgkgurukulam.org/]
|Girls
|Tamil Nadu (Vedaranyam)
|Vedaratnam Pillai
|
|Involved in temple-based philanthropy and donated to Sri Ramakrishna Mission too
|-
|Lakshmi Ashram
|Females
|Uttarakhand
|Sarla Behn
|
|Established individual Mahila Mandals throughout Uttarakhand and promoted important skills as well as ecological awareness
|-
|Lokahitawadi Mandal
|General public
|Maharashtra
|Vishnu Vaman Shirwadkar
|
|Wrote about Hindu themes, including persons from scriptures and about Shivaji poetically, philosophically, and nationally
|-
|Maharshi Karve Stree Shikshan Samstha
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Mahila Vidyalaya (Pune)
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Nishkam Karma Math
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Poona Seva Sadan
|Females
|Maharashtra (at its peak, included M.P. and T.N.)
|Ramabai Ranade
|
|
|-
|Samata Sangh
|General public
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Self Employed Women's Association (SEWA)
|Females
|18 states
|Ela Bhatt
|Gandhian Textile Labour Association
|Established: own bank (Shri Mahila Sewa Sahakari Bank, or 'SEWA Cooperative Bank'), SEWA Mahila Housing Trust
|-
|Servants of the People Society
|Females
|Kerala, Maharashtra, M.P., Odisha T.N., Uttarakhand U.P.
|
|
|
|-
|Shraddhanand Ashram[https://shraddhanandmahilashram.org] (alias Hindu Women's Welfare Society)
|Females and boys
|Maharashtra (Mumbai)
|Swami Shraddhanand
|
|Has cared for thousands of destitute women and orphans, and educated them and provided skills development, as well as fostered personal development
|-
|Stree Hitaishini Mandali
|Females
|Andhra Pradesh
|Kanuparti Varalakshmamma
|
|Educated many females
|-
|Veda Samaj
|General public
|Tamil Nadu
|Chembeti Sridharalu Naidu
|
|It advanced female literacy through local activism, campaigned against child marriages, promoted widow remarriage and windows' rehabilitation into being societal contributing members
|-
|Widow Marriage Association
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|}

==Inspiration to Madras Presidency==
[[image:M.C. Rajah.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Mylai Chinna Thambi Pillai Rajah (the real 'Periyar'.)]]
While the Arya Samaj, Brahmo Samaj, Prarthana Samaj, and a host of other Hindu-based humanitarian and sociopolitical institutions existed in the-then Madras Presidency of southern India, they inspired local organizations as well. Shahu Maharaj had friends in the-then Justice Party (JP, est. 1916), like Arcot Ramasamy Mudaliar and Panaganti Ramarayaningar. While some ethnic groups, like certain castes even falsely supported the idea of an 'Aryan Invasion Theory' and themselves (Dravidian-languages speakers) as indigenous, they still appreciated Hinduism and did not consider it alien.

The biggest uplifter of the party was M.C. Rajah, who had the highest influence upon the policies that improved the lives of the Dalits in Madras Presidency. The party itself was founded primarily by 3 individuals — Sir Pitti Theagaraya Chetty (political founder who built the political machine), Dr. Taravath Madhavan Nair (ideological co-founder), and Dr. Chintadripet Natesa Mudaliar (cultural/grassroots mobilizer who helped shape cultural legitimacy.) Dr. Nair had said that Hindu society had originally possessed broader equality before caste dominance hardened it. Chetty occasionally used dharm-based ethical framing. He is consistently described as arguing that governance must align with "''dharma and justice''". The Dr. Mudaliar was a devout Shaiva that infused into the party Shaivism as a cultural identity for southerners.
[[image:P.T. Rajan.jpg|right|thumb|200px|P.T. Rajan (centre-right, wearing glasses next to priest), touring with the idol of [[Ayyappan|Ayyappa]] he had made at Swamimalai Temple[https://swamimalaiswaminathar.hrce.tn.gov.in/] and it was placed in the Sabarimala Temple[https://www.sabarimalauptodate.in/].]]
An ideologue of influence to the JP and Self-Respect Movement was Maraimalai Adigal, a Shaiv preacher and writer, who claimed that both the JP and Self-Respect Movement were from his teachings and that militant atheist Erode Venkatappa Ramasami Naicker had hijacked them. JP founder Dr. Nair died in 1919 and Chetty in 1925, so had no interaction Naicker. Ponnambala Thiaga Rajan was an active party member and disagreed with Naicker's ideology, so joined Congress-aligned politics. Mudaliar died in 1935 around the time Naicker entered the JP. Naicker was also a prejudiced castist that criticized but did not contribute to build schools and shelters for women and children, as Rajah[https://www.news18.com/opinion/opinion-m-c-rajah-the-forgotten-hindu-mahasabha-dalit-8937192.html][https://vskbharat.com/m-c-rajah-a-staunch-hindu-leader/?lang=en][https://thecommunemag.com/m-c-rajah-the-hindu-mahasabha-dalit/], a practicing Hindu of the party did. Rajah even once formed a political alliance with the Hindu Mahasabha, was the contributor. Before Rajah, the party's caste disparity was mainly about civil service occupations and education access for underprivileged castes. Rajah was recommended by Ambedkar to convert but Rajah replied there's no religion better than Hinduism.<ref>P. 92 ''The Political Evolution of Muslims in Tamilnadu and Madras, 1930-1947'' By J.B. Prashant More (1997) </ref><ref> In a public meeting of the All India Adi Dravida Mahajana Sabha in Nungambakkam, Chennai he said, "''The president (of this meeting) mentioned that no other community other than us has more right to be called Hindus. Conversion will not bring about any good. By saying so, I am not undermining or wishing away the oppression and ills we have faced. We need to fight for our rights. The speed at which reforms are happening might be slow. But think about our current situation and how much it has improved. I beseech you to please abandon any move that will weaken us. I request the government to bring about the Untouchability Abolition Bill and pass it quickly. The Harijans are proud Hindus. That is the only reason why even after years of oppression by higher castes and a barrage of proselytization efforts by other religions hasn't changed their resolve being Hindus.''" P. 123 ''Evolution of Hindu Nationalism - Icons of HMS, RSS & BJS'' By Sankara Narayanan T (2025)</ref> Adigal's writings had a profound impact on Subramania Ramanathan, the founder of the Self-Respect Movement, and on the Naicker but the latter only wanted pro-Tamil and castist societal changes, not promotion of Shaivism. Naicker would later break away from the party and form his own Dravidar Kazhagam, a title he copied from Adigal's Shaiv association (Podhunilak Kazhagam.) (His own pupil, Conjeevaram Natarajan Annadurai, would eventually disown him after he married his own adopted daughter, and Annadurai would leave his group.)
[[image:Alamelu.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Alamelu Mangai Thayarammal, a Brahmo Samaji, was co-founder of the party among 29 others (all men.)]]
The Hindu sentiment was definitely present in the JP. Many left after Naicker's hijacking. Important members bothered by Naicker's rhetoric apart from Rajan were Ananda Prasad Patro, Arunachalam Thamaraiselvam Panneerselvam, Muthiah Annamalai Chettiar, Ramasamy Kandasamy Shanmukham Chetty, and Subbarayalu Kumaraswami Reddiar. Chettiar even personally regularly donated to temple renovations, endowing temple lands or festivals, supporting pilgrimage facilities, and Hindu-managed schools. Rajan, the last leader of the JP, was the head-of-government of the Presidency, and was a big devotee a [[Ayyappan|Swami Ayyappa]]. Rajan even solemnized a marriage of a German couple converted to Hinduism in Coimbatore (Oct 31, 1962.) He further discouraged conversion of Dalits from Hinduism to another religion<ref>"''If by mass conversion you expect to achieve your object, you will be disappointed, because of a mere change of religion it will not give you all that you want.''" 
P. 147 ''Sir P. T. Rajan's Eighty Second Birthday Souvenir, 1973'' By P.T. Rajan and K. Paramasivam</ref> while encouraging caste-Hindus to better treat Dalits. His family had deep ties to the Meenakshi Amman Temple[https://maduraimeenakshi.hrce.tn.gov.in/] in Madurai, with his son (Palanivel Rajan), serving as a minister, and his daughter-in-law (Rukmani), serving as the first female chairperson of the temple's board of trustees. His predecessor Ramakrishna Ranga Rao denied that the JP was anti-Hindu and declared that it aimed to purify Hindu society from "''absurdities''" and return "''Hinduism greater and more glorious than it was in the past...''"<ref>"''As I understand it, the Self-Respect movement stands for certain great ideals to make Hinduism greater and more glorious than it was in the past, to rid it of all those absurdities which are the accretions of an unfortunate era of the past, and unite us in a solid federation so that all those who profess to follow the Hindu faith may feel that they are brethren following one of the most ancient and glorious religions of the world. No longer should the foreigner point his finger of scorn at this or that particular phase of Hinduism which belies its cosmopolitan tendency by inflicting personal hardship on classes or communities. If a few youths in their exuberant enthusiasm have been carried away beyond the bounds of Hinduism it will not do to fight shy of the new movements, but political wisdom and sagacity lie in taking them into our fold and guiding them aright along the paths of duty and rectitude.''" 
P. 289 ''The Indian Annual Register An Annual Digest of Public Affairs of India Recording the Nation's Activities Each Year in Matters Political, Economic, Industrial, Educational, Social, Etc · Volume 2'' By Nipendra Nath Mitra (1934)</ref> Alamelu Mangai Thayarammal, conferred 'Pandithai' title by Saiva Sabha in Palamcottah, was a JP co-founder [with 29 co-founders being men] who was a Brahmo Samaji, meaning the influence of the Hindu-based organizations wasn't insignificant. Paramasivan Subbarayan Gounder, while not technically a JP member, worked with it closely, and both he and his women's rights activist wife Kailash Radhabai Kulmud were Brahmos. It is also noteworthy that [[Ascetics|ascetic]] Swamiyar Kaivalyar who supported the party without being a member wrote pro-Shaiv material. Cattamanchi Ramalinga Reddy, an ex-member who formed his own party in 1923 was a close friend of Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, and he himself engaged with Hindu texts on a literary artistic level. As Hinduism isn't a scripture-dependent religion, some JP members like A.R. Mudaliar heavily criticized certain scriptures but were devout Hindus ([[Vaiśnava|Vaishnav]] in his case.) And while orthodox opposition was present, the majority of Indians, including religious leaders, supported reforms, like when Shankaracharya of Kanchi[https://www.kamakoti.org/] supported the "Hindu Religious Endowments Bill" (1921) even while voicing some concerns in within. Mentionable is that [[Shatata-Unnati#Female upliftment|Dr. Muthulakshmi Reddy]] wasn't part of the JP but it still nominated her in 1926 for the Madras Legislative Council to bring about positive changes.

==Impactful legacy==
The currents resulting from electrifying the establishments in the colonial era by activists, especially Bhave, Gandhi, Ramakrishna, Tagore, and Vivekanand, are still being felt. Humanitarians worldwide in the colonial era recognized those individuals in particular. Albert Schweitzer of France praised Tagore, Howard Thurman and Thomas Merton spoke positively about Sanatan spirituality in general, and Romain Rolland commended Ramakrishna and Vivekanand. Even international figures who changed the world scientifically and social scientifically recognized, like Albert Einstein revering Tagore and his Upanishadic-style monism, and Ernst Friedrich Schumacher exalting both Bhave and Tagore. (Schumacher was influenced by Buddhism as well, upon visiting Burma, and he founded 'Buddhist Economics'.)

And because [[Ārya Samudāy|Arya dharmas]], focus on the rights of all creatures, including animals, activists struggling to improve [[Animal rights#Influence upon Westerners|animals' lives too were impacted]] by Sanatan, Jain, and Bauddh thoughts on the topic.

One thing that Arya dharmas, particularly Sanatan Dharm, has been able to do is accommodate many viewpoints [provided that they converge at its foundation.] For example, even atheists like M.N. Roy have praised philosophical systems, such as Sankhya, Nyaya, and Vaishesik darshans believe they appreciate that their cosmologies delve into the natural world and don't treat it as maya. Likewise, Nobel Prize-winning physicist Erwin Schrödinger[https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1933/schrodinger/biographical/] used Hindu metaphysics to make sense of the bizarre subatomic behaviors discovered in quantum mechanics. Norwegian philosopher Arne Næss, heavily influenced by Gandhi, who founded the "Deep Ecology" movement in the 1970s, pointed directly to Sanatan ethics (mainly ahimsa) to argue against human destruction of the Earth. Leo Tolstoy, who refused to accept the Nobel[https://www.nobelprize.org/ceremonies/proclamation-sent-to-leo-tolstoy-after-the-1901-years-presentation-of-nobel-prizes/], had based much of his humanistic philosophies of anarcho-pacifism and anti-colonialism on the ''[[Thirukkural]]'' and Gandhism.

==Related articles==
*[[Women]]
*[[Women as Rishikas in the Vedas]]
*[[Worship of God as Mother]]

==External resources==
*[https://www.ijhsss.com/files/08.-ABHISEK-KARMAKAR_6813z4a4.pdf "Changing status of women in Indian politics (1917-1947): the role of civil society"], P. 42-45 ''International Journal of Humanities & Social Science Studies'' Volume-I, Issue-II (September 2014) By Abhisek Karmakar
*[https://www.besanthill.org/about/history-heritage/annie-besant/ Besant Hill School of Happy Valley in Ojai, California]
*[https://www.anniebesant.org Annie Besant Women's College in Hyderabad, Telangana]
*[https://www.aryasabha.mu/cultural-programme-arya-mahila-mandal-in-the-context-of-the-200th-birth-anniversary-of-swami-dayananda-saraswati/ Arya Mahila Mandal (Mauritius)]
*[https://www.thearyasamaj.org/ammkarolbagh Arya Mahila Mandal Karol Bagh]
*[https://vatikashaktipeeth.com/seven-agitations/women-awakening.html Vatika Shakti Peeth]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category: History]]
[[Category: Economics]]
[[Category: Societal altruism]]

Shatata-Unnati

2026-07-08T03:15:35Z

Himanshu Bhatt: /* Comparison in societal reformation (India and Europe) */ added internal link

{{Author|Himanshu Bhatt}}
'Shatata-Unnati' is ''continual change'', 'abhyas' means improvement, 'kram-parivartanam' is ''incremental reformation'', while 'shodhanam' is ''refinement''. All of these terms are descriptive of Hindu society throughout the ages.

Continual social betterment has been one of the defining characteristics of Hindu society. All major cultures have had evils in their histories, including Hindu societies, but the shining examples to enforce positive changes and adaptability to a changing world are the Hinduism, Christianity, and Judaism.

In an era wherein colonial norms meant imprisonment or executions for speaking out against imperial rule, Mahatma Gandhi challenged the ideas of forcing nations to be subservient, fighting oppression by violence, and purging one's own nation of evils (i.e., inequality and superstition.) Today, much of the world still looks to Gandhi's perseverance to bring positive change into society.

Transformation of India's political systems made India into the world's largest democracy, and for accomplishing that, [[Indian Freedom Fighters#INC's Hindu activist roots|Hindu doctrines were rationalize to promote democracy]]. Even in India's political spectrum, Hindu principles were used to make liberalism and communism resonate with people, like Ram Rajya being a communist utopia. Some of the Communist Party of India's [[Indian Freedom Fighters#CPI's Hindu activist roots|founders were idealogues for both communism and Hinduism]], such as Swami Kumaranand, Swami Satyabhakt, and Swami Sahajanand Saraswati, as well as Keezhedathu Damodaran, Radhamohan Gokulji, and Rahul Sankrityayan.

==Comparison in societal reformation (India and Europe)==
:''See also: [[Contribution of Hindu Diaspora]]'', ''[[The_Spread_of_Hinduism#Europe|The_Spread_of_Hinduism in Europe]]''
Whereas even in modern times, in most European Christian societies, witch-hunts and slavery were the norm, in Indian Hindu societies, widow-burning was the norm among certain communities (usually northwestern) and caste prejudice was prevalent. Both the Christian and Hindu communities worked to extinguish these and other evils.

Historical societal injustices have been acknowledged and reconciled. Even today, the lasting legacy of important Hindu reformers is visible wherein quotas employment and educational quotas are implemented for social upward mobility to ensure poorer castes and women do not fall behind.

During the colonial era, as human rights improved in Western societies as results from agricultural/economic advancements, Western writers of non-Christian societies took a chauvinistic, parochialist, and Eurocentric approach towards Hindu societies, claiming that they:
#Would never improve in human rights, morality, or rationality
#Are permanently stagnant
#Cannot produce modern or political economic institutions

Critics of the colonial era were proven wrong in these concrete ways:
#Large-scale societal reforms led by Hindu activists themselves improved Hindu societies — i.e., promoting window remarriage and caste integration while also creating quotas for females and historically-disadvantaged castes
#Rapid expansion of education and intellectual mobility — i.e., growth of global Hindu academic presence
#Global economic and corporate leadership — i.e., entrepreneurship and CEOs of major multinational companies like Adobe, Google, and Microsoft
#Democratic political evolution — i.e., maintaining electoral democracies like Hindu-majority nations, providing peaceful transfers of power, and granting significant autonomy to judiciary, press, and civil societies
#Religious and philosophical continuity + adaptation
#Ritual practice has diversified massively by religion and class — i.e., clerics ([[Rta and Spiritual Authority|priests]] and [[ascetics|monks]]) are from many backgrounds
#Reinterpretation of scriptures became internationally influential — i.e., Aldous Huxley loved the perennialism of Upanishads, Erwin Schrödinger the idea of aikatmyam, and Henry David Thoreau that of Ishavasyam
#Non-Hindus from outside of the Indian Subcontinent have converted to Sanatan Dharm and have promoted the religion — James Donald Walters who founded Ananda Sangha, Richard Alpert who founded Hanuman Foundation, John Edwin Favors who founded iFast[https://ifastdc.com/][https://ifastglobal.com/], and Robert Hansen who founded Saiva Siddhanta Church[https://www.himalayanacademy.com/]
#Hindu-based intellectual practices have popularized globally — i.e., [[Ayurveda|Ayurvedic medicine]], divination, political activism, [[Animal rights#Influence upon Westerners|animal rights]], [[Animal_rights#Vegetarianism|vegetarianism]], and [[yoga]]

==Hindu-led social betterment==
What is extraordinary in the case of India is that it was the religious institutions ([[Organizations|Hindu organizations]] and [[Hindu Post-Secondary Institutes|schools]]) that made revolutionary changes, not normally secular or non-Hindu ones. Practicing Hindus saw that superstitious and chauvinistic practices had become institutionalized (caste system and misogyny) within Hindu society, so they formed associations to help, uplift, educate the destitute. They would even go steps further to privilege the marginalized through reservations.

Even women who were more exploratory and not members of specific religions engaged with Hinduism positively. The best example might be Annette Beveridge, an Englishwoman who was the daughter of a Unitarian Christian herself became affiliated with Keshub Chandra Sen in England. She was drawn to his lectures and this fascination with his philosophy inspired her to begin life in India, where she even established<ref>Its expenses were financed by Ananda Mohan Bose and Durga Mohan Das, Dwarkanath Ganguly was its headmaster, and others Brahmos involved with the school were Sibnath Sastri and Monomohun Ghose.</ref> the Hindu Mahila Vidyalaya (''Hindu Women's School''.) Her husband Henry Beveridge was an orientalist (westerners intrigued with Asian cultures) working in India, meaning they were not Westerners critical of Hindu identity. Mrs. Emily Phear was an honorary teacher, and she too was involved in Brahmo Samaji circles for societal development. (Her husband Sir John Budd Phear helped Brahmo Samaj legally.) A non-Hindu that likewise began a girls school (Hindu Female School[https://www.bethunecollegiateschool.com/]) with Brahmos and other Hindus was John Bethune, whose accomplices were Dakshinaranjan Mukherjee, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Ramgopal Ghosh, and Madanmohan Tarkalanka (the last even taught at the school without pay.) Others foreign women in India that engaged positively with Hindu activist organizations were Mary Carpenter[https://southasianbritain.org/people/mary-carpenter/] and Sophia Dobson Collet with Brahmo Samaj, Alma B.R.A. with Arya Samaj, and Mary Hobson with Prarthana Samaj[https://puneprarthanasamaj.org/].

Hindu women that set women's rights activism into motion were Arya Samaj's Lajwanti Sood and Satyavati Devi, and Brahmo Samaj's Kadambini Ganguly and Sarala Devi Chaudhurani. Swarnakumari Devi was both an Arya Samaji and a Brahmo Samaji.
[[image:Dr. Anandi Gopal Joshi.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Dr. Anandi Gopal Joshi in 1886 marking a milestone with 2 other Asian women.]]
What is also worth mentioning is that there were women not members of sociopolitical organizations who pursued and achieved new societal achievements, showing that many Hindu women thought for themselves. Dr. Anandibai Joshi was India's first female doctor to trained in Western medicine. Her education and trip to U.S. was funded by [[Shatata-Unnati#Shahu's royal authority to implement reforms|Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj]]. Upon return, he even funded her return journey and offer her supervisory role at Kolhapur's largest hospital[https://old.rcsmgmc.ac.in/]. Foundations[https://anandibai.org/resources/], institutions (i.e., Dr. Anandi Gopal Higher Education & Medical Facilities), awards (i.e., IRDS's[https://ngosindia.org/uttar-pradesh-ngos/irds-institute-for-research-documentation-in-social-sciences-lucknow/] Anandibai Joshi Award for Medicine), and scholarships (i.e., Dr. Anandi Gopal Scholarship Scheme) are named after her in commemoration. (Dr. Anandi Gopal Higher Education & Medical Facilities itself is a collaboration between the U.S. university she graduated in (DUCM[https://drexel.edu/medicine/news-events/publications/pulse/spring-2018/]) and SMCW. She let people know that she was not ashamed of being a Hindu. She was often pressured by Christian missionaries to convert[https://knowledge.lancashire.ac.uk/id/eprint/48487/1/bharadwaj-et-al-2023-journey-across-the-world-to-study-medicine-the-anandi-joshi-story.pdf]. Dr. Anandi had written her thesis, "Obstetrics among the Aryan Hindus", containing references from both the traditional Ayurvedic (''Susruta Samhita'' and ''Charaka Samhita'') and modern American medical literatures. (Mentionable is that although her husband Gopalrao Joshi's relentless, public letter-writing campaigns and essays targeted Lokmanya Tilak for being not liberal enough and Justice Ranade for being too liberal Tilak's ''Kesari'' and ''Mahratta'' newspapers glorified Dr. Joshi as a rolemodel for women.)

===Female upliftment===
:''See also: [[Indian Freedom Fighters]] 
;Theosophical Society wing
[[image:Paris Women's Congress.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Dr. Reddy and 3 Indian women at the Paris Women's Congress (1926.)]]
The top 3 champions who politically improved Indian women's rights in the modern era were foreigners — Dr. Annie Besant, Dorothy Jinarajadasa, and Margaret Cousins. They did not tell Indian women to leave Hinduism but rather they themselves became Hindu in practice and Indian in habit. They then sought to restore the Vedic-era of womanhood wherein women had authority (i.e., to become clerics, scholars, and leaders.) Emma Mitchell (American) and Francesca Arundale (English) greatly contributed to building of Hindu educational institutions (i.e., Central Hindu College.)

Dr. Muthulakshmi Reddy is a big name in female rights, and she was influenced by Dr. Besant in her college years (1907-1912) and was guided by Dr. Besant in both her social reform and political work. She worked with Dr. Besant and others to establish the Women's Indian Association (1917.) After Dr. Besant's death, she took over the presidency of the WIA. Gandhi was another major mentor but Reddy never formally joined the INC but sometimes protested colonial injustices (i.e., Gandhi's arrest.)

;Ramakrishna Mission wing
[[image:Nivedita & Vivekanand.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Nivedita with Vivekanand.]]
[[Niveditā, Sister|Sister Nivedita (Margaret Noble)]], a convert from Ireland became a disciple of [[Swami Vivekananda|Swami Vivekanand]] and joined Aurobindo's Dawn Society and had also founded and ran girls' schools in Kolkata (i.e., Ramakrishna Sarada Mission Sister Nivedita Girls' School[https://www.sisterniveditagirlsschool.org/home.html] in Baghbazar) to educate girls who had little to no access to education (i.e., poorest of the poor.) She advocated for women's intellectual and moral development, influenced by Vivekanand's vision of strong Indian womanhood. Her work included lectures, fundraising (India, England, and U.S.), and writings that promoted gender equality in access to knowledge and opportunities. She had worked with Dr. Annie Besant at times. Likewise, Sister Christine, disciple of Vivekanand, is another example of a Westerner who utilized the Ramakrishna Mission and Vivekanand's circles as vehicles for improving female rights in India.

;INC wing
:''See also: [[Indian Freedom Fighters#INC's Hindu activist roots|INC's Hindu activist roots]] 
[[image:Nellie Sen Gupta.jpg|right|thumb|100px|N.S. Gupta.]]
Nellie Sen Gupta[https://www.thedailystar.net/in-focus/news/deshpriya-jatindra-mohan-nellie-sengupta-2036981] (nee Edith Ellen Gray) had married freedom fighter Jatindra Mohan Sen Gupta, and both joined the INC — she also founded Deepali Sangha, a women's organization aimed at promoting social and political awareness, leadership, training, and empowerment among women. Her husband passed away but she was advised to stay in the-then East Pakistan to take care of Hindu rights, which she did. Umadevi (born Wanda Dynowska), a Polish convert to Sanatan Dharm too championed women's rights in India and translated ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'', ''[[Mahabharata]]'', ''[[Ramayana]]'', and other [[Hindu Scriptures|Hindu and Bauddh literature]] into Polish. Mira Behn (born Madeleine Slade), the daughter of a British Royal Navy admiral, gave up her affluent lifestyle to become Gandhi's servant in India.
[[image:Sarla Behn Chipko Movement.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Sarla Behn's Chipko act[https://www.adda247.com/school/chipko-movement/].]]
Sarla Behn[https://growbilliontrees.com/blogs/knowledge/sarla-behn-tree-nurturing-nature-and-empowering-communities-for-a-sustainable-future?srsltid=AfmBOoq4h0d0skQBNr4w4zOvISuhYz02_EXtPvD3pUoQYjTlcvNHEbQ-#fullcontent] (born Catherine Mary Heilman) from England setup the Lakshmi Ashram Kausani in 1946 within Uttarakhand to uplift women, after having lived in the Sevagram Ashram[https://gandhiashramsevagram.org/] in Maharashtra. The organization educated rural hill girls academically, trained women of self-reliance and industrial skills (i.e., khadi weaving), taught personal care (i.e., literacy, hygiene, anti-liquor campaigns), and promoted [[Environmentalism|ecological awareness]] (Chipko Movement.) It also worked with the INC to encourage nationalist fervour. Lakshmi Ashram individual units were known as Mahila Mandals. This ashram attracted foreign residents intrigued with Sanatan Dharm even after independence, like David Hopkins, who relocated to there in the 1990's.
[[image:Durgabai Deshmukh.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Dr. D.D.]]
Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh, pupil of Gandhi and freedom fighter in the colonial era, established the Central Social Welfare Board (1953.) She later became president of the All India Women's Conference (1931.) Taraben Premchand is an important mention, as she was an important member of this organization, as well as the Jain Mahila Parishad[https://www.dbjainsabha.com], Jyoti Sangh[https://jyotisangh.org/about-us/] (local women's advancement group in Gujarat), and Shraddhanand Ashram[https://shraddhanandmahilashram.org/].

Madeleine Rolland was Women's International League for Peace and Freedom's[https://www.wilpf.org/] French section and never settled in India. However, upon engaging with Hindu culture in the 1920's, she translated Ananda Coomaraswamy's ''[[Nataraja Dasakam|The Dance of Shiva]]'' into French, introducing Hinduism to the-then residents of France. She also translated Rabindranath Tagore's writings of Sanatan themes and universal humanism, helping popularize them in Europe. She welcomed Gandhi on his visit to Marseille, France. [[image:Kanuparti Varalakshmamma.jpg|right|thumb|100px|'Sarada'.]]
Kanuparti Varalakshmamma (alias 'Sarada'), a devout Gandhian, used Hindu themes like providing ethical refences (i.e., Savitri, Sita) to depict women's morality, dignity, and conduct. She often engaged with the idea of a grihalakshmi (idea woman of the household.) She also founded the Stree Hitaishini Mandali for uplifting women. She used ''Andhra Patrika'', a newspaper created by a promoter of the ''Bhagavad Gita'', Kasinathuni Nageswara Rao, to preach her ideas.
[[image:Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit.jpg|right|thumb|100px|'Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit'.]]
It is also noteworthy that the 1st female head of government in the world was a [[Bauddh Dharm|Bauddh]] (Sirimavo Bandaranaike of Sri Lanka, non-INC member), and 2nd was a Hindu (Indira Gandhi, INC member.) Also Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit[https://news.un.org/en/story/2024/03/1147327] (born Swaroop Rani Nehru) played a significant role in global representation of women, particularly in the United Nations. She was the first woman to serve as the President of the UN General Assembly (1953-1954), a position she held to advocate for decolonization and the independence of countries in Asia and Africa. She was also the first Indian woman to hold a cabinet rank in a provincial government. Hansa Mehta[https://india.un.org/en/311450-hansa-mehta%E2%80%99s-life-story-continues-inspire] had an impact on the UN's constitution wording wherein "''all human beings''" instead of "all men" in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. (She was also one of only 2 women delegates working alongside Eleanor Roosevelt in the UN Human Rights Commission 1946-48.)
[[image:Nilla Cram Cook.jpg|right|thumb|100px|'Nilla Nagini Devi'.]]
Nilla Cram Cook, an American who settled at Gandhi's ashrams, had [[Conversion|converted to Hinduism]] in the 1930's but identified with the '[[Samyag Darshan#Samadarshan|sarva dharma sambhava]]' ideal, so considered herself a [[Bhakta|devotee]] of not only [[Krishna]] but of Jesus too, and so she later also translated the Quran and engaged with Islamic practices in a syncretic way with her Hindu and Christian customs. Her final literary work was ''The Way of the Swam: Poems of Kashmir'' (1958), which was mostly focused around the [[Saiva|Shaiv]] mystic poetess Lal Ded[https://hindupost.in/society-culture/lal-ded-her-life-and-works/#][https://homegrown.co.in/homegrown-voices/the-poetry-of-lal-ded-mysticism-resistance-the-female-voice-in-14th-century-kashmir] and others from Kashmir syncretic Sanatan-[[Bauddh Dharm|Bauddh]]-[[Sufism with Vaishnavism|Sufi]] tradition. She dedicated the book to Pandit. She didn't work on women's upliftment directly but did participate with Gandhi's Harijan Sevak Sangh. She had also written about Sarojini Naidu (1st Indian woman-president of the INC.)

;Other associations
[[image:Maharani Chimnabai Gaekwad II.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Maharani Chimnabai.]]
[[image:Sethu Parvathi Bayi.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Junior Queen Bayi.]]
The National Council of Women in India[https://www.ncwi.in/], founded 1925, was also a monumental organization to make progress for women — it mainly focused on female literacy, vocational training, public participation, and legal reform. It was primarily the initiative of Lady Meherbai Tata, a Mazdaean icon, and its first president was Maharani Chimnabai Gaekwad II, born Gajrabai Ghatge, a princess of Dewas (M.P.) She supported societal progress of women that did not compromise on Hindu identity (i.e., traditional customs like wearing sari and sindhoor or like celebrating Raksha Bandhan), which is how she framed her ''The Position of Women in Indian Life'' book. She financed schools for girls, as well as Hindu charities and temples. The Gaekwad family also funded libraries and women's institutions and social reform initiatives. She discussed the eradication or the purdah, child marriage, women's restrictions (i.e., obtaining education and employment), and other obstacles towards advancement. Following her presidentship, Sethu Parvathi Bayi took over. She was from the royal family of Travancore (Kerala), and her family was deeply connected to the Padmanabhaswamy Temple[https://spst.in/][https://www.padmanabhaswamytemple.com/]. She financed Hindu institutions as well. It is notable that Sucharu Deo, daughter of Brahmo leader K.C. Sen was a prominent member and she had also helped build the Maharani Girls' High School[https://school.banglarshiksha.gov.in/ws/website/index/19013701705] in Darjeeling (W.B.) together with her sister (Suniti) and Hemlata Sarkar, daughter of Brahmo leader Sibnath Sastri.

From Hindu-based institutions like sociopolitical organizations and schools came a number of philanthropic associations.
;Most influential persons for women's upliftment
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Area of Contribution
! Meaning
! Steps Taken
! Activists
! Organizations
! Founder's Affiliation(s)
|-
|Political rights and visibility
|1. Women appearing in public political spaces 2. Women being recognized as leaders (not just participants) 3. Changing social norms about women's public roles 4. Symbolic representation
|Helped institutionalize women's leadership through bodies like Women's Indian Association
|Dr. Annie Besant (women's political rights + organizational leadership), Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay (political participation, economic empowerment, cooperatives), Margaret Cousins[https://www.womensmuseumofireland.ie/exhibits/margaret-elizabeth-cousins] (Suffarage, WIA), Sarojini Naidu (mass mobilization of women in politics)
|
|
|-
|Modern institutional equality
|
|Helped institutionalize institutional equality through contributing policy influence (Hansa Mehta) and constitutional rights (Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh)
|Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh (welfare systems), Hansa Mehta
|
|
|-
|Foundational legal reform
|
|
|Raja Ram Mohan Roy (abolition of sati), Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar (widow remarriage)
|
|
|-
|Education
|
|
|Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar
|
|
|-
|}

====Hindu influence internationally====
Even outside of India during the 20th century, women's rights were not perfect, and so many women incorporated Hindu symbolism (i.e., worship) and concepts towards promoting societies where women would have equal rights.
[[image:M.J. Gage.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Matilda Joslyn Gage.]]
[[image: Charlotte Despard.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Charlotte Despard, an Anglo-Irish suffragist who supported Indian independence.]]
As [[Worship of God as Mother|worship of God as a female or mother]] has been common in Sanatan Dharm since its foundation, that made validating female upliftment in India quicker. Even in Western nations, prominent women's rights organizations implemented imagery of goddesses from pertinent ancient cultures, like U.K.'s Women's Freedom League and National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies, and the global International Woman Suffrage Alliance, to legitimize female equality and women being in positions of power. Some American and European feminists and women's rights activists, like Matilda Joslyn Gage<ref>"''While the sale of daughters was practiced in England for seven hundred years after the introduction of Christianity, we note that by the ancient law of India, a father was forbidden to sell his daughter in marriage, or receive the smallest present therefor.''" - P. 79-82 ''Woman, Church and State'' (1893) By Matilda Joslyn Gage</ref> (U.S. suffragist) and Helena Petrovna Blavatsky<ref>"''The pre- and post-Vedic woman was as free as man; and no impure terrestrial thought was ever mixed with the religious symbology of the early Aryans.''" 
"''This is proven by the fact that in the Vedic period their women were not placed apart from men in penetralia, or ‘Zenanas.’ Their seclusion began when the Mahomedans … had conquered the land and gradually enforced their ways and customs upon the Hindus.''" 
- P. 379-380 ''The Secret Doctrine: Volume I'' By Helena Blavatsky </ref> (European feminist), even used the examples of [[Worship of God as Mother|Hindu goddess-worship]] and Hindu queens to support their examples. And though Blavatsky did not officially align with any single religion to encourage recruitment for her Theosophical Society, she referenced Sanatan and Bauddh scriptures (Upanishads, and then Gita, then Bauddh shastras) more than others. (M.J. Gage[https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/the-feminist-inspired-witches-of-oz-180985334/] in her ''Woman, Church, and State'' even highlighted Hindu texts to counter the male-centric theology of the West and referenced ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'' to validate the concept of a female [[divinity]].) Even feminists of the colonial era like Victoria Woodhull that was skeptical of organized religion, respected "''Christna and Buddha''" (Krishna and Gautama.) Mary Lowe Dickinson at the World's Parliament Circles (1893) was so impressed by [[Swami Vivekananda|Swami Vivekanand]]'s speech, that she developed a fascination with female divinity of Hinduism, and in her editorials and public circles, argued that Hinduism's recognition of a feminine aspect within the divine was spiritually superior to the rigidly patriarchal, all-male Trinity of mainstream American Christianity. Emily Pitts Stevens and Charlotte LeMoyne Wills (wrote about the genderless [[Brahm]]) became disciples of Vivekanand. Laura de Force Gordon wrote about the immortal soul and continuous cycle of life. Alice Moore McComas wrote about the [[Environmentalism#Aikatmyam|interconnectedness (aikatmyam) of all things]]. In U.K., Charlotte Despard's specific pamphlets linked [[karma]] to political activism. Margaret Louise Sanger was influenced by Vivekanand and Rabindranath Tagore. Sarah Bull<ref> P. 483 ''Western Admirers of Ramakrishna and His Disciples'' By Gopal Stavig, Swami Shuddhidananda </ref>, who particularly focused on women's education and reform was connected to both Vivekanand and Sister Nivedita. Josephine MacLeod was a major promoter of Vivekanand in the West and was involved in transatlantic reform-intellectual networks. Viktoria Ocampo of Argentina was deeply influenced by Tagore, even hosting him in Argentina and promoting his ideas widely. Gabriela Mistral of Chile was too, and she applied Tagore's ideas to women's education, child welfare, and cultural reform. Mabel Dodge Luhan was fascinated with Sanatan philosophy and influenced by Vivekanand. Mentionable is Emma Calve of France, who wasn't a political feminist leader but influential in women's intellectual-cultural circles, and she was deeply influenced by Vivekanand.
[[image:Carol Patrice Christ.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Carol Patrice Christ.]]
After suffragists had attained complete institutional equality, they them progressed to the next stage of female liberation by ensuring that their own spiritual faith wasn't male-chauvinistic or making them subordinates of males. Feminists were inspired by goddess deity of Hinduism to then promote it within generic spirituality. Valerie Saiving, Isaac Bonewits and Naomi Goldenberg founded in the 1970's, Thealogy, a feminine-specific theology. Carol Patrice Christ launched the Goddess Movement, which provided 4 aspects of Goddess symbolism as reasons to needing a goddess in women's lives; 1) the Goddess as affirmation of female power, 2) the female body, 3) the female will, and 4) women's bond and heritage. She specifically used the Shakti concept to prove that a major global religion (Hinduism) explicitly defined the [[Brahmanda|material universe]]/nature/change ([[Darshana#Sankhya|Prakriti]]) as an inherently active, female, and sacred force. She was an ecofeminist, as were Charlene Spretnak and Miriam Simos were ecofeminists too. Merlin Stone wrote ''Ancient Mirrors of Womanhood: Our Goddess and Heroine Heritage'' (1979) and in a chapter analyzes goddesses like [[Durga]], [[Kali]], [[Lakshmi Puja|Lakshmi]], Parvati, and Saraswati. Devout Christian women feminists too drew on Hindu practices and ideas to support women's advocacy, and they include Ivone Gebara, Pearl Sydenstricker Buck, and Sally McFague.

'Matriarchal religion' is a philosophy stating that societies were Goddess worshippers with females having the same status and rights as men before male gods began being worshipped, and the latter led to patriarchy. Goddesses being worshipped contiguously in Hindu societies for thousands of years was the backing this thought utilized, in addition to feminist archaeology (i.e., ancient idols and temples of goddesses uncovered.)

==Start of modern reforms==
In modern India, most positive social changes within Indian Hindu societies came not first as enforcement or pressure from European rulers but from advocacy of forward-thinking Hindus. Raja Ram Mohan Roy had led the campaign to purge Hindu societies of Sati and caste prejudices. Roy worked with British imperial authority, specifically Lord William Bentinck to have sati outlawed. Roy himself was a religious leader that reiterated Upanishads for their principles.

Other institutions of positive social changes were mainly Hindu ones or were governed by Hindu religious leaders, not secular ones.

The Indian National Social Conference of 1887 was organized by Justice Ranade, Rai Raghunath Rao, Narendra Nath Sen Gupta, and Janki Nath Ghoshal. Ranade was founder of the Prarthana Samaj, a religious group.

Arya Samajis, Brahmo Samajis, and Prarthana Samajis were the most vocal and active forces advocating: 
#Widow Remarriage (i.e., Widow Remarriage Act 1856—initiative of Brahmo Samaj)
#Women's right to divorce (i.e., Native Marriage Act 1872—initiative of Brahmo Samaj) 
#Property rights for women 
#Opposition to child marriages (i.e., Age of Consent Act 1891—initiative of Brahmo Samaj and Prarthana Samaj, Child Marriage Restraint Act 1929—initiative of Arya Samaj) 
#Universal accessible education (built schools, including colleges and gurukuls) 
#Caste-based reservations (i.e., 50% quota of 1902—initiative of Shahu Maharaj, who later became an Arya Samaji)
[[image:Justice Ranade.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Mahadev Govind Ranade (alias 'Justice Ranade'.)]]
[[image:Jagannath Shankarshet.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Jagannath Shankarshet (alias 'Architect of Modern Mumbai'.)]]
The Indian Factories Act 1881's ratification was a landmark in workers' rights and the credit goes mainly to Sorabjee Shapoorjee Bengalee, and then Prarthana Samaj. He did work alongside the Prarthana Samaj to lobby the British authority through the First Factory Commission in 1875 (made to investigate the brutal conditions of Indian labour.) Prarthana Samaj's ''Subodh Patrika'' newspaper specifically critiqued mill owners. Rahnumai Mazdayasnan Sabha, its newspaper ''Rast Goftar'', and Bengalee himself referenced labour reformers Sasipada Banerji and Protap Chunder Mozumdar, and used the former's methods of worker upliftment as a blueprint for their own legislative arguments. Collaboration between the Sabha and Prarthana Samaj began with the latter's creation of the Theistic Association, on which the Parsi Naoroji Furdonji was its 1st Chairman. Ranade and Bhandarkar drove the Association from discussing only theism to improving society through finding solutions of work hardships. The Night School Initiative was launched, helping workers receive adequate training, particularly in labourer-heavy neighborhoods Byculla, Dongri, Khetwadi, and Thakurdwar. (From 1886-1890 alone, over 2,750 industrial workers successfully studied through this initiative.) Protap Chunder Mozoomdar, a Brahmo, began eight night schools in 1872 within Mumbai when he relocated to the city.<ref> P. 47 ''Peaceful Industrial Relations, Their Science and Technique'' (1957) By R. J. Soman </ref> Brahmos then established night schools within Kolkata by 1878.

Brahmo Samaj's K.C. Sen’s first visit to Mumbai in March-April 1864 engaged him with Bengalee, Furdonji, Ranade, and Bhandarkar (all then members of Young India.) They all discussed ways to develop India. They also shared strategies on how to bypass orthodox religious resistance—Furdonji within Zoroastrianism and Sen within Sanatan Dharm. Bengalee's First Labor Bill (1878) laid the groundwork for the later Indian Factories Act.

Prior to all of this, Jagannath Shankarshet[https://www.vishwakonkani.org/hall-of-fame/hon-jagannath-shankar-sheth/] spent the 1850s petitioning the British Parliament for local governance. As a result, it codified the Indian Councils Act of 1861, thus creating the Bombay Legislative Council as a political body to better govern the-then Bombay Presidency. Shankarshet was the main founder of Bombay Association. In its first leadership were also Dr. Ramachandra Vitthal Lad (alias 'Dr. Bhau Daji'), a Hindu intellectual who used his Sanskrit knowledge to decipher inscriptions, preserve manuscripts, and help reconstruct the forgotten timelines of ancient Guptas and Western Kshatrapa dynasties. Mentionable is the Parsi Sir Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy of the group. Shankarshet was a wealthy philanthropist that constructed and financed Sanatan and secular infrastructure, most notably the Bhavani Shankar Mandir[https://www.mcgm.gov.in/irj/go/km/docs/documents/D%20Ward/Heritage-Sites/73_Legacy%20of%20D%20Ward_Article_Bhavani%20Shankar%20Temple.pdf] (Mumbai), Sanskrit Seminary and Sanskrit Library (both in Mumbai too.) Elphinstone Educational Institution[https://elphinstone.ac.in/index.php] and Grant Medical College[https://gmcjjh.edu.in/] were his creations too. (Jeejeebhoy contributed to constructing the Grant Medical College.)

===Shahu's royal authority to implement reforms===
[[image:Shahu adoption.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Prince Yeshwantrao Ghatge being adopted by the royal family of Kohlapur.]]
[[image:Rajarshi.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Rajarshi Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj IV.]]
[[image:School foundation.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Foundation of Shri Shahu Chhatrapati Shikshan Sanstha.]]
The greatest champion on all of these sections for reforms was Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj[https://aissms.org/breaking-barriers-chhatrapati-shahu-maharaj-and-his-enduring-impact-on-progress-and-modernity/] (born Yeshwantrao Ghatge), '[[Rta and Spiritual Authority#Rishis|Rajarshi]]', the ruler of Kohlapur Kingdom who affiliated with organizations but probably the Arya Samaj[https://thearyasamaj.org] more than any other. Shahu definitely was not shy to publicly perform prayers, as he famously attended temples of goddesses Ambabai[https://www.mahalaxmikolhapur.com/home] and Bhavani[https://shrituljabhavani.org/] when having returned from his Europe trip in 1902. Also in 1902, Pratap Singh Maharaj of Idhar (Gujarat) introduced and educated him about the Arya Samaj. He provided patronage to the Arya Samaj.[https://navjyot.net/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/10.pdf]

The king passed many policies for for the upliftment of untouchable, nomadic, non-Brahmin communities and for females.<ref>Act of Free and Compulsory Primary Education (1917), Widow remarriage Act (1917), End of Balutedari (1918), Repeal of Kulkarni Watan (1918), Intercaste and Interreligious Marriages and Sanctioning of Registered Marriage Act (1919), Act relating to protection of Harassment of Women (1919), Divorce act (1919), Order on prohibition of Untouchability practice (1919), Illegitimate Children's Rights and Devadasi Prohibition Act (1920); 
[https://www.indiejournal.in/article/rajarshi-shahu-maharaj-and-his-tryst-with-the-arya-samaj "Rajarshi Shahu Maharaj & his tryst with the Arya Samaj Lessons for our times"] By Devkumar Ahire (Jun 26, 2023 6:42 PM)</ref>

;Prejudiced disgruntled castists promoting anti-Brahman hate, not universalism
While Shahu was affiliated with the Satyashodhak Samaj (SS) because it wanted to uplift the non-dwija castes, he did not feel they had any religious foundations, whereas the Arya Samaj was encompassed both a spiritual and social movement.<ref>"Beyond Reformism: Chhatrapati Shahu and Hinduism Reimagined" By Surajkumar Thube P. 124-144 ''Nidān: International Journal for Indian Studies, Volume 8'', Issue 1 (July 2023)</ref> Also, the SS of Pune was antithetical to social cohesion because it targeted the Brahman caste as an enemy, and while its main founder (Jyotirao Phule) made absurd claims like 'Shiv-Dharma'<ref>"''The real Shiv-Dharma that is ours, we are re-establishing it as Sarvajanik Satya Dharma.''" Chapter 4, ''Sarvajanik Satya Pustak''</ref> or 'Mahadev-Dharma' (worship of [[Shiva|Shiv]] as God and some local gods like Khandoba as avatars) being the true religion of Indians whereas every other Hindu belief and practice was an imposition by 'non-Indian Brahman invaders'. Being a chauvinist, he also criticized freedom fighter martyrs Lakshmi Bai, Nana Sahib, Tantia Tope for being Brahmans. He also wrote positively that freedom fighters lost the 1857 War of Independence against the British colonialists. He was also openly criticized by his own relative Baburao Phule, who accused the former of being a Christian convert who destroyed the Hindu religion.<ref>P. 58-59 ''The Caste Question: Dalits and the Politics of Modern India'' (2009) By Anupama Rao </ref>

Phule though anti-Brahman, was influenced by some Brahmans, such as Balshastri Jambhekar (a Hindu activist) who pushed scientific knowledge and history through Marathi, criticized caste segregation, and attacked other or kinds or orthodoxy like widowhood. He was also influenced by some Hindu activists who were not anti-Brahman (i.e., Karsandas Mulji.)

The organization would receive the most aid from Shahu (financial and social work), Karmvir (social work), and Padval (intellectual) but they themselves always kept a distance from the SS because of its explicitly castist vitriol. People would choose to align or become members of other associations for their inclusivity and harmonious vision for the future.

;Satyashodhak Samaj becoming less anti-Brahman
"''All Hindus are equal. No one is superior, no one is inferior. Let all flesh and blood be one. Four varnas are a real deceit. It's a tool to keep the non-Brahmins in slavery. There is no difference among the Hindus. Hindu is the only varna. If a Hindu eats or marries with another Hindu that's not ''[[adharma]].'' In contrast, what divide Hindus in the name of religion is not a dharma, but a trick by Brahmins. One who calls themselves a Hindu, whether they are Europeans or Africans, they are our coreligionists.''" - P. 39 ''Deshache Dushman'' (1925) By Dinkarrao Javalkar
[[image:Sasipada Banerji.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Sasipada Banerji (alias 'Sevabrata'.)]]
Notable is that Phule's friend Narayan Meghaji Lokhande, a labour organization leader, was close friends with Phule and used Khandoba-worship and the reverence of Sundays for Khandoba in his petition to British authority to achieve Sunday as a holiday for factory labourers (S.S. Bengalee's idea that he campaigned for over a decade.) (In some Satyashodhak branches, incoming members took an initialization oath in the name of "Khanderao".) Phule and Lokhande emulated Brahmans, like forming the political lobby group Deenbandhu Sarvajanik Sabha after Ranade's Poona Sarvajanik Sabha and forming the Bombay Mill Hands Association based and its mouthpiece ''Deenbandhu'' on the Working Men's Club (India's 1st labour welfare platform) and its mouthpiece ''Bharat Sramajibi'' (India's 1st labour journal) of Sasipada Banerji (Brahmo Samaji.) Mentionable is that Lokhande used phrases "''Hindu Bhau''", "''Hindu Dharma''" and "''Hindu Samaj''" in his writings.

Though Dinkarrao Javalkar portrayed himself as pan-Hindu when discussing the specific topic of Hindu unity, he still prejudicially criticized the Brahman caste in general<ref>"''This day will be counted among the most important days in the history of Hindus. There is no reason for you to fear jail. The Brahmans who eat ghee and roti should have that fear. To make the touchable people behave is in your hands. You are the sons of Hindus. You capture the tank saying 'har har Mahadev' and follow the advice of your leader Dr. Ambedkar Saheb. This is my own position.''" -Dinkarrao Javalkar at satyagraha with Keshavrao Jedhe and Dr. Ambedkar among a Mahar crowd</ref> and targeted some prominent Brahmans like Lokmanya Tilak. (Javalkar and Keshavrao Jedhe also portrayed themselves as pro-woman but derogatory remarks about women from the Brahman and certain other castes<ref>P. 44 ''19th Century Maharashtra: A Reassessment'' (2020) By Shraddha Kumbhojkar </ref> and both appealed to Dr. B.R. Ambedkar in 1927 to exclude Brahmans from the Mahad Satyagraha<ref> P. 27 ''Social Reform Movements in India: A Historical Perspective'' (1991) By V.D. Divekar</ref>.) Jedhe did protest with other activists (including Brahmans like Narhar Vishnu Gadgil, Seshdas Ranade, Shreedhar Mahadev Joshi, and members of Arya Samaj) for the right of Dalits to worship at Pune's Devdeveshwar Mandir[https://devdeveshwarsanthan.org/home.html]. Javalkar did write favourably about some like Ranade, Gopal Ganesh Agarkar, and Krishna Gopal Gokhale but even they were rarely mentioned. He rightfully partook in the Kalaram Mandir[https://www.shrikalaramsansthannasik.org/] Satyagraha in Nasik that protested for Dalits to be able to enter the temple. He was a communist and 10 years after his death, the Peasants and Workers Party (PWP) was formed.

SS branches outside of Pune were less hateful of Brahmans. It is also noteworthy, however, is that Nana Patil, a founder of the PWP, was affiliated with both the Satyashodhak and Prarthana associations [meaning that he, like most other Satyashodhaks didn't believe in Phule's religious ideology.] Some other PWP founders like Jedhe and Madhavrao Bagal were Satyashodhaks, they popularized Shiv Jayanti and Ganesh Chathuri. The latter and his son Vasantrao even wrote devotional pieces inspired from Bhakti Era saints (i.e., [[Tukaram]], [[Eknath]]) and valourizing pieces about Shahu. Tulshidas Jadhav, a Gandian within the PWP, championed the Bhakti Era's Warkari Movement, which was still popular in his time, because it was based on social equality and public seva. Also noteworthy is, that even some prominent members supported the Arya Samaj, like Krishnarao Bhalekar<ref>"''Bhalekar said that while Hinduism needed to be reformed , this reform should be brought about from within . He said he would defend Hinduism if it was under attack from Islam or Christianity.''" - P. 35 ''Non-Brahman Movement in Maharashtra'' (1989) By M.S. Gore </ref> (1 of the founders of SS with Phule) defended Dayanand Saraswati (Arya Samaj’s founder), when the latter’s procession was opposed by some orthodox Hindus in Pune, and Bhalekar organized a speech to be delivered by Saraswati at a dharmshal near a Rokdoba Temple in Pune. SS' Moro Vitthal Walvekar was directly affiliated with the Prarthana Samaj and played a crucial role in its associated media landscape (frequently serving as an editor of ''Subodha Patrika''.)

Bhalekar himself made the claim that the SS is the true follower of Sant Tukaram's [[Bhāgavata-dharma|Bhagwat Dharma]] ([[Krishna|Krishnaite]] [[Vaishnava|Vaishnavism]].) His son was Mukundrao Patil, who made the claim, "''The Satyasodhak Samaj is the true heir of the Hindu religion. Brahmanism is not Hinduism.''"<ref>''Dinmitra'' newspaper (1920s)</ref> Javalkar claimed SS is the true representative of the Hindu religion and that SS members are liberating Hinduism from the supremacy of the Brahmins. Shivram Janma Kamble (a Dalit) stated the SS is a revival movement of the true Hinduism. Kisan Faguji Bansode (a Dalit) argued "Shivdharma" was the true Hindu religion and that the SS advocates that version. Dr. Ramayya Venkayya Ayyavaru in ''Khristi Bandhujanans Vinanti'' or ''A Request to Our Christian Brothers'' (1887) wrote to missionaries that Indians did not need to be baptized and that monotheism has been embedded in Indian culture and that Indians. Previously, he, backed firmly by Lokhande and the urban Mumbai executive committee of the SS, aggressively fought against changing the name of the SS to 'Satya Dharma Samaj'.

There were those in his organization that promoted about how in ancient Sanatan society, there were no caste distinctions and that people were recognized by their merits. Their view was promoted by Tukaram Tatya Padval, who wrote ''Jatibhed Vivekshar'' (1861) after being inspired by Ashwaghosha's ''Vajrasuchi''. Phule republished copies of Padval's books, and the 2 developed a friendship. He did write at that in ancient India, certain sages were had Sudra or Avarna status but rose to the rank of a Brahman through their intellect, and used examples of Valmiki (wrote a ''Ramayan''), Sankhya, and Kabilar rishis. He also published copies of the ''Bhagavad Gita'', ''Yogasutra'', and compilations of the ''Rajayoga'' and ''Sankhya Karika.'' He further compiled the ''Tukarambaba ani Tyanche Shisya Yanchi Abhanga Gatha'' (1889) and ''Eknath Maharajancha Abhangachi Gatha'' (1903.) Padval, however, never became a member of Phule's organization and instead became a member of the Theosophical Society.

Krishnarao Arjun Keluskar, who was a member of the Mumbai SS had written positively of Krishna and the latter's ethics of the ''Bhagavad Gita'', as well as of Shivaji, Sant Tukaram, Gautam Buddha, and Govind Janardan Borkar (alias Shri Gajananaswami.) It was he who first influenced Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar with [[Bauddh Dharm]]. (Ambedkar had later converted to the dharm, but that's an Arya dharma, so is not damaging to Sanatan society or Indian society like converting to Islam would be.)

;Shahu forming his own Satyashodhak Samaj focused on upliftment (free of anti-Brahman distractions)
As a result of the Satyashodhak Samaj of Pune being too antagonistic of Brahmans, Shahu had instead founded his own branch in 1911 — Shri Shahu Satyashodhak Samaj. By an order, Shahu replaced the Brahman priests in the Patgaon Sansthan (Mauni Maharaj Math[https://durgbharari.in/maunibaba-patgaon/]) and Jyotiba Devasthan[https://shreejyotiba.com/?lang=E][https://maharashtratourism.gov.in/temple/jyotiba/] with Maratha priests. Bhaskarrao Jadhav and Anna Babaji Latthe were leaders of Shahu's Kolhapur Satyashodhak Samaj. Whereas Phule mostly only wrote positively of Shiva and local-born gods, Jadhav in his ''Marathas and their Religion'' wrote positively about Krishna and the ''Bhagavad Gita''. He further worked with Shahu to aid Arya Samaj in its activities and goals (i.e., train non-Brahmans to become priests too.) Noteworthy is that Latthe, who worked personally with Shahu Maharaj, was its first VP and that he worked to dismantle priestly ([[Jain Dharm|Jain priests]], not usually Brahmans) intermediation within the Jain clergy. (He was a big-time activist for general upliftment and for reform within the Jain community (i.e., wrote ''Jain Dharmacha Parichay''.)

Latthe founded the Dakshin Bharat Jain Sabha[https://dbjainsabha.com/], of which Dr. Bhaurao Patil (from a Jain family) became a member and through he wasn't a member of any SS branch, he did sometimes participate in its activities and himself founded the Rayat Shikshan Sansthan[https://rayatshikshan.edu/], which educated students in a multitude of topics, including Sanskrit. Patil (alias 'Karmvir Anna') was deeply influenced by Mahatma Gandhi and Vitthal Ramji Shinde.

;Shahu distancing himself formally from Satyashodhak Samaj
The SS had earned a bad reputation in Maharashtra with the general public, particularly for the outright anti-Brahman vitriol spewed in the SS's publications and events. Because the goal of Shahu and true reformers was to achieve a harmonious society with all people cooperating, it would not make sense to support an organization that's known for abusing persons (i.e., Brahmans) specifically over their caste identity.

In 1921, Shahu made a public statement in a Baroda newspaper that even though he granted significant support to the non-Brahman movement and introduced measures to eliminate Brahman dominance, he had never been affiliated with Phule's SS, and that he always accepted [[Rta and Spiritual Authority#Rishis|Vedic ritual authority]].

;Granting, accommodating, and expanding Arya Samaj
Shahu attended Arya Samaj sessions like the one at Navsari in 1918 and another at Bhavnagar in 1920<ref>P. 6. ''People's Raj Volume 30'' (1974) By Directorate-General of Information and Public Relations </ref>. He provided funding for Gurukul Boarding House to be built at Kerle, wherein large buildings and well-irrigated lands were granted to the Arya Samaj. Later, the Rajaram Anathalaya orphanage was added to this grant. He also brought educational institutions in his domain under the leadership of Arya Pratinidhi Sabha. Rajaram College's administration was also granted to the Arya Samaj.

;Spiritual Authority as Rajarshi
Shahu Maharaj, being a devout Sanatan wanted to proclaim the rights that warriors of history had and so participated in important ceremonies and worked with priests (i.e., Brahmans) to achieve the rights to learn and perform Vedic ceremonies. He established the Vedokta Committee for Marathas to be able to perform Vedic rites without requiring priests. In 1905, the Karveer Peeth's (or Kolhapur Math's) Shankaracharya declared full rights of Vedokta to Chhatrapati Shahu.

Tatyarao Joshirao was appointed by Shahu Maharaj as new royal purohit, replacing the Rajopadhye (creator of the infamous 'Vedokta Controversy'), who denied the Maharaj to perform Vedic rites. Joshirao was from a family that had traditional ownership of the historic Binkhambi Ganapati Mandir in Kolhapur.

Rajaram Shastri (alias 'Bhagavata'), a Brahman scholar, linguist, and researcher, openly challenged the religious orthodoxy, arguing from scripture that Shahu Maharaj had full rights to the Vedas. Vishnu Topkhane was another Brahman who greatly helped the Chhatrapati with his progressive reforms. Topkhane the educationalist helped the latter establish the Vidyapeeth High School near the Shri Karveer Niwasini Ambabai Mahalakshmi Temple. Freedom fighter Gokhale was someone who worked with Shahu. When the Vedokta Controversy broke out and the conservative press attacked the Maharaja, Gokhale privately and publicly validated Shahu Maharaj's stance, recognizing that social reform was a prerequisite for true political freedom. Ranade, though passed away before much Shahu's reforms began, was admired by the latter for his progressive ideals and actions.

Chhatrapati Shahu founded the Satyashodhak School for spiritual training in 1913, in which seminarians (predominantly from castes such as Marathas, Mahars, and Chambhars) were taught to recite and preach the poems (i.e., abhangs of Tukaram) of sants. He also created the Shivaji Vedic School (aliases 'Shahu Vedic School', 'Shahu Vedic Pathshala', 'Shri Shahu Vaidik Vidyalay') in 1920 and had invited scholars from Varanasi (spiritual capital of Sanatan Dharm) to ensure the highest standard of scriptural and linguistic training. The school trained seminarians (of all castes) to learn Sanskrit and become priests and conduct ceremonies. He further established and financed the office of the Kshatra Jagadguru (''Warrior Universal Teacher''), a pontiff seat open to anyone of any caste. The first Kshatra Jagadguru was Sadashivrao Lakshmanrao Sankpal Patil Benadikar, was an accomplished Sanskrit scholar who received his formal higher education at Rajaram College in Kolhapur. The Kshatra Jagadguru Peeth was the pontiff's seat at Patgaon (in the Bhudargad region of Kolhapur.) Patgaon was chosen because it was the historic site of the Mauni Maharaj Math, a highly respected spiritual center that had historically blessed Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj[https://pilgrimdata.in/temple/mouni-maharaj-math-temple-patgaon-bhudargarh-dist-kolhapur/]. The Kshatra Jagadguru had the Shri Sadashivrao Patil Shikshan Sanstha educationalist association named after him, and it runs schools[https://www.mwssm.org/][https://sspiop.com/] in Maharashtra still. Other organizations too use his name for schools like Sadashivrao Mandlik Mahavidyalaya (Kolhapur) of the ⁠Jay Shivray Education Society.

===Successive associations===
From Hindu-based institutions like sociopolitical organizations and schools came a number of philanthropic associations. Even other humanitarian associations that were not established by Hindu activists, were established by their influence. For example, Krishna Gopal Gokhale had participated in many sessions of the Prarthana Samaj as he was Ranade's pupil, and he later joined the Deccan Education Society, which he left to establish the Servants of India Society. Narayan Malhar Joshi was a member of Gokhale's group and later formed his own Social Service League[https://socialserviceleague.org.in/]. Hriday Nath Kunzru too was part of Gokhale's group and left to establish the Seva Samiti.

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Organization
! Demographic of Focus
! Region(s)
! Founder
! Founder's Affiliation(s)
! Achievement
|-
|Anath Balikashram Society
|Widows
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Andhra Mahila Sabha
|Females
|Andhra Pradesh
|Durgabai Deshmukh
|
|
|-
|Bharat Stree Mahamandal
|Females
|Bengal, Bihar, Punjab, Sindh, U.P.
|Sarala Devi Chaudhurani
|Arya Samaji, Brahmo Samaji, accepted Bijoy Krishna Chattopadhyaya as her guru
|
|-
|Buddhi Vardhak Sabha
|General public
|Gujarat
|Narmadashankar Labheshankar Dave
|
|Exposed people in positions of power that abused their privileges, build schools for girls
|-
|Central Social Welfare Board
|Females and children
|
|Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh
|
|
|-
|Hindu Widow Marriage Association
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Hindustani Seva Dal
|Females
|Every province
|Dr. Narayan Subbarao Hardikar
|
|Established the Hindustani Seva Mandal (later became Rashtriya Seva Dal) in 1923, established the Arya Bala Sabha, taught the Gita during his student days in Kolkata, was a fan of Lokmanya Tilak, and had enthusiastically worked with Lala Rai
|-
|Indian Reform Association
|Females
|West Bengal
|Keshub Chandra Sen
|
|Brahmo Samaji, founded ''Sulabh Samachar'' as weekly newspaper of group
|-
|Kasthurbha Gandhi Kanya Gurukulam[http://www.kgkgurukulam.org/]
|Girls
|Tamil Nadu (Vedaranyam)
|Vedaratnam Pillai
|
|Involved in temple-based philanthropy and donated to Sri Ramakrishna Mission too
|-
|Lakshmi Ashram
|Females
|Uttarakhand
|Sarla Behn
|
|Established individual Mahila Mandals throughout Uttarakhand and promoted important skills as well as ecological awareness
|-
|Lokahitawadi Mandal
|General public
|Maharashtra
|Vishnu Vaman Shirwadkar
|
|Wrote about Hindu themes, including persons from scriptures and about Shivaji poetically, philosophically, and nationally
|-
|Maharshi Karve Stree Shikshan Samstha
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Mahila Vidyalaya (Pune)
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Nishkam Karma Math
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Poona Seva Sadan
|Females
|Maharashtra (at its peak, included M.P. and T.N.)
|Ramabai Ranade
|
|
|-
|Samata Sangh
|General public
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Self Employed Women's Association (SEWA)
|Females
|18 states
|Ela Bhatt
|Gandhian Textile Labour Association
|Established: own bank (Shri Mahila Sewa Sahakari Bank, or 'SEWA Cooperative Bank'), SEWA Mahila Housing Trust
|-
|Servants of the People Society
|Females
|Kerala, Maharashtra, M.P., Odisha T.N., Uttarakhand U.P.
|
|
|
|-
|Shraddhanand Ashram[https://shraddhanandmahilashram.org] (alias Hindu Women's Welfare Society)
|Females and boys
|Maharashtra (Mumbai)
|Swami Shraddhanand
|
|Has cared for thousands of destitute women and orphans, and educated them and provided skills development, as well as fostered personal development
|-
|Stree Hitaishini Mandali
|Females
|Andhra Pradesh
|Kanuparti Varalakshmamma
|
|Educated many females
|-
|Veda Samaj
|General public
|Tamil Nadu
|Chembeti Sridharalu Naidu
|
|It advanced female literacy through local activism, campaigned against child marriages, promoted widow remarriage and windows' rehabilitation into being societal contributing members
|-
|Widow Marriage Association
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|}

==Inspiration to Madras Presidency==
[[image:M.C. Rajah.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Mylai Chinna Thambi Pillai Rajah (the real 'Periyar'.)]]
While the Arya Samaj, Brahmo Samaj, Prarthana Samaj, and a host of other Hindu-based humanitarian and sociopolitical institutions existed in the-then Madras Presidency of southern India, they inspired local organizations as well. Shahu Maharaj had friends in the-then Justice Party (JP, est. 1916), like Arcot Ramasamy Mudaliar and Panaganti Ramarayaningar. While some ethnic groups, like certain castes even falsely supported the idea of an 'Aryan Invasion Theory' and themselves (Dravidian-languages speakers) as indigenous, they still appreciated Hinduism and did not consider it alien.

The biggest uplifter of the party was M.C. Rajah, who had the highest influence upon the policies that improved the lives of the Dalits in Madras Presidency. The party itself was founded primarily by 3 individuals — Sir Pitti Theagaraya Chetty (political founder who built the political machine), Dr. Taravath Madhavan Nair (ideological co-founder), and Dr. Chintadripet Natesa Mudaliar (cultural/grassroots mobilizer who helped shape cultural legitimacy.) Dr. Nair had said that Hindu society had originally possessed broader equality before caste dominance hardened it. Chetty occasionally used dharm-based ethical framing. He is consistently described as arguing that governance must align with "''dharma and justice''". The Dr. Mudaliar was a devout Shaiva that infused into the party Shaivism as a cultural identity for southerners.
[[image:P.T. Rajan.jpg|right|thumb|200px|P.T. Rajan (centre-right, wearing glasses next to priest), touring with the idol of [[Ayyappan|Ayyappa]] he had made at Swamimalai Temple[https://swamimalaiswaminathar.hrce.tn.gov.in/] and it was placed in the Sabarimala Temple[https://www.sabarimalauptodate.in/].]]
An ideologue of influence to the JP and Self-Respect Movement was Maraimalai Adigal, a Shaiv preacher and writer, who claimed that both the JP and Self-Respect Movement were from his teachings and that militant atheist Erode Venkatappa Ramasami Naicker had hijacked them. JP founder Dr. Nair died in 1919 and Chetty in 1925, so had no interaction Naicker. Ponnambala Thiaga Rajan was an active party member and disagreed with Naicker's ideology, so joined Congress-aligned politics. Mudaliar died in 1935 around the time Naicker entered the JP. Naicker was also a prejudiced castist that criticized but did not contribute to build schools and shelters for women and children, as Rajah[https://www.news18.com/opinion/opinion-m-c-rajah-the-forgotten-hindu-mahasabha-dalit-8937192.html][https://vskbharat.com/m-c-rajah-a-staunch-hindu-leader/?lang=en][https://thecommunemag.com/m-c-rajah-the-hindu-mahasabha-dalit/], a practicing Hindu of the party did. Rajah even once formed a political alliance with the Hindu Mahasabha, was the contributor. Before Rajah, the party's caste disparity was mainly about civil service occupations and education access for underprivileged castes. Rajah was recommended by Ambedkar to convert but Rajah replied there's no religion better than Hinduism.<ref>P. 92 ''The Political Evolution of Muslims in Tamilnadu and Madras, 1930-1947'' By J.B. Prashant More (1997) </ref><ref> In a public meeting of the All India Adi Dravida Mahajana Sabha in Nungambakkam, Chennai he said, "''The president (of this meeting) mentioned that no other community other than us has more right to be called Hindus. Conversion will not bring about any good. By saying so, I am not undermining or wishing away the oppression and ills we have faced. We need to fight for our rights. The speed at which reforms are happening might be slow. But think about our current situation and how much it has improved. I beseech you to please abandon any move that will weaken us. I request the government to bring about the Untouchability Abolition Bill and pass it quickly. The Harijans are proud Hindus. That is the only reason why even after years of oppression by higher castes and a barrage of proselytization efforts by other religions hasn't changed their resolve being Hindus.''" P. 123 ''Evolution of Hindu Nationalism - Icons of HMS, RSS & BJS'' By Sankara Narayanan T (2025)</ref> Adigal's writings had a profound impact on Subramania Ramanathan, the founder of the Self-Respect Movement, and on the Naicker but the latter only wanted pro-Tamil and castist societal changes, not promotion of Shaivism. Naicker would later break away from the party and form his own Dravidar Kazhagam, a title he copied from Adigal's Shaiv association (Podhunilak Kazhagam.) (His own pupil, Conjeevaram Natarajan Annadurai, would eventually disown him after he married his own adopted daughter, and Annadurai would leave his group.)
[[image:Alamelu.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Alamelu Mangai Thayarammal, a Brahmo Samaji, was co-founder of the party among 29 others (all men.)]]
The Hindu sentiment was definitely present in the JP. Many left after Naicker's hijacking. Important members bothered by Naicker's rhetoric apart from Rajan were Ananda Prasad Patro, Arunachalam Thamaraiselvam Panneerselvam, Muthiah Annamalai Chettiar, Ramasamy Kandasamy Shanmukham Chetty, and Subbarayalu Kumaraswami Reddiar. Chettiar even personally regularly donated to temple renovations, endowing temple lands or festivals, supporting pilgrimage facilities, and Hindu-managed schools. Rajan, the last leader of the JP, was the head-of-government of the Presidency, and was a big devotee a [[Ayyappan|Swami Ayyappa]]. Rajan even solemnized a marriage of a German couple converted to Hinduism in Coimbatore (Oct 31, 1962.) He further discouraged conversion of Dalits from Hinduism to another religion<ref>"''If by mass conversion you expect to achieve your object, you will be disappointed, because of a mere change of religion it will not give you all that you want.''" 
P. 147 ''Sir P. T. Rajan's Eighty Second Birthday Souvenir, 1973'' By P.T. Rajan and K. Paramasivam</ref> while encouraging caste-Hindus to better treat Dalits. His family had deep ties to the Meenakshi Amman Temple[https://maduraimeenakshi.hrce.tn.gov.in/] in Madurai, with his son (Palanivel Rajan), serving as a minister, and his daughter-in-law (Rukmani), serving as the first female chairperson of the temple's board of trustees. His predecessor Ramakrishna Ranga Rao denied that the JP was anti-Hindu and declared that it aimed to purify Hindu society from "''absurdities''" and return "''Hinduism greater and more glorious than it was in the past...''"<ref>"''As I understand it, the Self-Respect movement stands for certain great ideals to make Hinduism greater and more glorious than it was in the past, to rid it of all those absurdities which are the accretions of an unfortunate era of the past, and unite us in a solid federation so that all those who profess to follow the Hindu faith may feel that they are brethren following one of the most ancient and glorious religions of the world. No longer should the foreigner point his finger of scorn at this or that particular phase of Hinduism which belies its cosmopolitan tendency by inflicting personal hardship on classes or communities. If a few youths in their exuberant enthusiasm have been carried away beyond the bounds of Hinduism it will not do to fight shy of the new movements, but political wisdom and sagacity lie in taking them into our fold and guiding them aright along the paths of duty and rectitude.''" 
P. 289 ''The Indian Annual Register An Annual Digest of Public Affairs of India Recording the Nation's Activities Each Year in Matters Political, Economic, Industrial, Educational, Social, Etc · Volume 2'' By Nipendra Nath Mitra (1934)</ref> Alamelu Mangai Thayarammal, conferred 'Pandithai' title by Saiva Sabha in Palamcottah, was a JP co-founder [with 29 co-founders being men] who was a Brahmo Samaji, meaning the influence of the Hindu-based organizations wasn't insignificant. Paramasivan Subbarayan Gounder, while not technically a JP member, worked with it closely, and both he and his women's rights activist wife Kailash Radhabai Kulmud were Brahmos. It is also noteworthy that [[Ascetics|ascetic]] Swamiyar Kaivalyar who supported the party without being a member wrote pro-Shaiv material. Cattamanchi Ramalinga Reddy, an ex-member who formed his own party in 1923 was a close friend of Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, and he himself engaged with Hindu texts on a literary artistic level. As Hinduism isn't a scripture-dependent religion, some JP members like A.R. Mudaliar heavily criticized certain scriptures but were devout Hindus ([[Vaiśnava|Vaishnav]] in his case.) And while orthodox opposition was present, the majority of Indians, including religious leaders, supported reforms, like when Shankaracharya of Kanchi[https://www.kamakoti.org/] supported the "Hindu Religious Endowments Bill" (1921) even while voicing some concerns in within. Mentionable is that [[Shatata-Unnati#Female upliftment|Dr. Muthulakshmi Reddy]] wasn't part of the JP but it still nominated her in 1926 for the Madras Legislative Council to bring about positive changes.

==Impactful legacy==
The currents resulting from electrifying the establishments in the colonial era by activists, especially Bhave, Gandhi, Ramakrishna, Tagore, and Vivekanand, are still being felt. Humanitarians worldwide in the colonial era recognized those individuals in particular. Albert Schweitzer of France praised Tagore, Howard Thurman and Thomas Merton spoke positively about Sanatan spirituality in general, and Romain Rolland commended Ramakrishna and Vivekanand. Even international figures who changed the world scientifically and social scientifically recognized, like Albert Einstein revering Tagore and his Upanishadic-style monism, and Ernst Friedrich Schumacher exalting both Bhave and Tagore. (Schumacher was influenced by Buddhism as well, upon visiting Burma, and he founded 'Buddhist Economics'.)

And because [[Ārya Samudāy|Arya dharmas]], focus on the rights of all creatures, including animals, activists struggling to improve [[Animal rights#Influence upon Westerners|animals' lives too were impacted]] by Sanatan, Jain, and Bauddh thoughts on the topic.

One thing that Arya dharmas, particularly Sanatan Dharm, has been able to do is accommodate many viewpoints [provided that they converge at its foundation.] For example, even atheists like M.N. Roy have praised philosophical systems, such as Sankhya, Nyaya, and Vaishesik darshans believe they appreciate that their cosmologies delve into the natural world and don't treat it as maya. Likewise, Nobel Prize-winning physicist Erwin Schrödinger[https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1933/schrodinger/biographical/] used Hindu metaphysics to make sense of the bizarre subatomic behaviors discovered in quantum mechanics. Norwegian philosopher Arne Næss, heavily influenced by Gandhi, who founded the "Deep Ecology" movement in the 1970s, pointed directly to Sanatan ethics (mainly ahimsa) to argue against human destruction of the Earth. Leo Tolstoy, who refused to accept the Nobel[https://www.nobelprize.org/ceremonies/proclamation-sent-to-leo-tolstoy-after-the-1901-years-presentation-of-nobel-prizes/], had based much of his humanistic philosophies of anarcho-pacifism and anti-colonialism on the ''[[Thirukkural]]'' and Gandhism.

==Related articles==
*[[Women]]
*[[Women as Rishikas in the Vedas]]
*[[Worship of God as Mother]]

==External resources==
*[https://www.ijhsss.com/files/08.-ABHISEK-KARMAKAR_6813z4a4.pdf "Changing status of women in Indian politics (1917-1947): the role of civil society"], P. 42-45 ''International Journal of Humanities & Social Science Studies'' Volume-I, Issue-II (September 2014) By Abhisek Karmakar
*[https://www.besanthill.org/about/history-heritage/annie-besant/ Besant Hill School of Happy Valley in Ojai, California]
*[https://www.anniebesant.org Annie Besant Women's College in Hyderabad, Telangana]
*[https://www.aryasabha.mu/cultural-programme-arya-mahila-mandal-in-the-context-of-the-200th-birth-anniversary-of-swami-dayananda-saraswati/ Arya Mahila Mandal (Mauritius)]
*[https://www.thearyasamaj.org/ammkarolbagh Arya Mahila Mandal Karol Bagh]
*[https://vatikashaktipeeth.com/seven-agitations/women-awakening.html Vatika Shakti Peeth]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category: History]]
[[Category: Economics]]
[[Category: Societal altruism]]

Theology

2026-07-06T08:30:03Z

Himanshu Bhatt: /* References to 3 aspects of God */

{{Author|Himanshu Bhatt}}
[[Image:Vishnu making universes.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Vishnu]] depicted as God (in [[Vaiśnava|Vaiśnava]] sectarian context) as making and ending universes while being within them, demonstrating panentheism.]]
[[Image:Gayatri Ma.jpg|thumb|250px|The monotheistic prayer Gayatri Mantra personified as God, demonstrating [[monotheism]] in itself.
 
The [[mantra]] demonstrates henotheism when it is called Sarva-[[devata]] Svarupini ("''Universal Form of All Deities''.")]]
<blockquote>
“The Hindu religion is the only one of the world’s great faiths dedicated to the idea that the Cosmos itself undergoes an immense, indeed an infinite, number of deaths and rebirths. It is the only religion in which the time scales correspond to those of modern scientific [[cosmology]]. Its cycles run from our ordinary day and night to a day and night of Brahma, 8.64 billion years long. Longer than the age of the Earth or the Sun and about half the time since the Big Bang.” - Carl Sagan, ''Cosmos''
</blockquote>
Panentheism is the first and foremost theology of the Sanatan Dharm while henotheism and monotheism are secondary but they are all in conformity with each other. This is because while recognizing there is only One Supreme Being above all ([[Brahm]] or [[God]]), the immanence and transcendence of It is a doctrine that goes beyond the generic monotheism preached by other religions. While accepting there is One God above all, it does not enforce worshiping only The One. So it is monotheistic because it believes there is God, but also henotheistic because others worshipping It in another form is accepted as still worshiping the One God. Worship as polytheism (i.e., praying to ancestors) is acceptable being it does not reject The One but venerates others as well. Once a human attains Moksh, it is united with Brahm or Parmatma. Brahm is not confined to space and so is everywhere, including within ourselves. This principle is Ishavasyam. Individuals on the other hand are also connected to all that exists, and this is the [[Environmentalism#Aikatmyam|principle of aikatmyam]]. Because of this omnipresence, the central Hindu theology is panentheism. It is monotheist too because there is just one God above all other spirits. It is henotheist because, while Brahm is The Supreme, other beings worthy of worship exist, which may be pious humans or angels ([[Devatā|demi-gods]].) Hindu theology is often aptly termed monistic theism and even open monotheism by some scholars, but is not purely polytheistic as outsiders perceive it to be. [[Bhakti Marga|Worship (Bhakti Yoga]]) is one of the three yogas to attain Moksh.<ref>The other two are [[Gyāna Mārga|Gyāna Yoga]] and [[Karma Mārga|Karma Yoga]].</ref> Monotheism is known in [[Overview Of Scriptures|Hindu scriptures]] as ekantikvad, and some sects practice it strictly, such as the [[Arya]] Samaj, Mahima, and certain [[Śaiva]] (i.e., Viraśaiva, Alakhgir) and the Vaiśnava (i.e., Pushtimarga, Ekasarana) sampradays.

Hinduism has often been considered to be polytheistic because of one leading denomination, Smartism, which follows the [[Advaita]] philosophy of absolute monism, and includes worship of all kinds of personal forms of God. Absolute monists see one unity with all personal forms of God as different aspects of one Supreme Spirit, like a single beam of light separated into colors by a prism. Thus Smartas consider all personal forms of God as equal including Devi, Vishnu, Śiva, Ganesh and Skanda but generally limit the recognized forms to be six. Other denominations of Hinduism don't adhere to the Smarta viewpoint, but are quite unlike Western perceptions of monotheism. Additionally, like Judeo-Christian traditions which believe in angels, Hindus also believe in other less powerful entities, such as [[deva]]s.<ref name = hop1>{{cite book |title=THE RELIGIONS OF INDIA|author=Edward Washburn Hopkins|url=http://books.google.com/?id=Dj33XvXqJO8C |publisher= Jr. Ginn & Co |pages=204 |year= 1896 |editor=Morris Jastrow, |isbn=978-1-60303-143-1}}</ref>

Sometimes the orthodox members of religions interpret religions with a puritan mindset. An example is that many Christians believe any form of worship not including Jesus as being 'idol worship', while Muslims consider idol worship specifically practicing worship through statues but revering the black stone at the Kaaba and circumambulating Kaaba as not idolatry. [Within the Hindu community too prejudices exist among certain people but the general belief is that 'all religions lead to God'.] This leads to religions discrediting other religions. It is resulted in Hinduism being classified as 'pagan cults' and/or a 'polytheistic religion with no heaven'. The underlying principle of the divine is that it has a Supreme Soul (literally 'Parmatma'), making Hinduism monotheistic in belief. Because Hindus believe that Parmatma possesses the universe, which It also transcends, Hinduism believes in panentheism. And because of the principles 'all religions lead to God' and 'All God is One', and that God can be worshiped in those various ways in various forms, Hinduism believes in henotheism.

Contemporary Hinduism can be categorized into four major sects:
# [[Vaiśnava|Vaiśnavism]]
# [[Śaiva|Śaivism]]
# [[Śākta|Śaktism]]
# Smartism
Vaiśnavism, Śaivism, and Śaktism [[worship]] [[Narayan]], [[Śiva]] and [[Devi]] - the Divine Mother as the Supreme Being respectively or considering all [[Hindu]] [[deities]] as aspects of the Supreme Being or Brahm.<ref>See [[Advaita]], or impersonalism.</ref> Other minor sects such as [[Ganapatya]] and [[Surya|Saura]] focus on [[Ganesha|Ganesh]] and [[Surya]] as the Supreme.

==Nature of God==
:''See also: [[God#Nature of God|Nature of God]]'' [[Image:Durga Ma.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Durga|Durga Ma]] as depicted as God (in [[Shakta]] sectarian context), the God of gods, demonstrating henotheism.]]
[[Image:God in all beings.jpg|thumb|250px|God is considered [[Antaryamin]] (Inner Dweller) or [[Caitya-purusa|Chaitya Purush]] (Inner Being.) While God is omnipresent in inanimate objects too, it is Its presence within living beings that enables a relationship between humans and It, and for humans to attain [[Moksha|Moksh]]. (This is an image of God in [[Vaiśnava]] context.)]]
The One Above All is called Brahm and Parmatma in Sanatan Dharm. This [[acintya|Supreme Being is beyond imagination]] and experience, and as such, transcends the universe. The [[Darshana|darshanas (metaphysical worldviews)]] discuss this universe being prakriti which releases from either Brahm Itself or from human under the influence of ignorance (i.e., [[Maya Panchakam|Maya]].) Brahm is also believed by most Hindus to incarnate in various avataras, which may be to answer a prayer of a devotee, [[test]] a human, or promote spirituality (i.e., Krishna.)

Brahm or God Almighty is spoken of as being ''alaukika'' ("''beyond this world''.") This world is seen as prakriti (nature) which God created. This nature of this world is such that karmas cause beings to be possessed with defilements. God is tri-guṇatit, meaning It is transcendental to the modes of material nature.

God is:
#Sarvavyapin (omnipresent)
#Sarvajna (omniscient)
#Sarvaśaktiman (omnipotent)
#Akal (without beginning, and forever)
#Tri-gunatit (transcendent of the 3 modes of material nature)
The sarvavyapin aspect of God is such that it pervades everything, both material and spiritual, and is also called ''Ishavasyam'' ("''God present in all.''") Sarvajna means to know all, and this is an aspect often highlighted when speaking of Moksh, because salvation means Brahmgyana ("''to know Brahm''") or to acquire Brahmvidya. Sarvaśaktiman means the power of Brahm is such that there is nothing it cannot do, and no other power is greater. ''Akal'' means "''timeless''" and refers to the self-existent state (''swayambhu'') of God, and that it will exist forever. Tri-gunatit means to be transcendent of this material universe which is imperfect.

===Dualistic Energies of God===
This is an understanding of Brahm based on its energies in this universe. While Brahm is the Supreme above all, the God Almighty, it is said to apply two forms of energies in this world. This means that the energy which surrounds us in this material realm is different from that of the spiritual world (Moksh), as is the energy which is with our souls. This is spoken of in different sects and [[Darshana|darshans]]. For example, in the Śaiva sect, Śiva is said to be Brahm while his other half is Prakriti (the divine energy possessing this world.) In the [[Samkhya Yoga]] darshan too, Brahm (Purusha) has a counterpart referred to as Prakriti, which is the nature that surrounds us in this reality. In the ''Bhagvad Gita'' too, Krishna says that Brahm is the total energy while the energy here in this reality he calls ''Parmatma''. In Vaiśnavism, this is notion of the Gita is elaborated wherein the energy of Brahm present in this universe is Mahamaya (or hiraṇmaya-[[mahat]]-[[tattva]]), whereas in the spiritual one it is Yogamaya (or jivan śakti.) The material energy is impacted by the three modes of material nature whereas spiritual energy is not, which is why prakriti is eternal and mutable (parimaminitya), whereas Yogamaya is eternal and immutable (parinamnitya.) The total energy of Brahm is called swarup śakti.

Personification of God's two energies has been presented in some instances as well. In Śaiva context, Śiva represents the spiritual energy and Śakti Ma represents the material energy. In Vaiśnavism too, Brahm is Krishna or Narayan and his energy (both spiritual and material) is a female, usually portrayed as Vishnu's wife, Śri (''Mantramayi Kriya Śakti''.)

====References to 3 aspects of God====
[[Image:Trimurti.jpg|thumb|250px|God represented in a syncretist context as [[Trimurti]] ("''Triune God''"), showing [[Brahmā]], [[Vishnu]], and [[Mahesh]] as God in Its 3 aspects.]]
Because the energies in the universe have normally been considered to be dualistic, they, together with God's total energy in the spiritual real, would be 3 aspects of God. From this logic, many Hindu thinkers have believed there are 3 aspects of God we can come to the conclusion of. Various scriptures have written on the One Supreme Lord being characterized of 3 aspects, in Hinduism and in the [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]]. In a conversation mentioned in the ''Brihadaranyaka [[Upanishad|Upaniṣad]]''<Ref> Chapter 3, Part 9 of ''Brihadaranyaka Upaniṣad'' </ref> between [[Yajnavalkya]] and Vidaghdha, the latter asks how many Devas (gods) there are, to which the former replies 33, but Vidaghdha keeps asking, and before coming to the answer of a single 1 God, he had said there are 3 gods [which can be taken to mean that single God has 3 aspects.] No other story legitimizes 3 aspects of Brahm more than the one of the ''[[Rig Veda]]'' wherein Ka (an epithet of the unseen presence or Parabrahm) or Apo (primordial waters) produced the universal womb Hiranyagarbha (Prajapati) with Prajapati within the womb having come into being the "one divine spirit", and Agni (souls)[https://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10121.htm]

Parallel to the 3 aspects of Brahm is the the [[Vaiśnava#Pāñcharātra Āgama|Pāñchrātra]], which consists of 5 venerable forms of Narayan (para, vyuha, vibhava, [[arca]], and antaryamin), the 3 aspects which as para, vyuha, and antaryamin fall within the same categories as the classifications of Brahm do in many other analyses. The vibhava aspect of God is basically formed from one or 2 of the other aspects (i.e., avatara of vyuha and consist of antaryamin.) Arca refers to representative icons of God which are venerated, which are created by matter. In this analysis, the Pāñchrātra holds consistent with the triune characterization of God. Some schools of Śaivism too break down the aspects of God into 3, like Śiva being Parabrahm, Śakti being Aparabrahm, and Yamala being Tapas or Agni. The last is called Tapas or Agni normally, as it is imperishable and is the same energy as the soul (Yogamaya.) That is why it is also called Apām Napāt (''Child of Apo''.)

The "Ka Sukta" (aliases "Hiranyagarbha Sukta", "Prajapati Sukta") of the ''Rig Veda'' is one the most popular cosmogonies in the Arya dharmas. What has been overlooked are the triple aspects detailed within the hymn. In it, Apo (God as 'primordial waters'), which "''possesses generational fire''" (Agni), incubates the Hiranyagarbha (womb containing Prajapati, "''born Only-Lord of all created beings''"). In other words, it ambiguously states Apo is God in the highest form (i.e., Parabrahm), Prajapati this material universe's Aparabrahm, and Agni the life-giving spark within all creatures. (This can be likened to the Pāñchrātrik para, vyuha, and antaryamin.) The hymn goes further to state that [[Devatā#Divine Council|the Devanam or ''people who've taken the title of God'']] (i.e., Devtas on the Divine Council of 33) return to God, meaning that the Devtas are representatives of God on Earth but they are none of the 3 aspects of God and aren't of equal status to God either.

As the material energy is Mahamaya and spiritual (superior) energy is Yogamaya, these energies can also help break down the Vak (cosmic speech.) The ''Rig Veda'' itself declares, "''Vak resides in four quarters (pada). The wise Brahmins who possess insight know them all. Three quarters are hidden in secret and do not stir; human beings speak only the fourth quarter.''"<ref>''Rig Veda'' 1.164.45</ref> The first 3 aspects of Vak itself—para, pashyanti, and madhyama—are spiritual, while the last (Vaikhari) is material energy. Therefore, it can be presumed that this together with synthesizing the commonalities in the creation myths, that the Aparabrahm or Universe is the lowest form of Vak.

"Purush Sukta" states that all creatures in this universe are 1/4 of the Purush (God) and that the others are spiritual—this would be in line with the trinitarian concept that the other 3/4 of Purush are the Parabrahm, Aparabrahm, and Antaryamin. All living beings here in the material world being 1/4 of Purush means that we are eternal, since are a part of the Purush Itself, and that we are of the same spiritual substance as Purush.

Below is a table summarizing and forming the connections between the trinity stated in various texts or beliefs.
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Derivation
! Heavenly Being
! All-Pervasive Being in Universe
! Inner Being
|-
!Vishwakarman Sukta (''Rig Veda''[https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rvsan/rv10081.htm][https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10081.htm][https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rvsan/rv10082.htm][https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10082.htm])
|Vishwakarma/Apo (Primordial Waters)/Garbha/Dhātar/Vidhātar/Sacrificial Seer<ref>ṛṣirhotā</ref>/Ascetic Father<ref>nyasīdatpitā</ref>/One Dev<ref>deva ekaḥ</ref>/Lord of Speech<ref>vācas patiṃ</ref>/One, Only One<ref>para ekamāhuḥ</ref>
|Universe
|
|-
!Ka Sukta (''Rig Veda''[https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rvsan/rv10121.htm][https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10121.htm])
|Apo
|Hiranyagarbha (Prajapati)/Universe
|Agni
|-
!Vak Sukta (''Rig Veda''[https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rvsan/rv10125.htm][https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10125.htm])
|Apsu (Primordial Waters<ref>Yonirapsvantaḥ</ref>)
|Universe
|Vak
|-
!Nasadiya Sukta (''Rig Veda''[https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rvsan/rv10129.htm][https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10129.htm])
|Tad Ekam (That One)
|Sat (The Existent/Manifestation)/Universe
|Asat (The Non-Existent/Potentiality)
|-
!Aghamarṣaṇa Sukta (''Rig Veda''[https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rvsan/rv10190.htm][https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10190.htm])
|Dhātar
|Sat (The Existent/Manifestation)/Ṛta (Cosmic Order) and Satya (Cosmic Truth)
|Tapas (Cosmic Heat)
|-
!Devāgāna Sukta (''Rig Veda''[https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rvsan/rv10072.htm][https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10072.htm])
|Āsur Ek/Brahmaṇaspati/Dev Ek
|Sat (The Existent/Manifestation)
|Vak
|-
!Purush Sukta (''Rig Veda''[https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rvsan/rv10090.htm][https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10090.htm])
|Adhi Purush
|Virāj/Universe
|Vak/Purush (other souls)
|-
!''Bhagavad Gita''<ref> “''O best of the embodied souls, the physical manifestation that is constantly changing is called adhibhūta; the universal form of God, which presides over the celestial gods in this creation, is called adhidaiva; I, who dwell in the heart of every living being, am called Adhiyajña, or the Lord of all sacrifices.''” - [https://www.holy-bhagavad-gita.org/chapter/8/verse/4 ''Bhagvad Gita'' 8.4] </ref>
|Parabrahm
|Aparabrahm
|Parmatma<Ref> “''Within the body also resides the Supreme Lord. He is said to be the Witness, the Permitter, the Supporter, Transcendental Enjoyer, the ultimate Controller, and the Paramātmā (Supreme Soul).''” - [https://www.holy-bhagavad-gita.org/chapter/13/verse/23 ''Bhagvad Gita'' 13.23] </ref>
|-
!''Bhagavat Purana''
|Narayan
|Mahamaya
|Yogamaya
|-
!''Isha Upaniṣad'' 6-7
|Uttam [Purush]
|Kshar
|Akshar
|-
!''Katha Upaniṣad'' (1.3.10–11)
|Purush
|Avyaktam
|Mahat (Mahan [[Atma]])
|-
!''Mahānārāyan Upaniṣad'' 24
|Tvashtā
| -
| -
|-
!''Maitrāyaṇīya Upaniṣad''
|Brahmā
|Vishnu
|Mahesh
|-
!''Sams'aya-taducchedavādah''
|Manomaya Purush ([[Avyaya]])
|Vangmaya (Kshar)
|Pranamaya Purush (Akshar)
|-
!''Sasongko Jati''
|Principle of Lord<ref>Suksma Kawekas</ref>
|Director of Life<ref>Suksma Sejati</ref>
|Lord of Life<ref>Roh Suci</ref>
|-
!''Sāttvat Saṃhitā''
|Para
|Vyuha
|Antaryamin
|-
!''Swaminarayan Bhashyam'' / ''Vachanamrut''
|Parabrahm
|Aparabrahm
|Aksharbrahm
|-
!''Vijñāna Bhairava Tantra''
|Śiva
|Śakti
|Yamala
|-
!''[[Vayu]] [[Purana]]'' 1.2
|Purush
|Manifested Prakriti
|Unmanifested Prakriti
|-
!''[[Yoga]] Sutra'' 2.20
|Drashtā
|Pratyaya-anupashya
|Shuddha
|-
|}

===Formlessness===
{{Cquote|Knowing That which is soundless, touchless, formless, undecaying; also tasteless, odorless, and eternal; beginningless, endless and immutable; beyond the Unmanifested: (knowing That) man escapes from the mouth of death.|4=Katha Upaniṣad 3.15}}
 
Brahm has been written of to be either Nirguna (Parabrahm) and Shaguna (Aparabrahm), including being both. Nirguna refers to God without physical and personality attributes (i.e., a body) while Shaguna is the opposite. Worshiping God as either is fine. Brahm is believed to take vyuhas or emanations, especially to communicate with humans in the physical world (i.e., to provide revelations), and has been seen particularly in Vaiṣnavism as both heavenly and earthly incarnations. Avatars of Śiva, Ganesh, [[Durga]], and others have also been documented and worshipped. 
{{Cquote|Brahm has indeed has 2 two modes, formless as well as manifested.|4=Brihad-Aranyaka Upaniṣad 2.3.1}}
 
Nirguna bhakti was a popular method of worshipping in the medieval era in particular when several sects appeared. Worshipping Vishnu in the formless manner was practiced by Ramanand [[Sampraday]] and its succeeding sects, including Kabir Panth, Ravidas Panth, Satnam Panth, and others. Mahima Dharm was a peculiar Vaiśnava sect because it adheres only to the ''Bhagvat Purana'' and normally referred to Vishnu as ''Alakh'' or ''Sunya'' (“''Void''.”) [[Temples]] of this sect never include [[idols]] which are venerated because the heavenly Vishnu, God before the creation of all, is considered unmanifested. Some Śaiva sects too have practiced worship without an idol, denying that God (Śiva) has a form. These sects include Alakhgirs and Nath Panthis, both of whom call Śiva ''Alakh'' (“''Invisible''.”) Manikkavasagar was a well-known saint from the Bhakti era that worshipped Śiva as formless.<ref> ''Shiva in the City of Nectar: Fifty-four divine tales of Shiva in ancient India'' By Preetha Rajah Kannan </ref> Arulnanti was a another Śaiva theologian from southern India at the time.
 
{{Cquote|Although the Supreme Lord is described as having no hands and legs, He nonetheless accepts all sacrificial offerings.|4=Śvetāśvatara Upaniṣad 3.19}}
 
Temples wherein Brahm is worshipped as formless are known as ''Sunya Mandirs''. Most of these are Vaiśnava belonging to the Ekasarana, Mahima, and Satnami sects, but Śaiva sects of Brahmā Kumaris are notable. There are also temples of Vishnu, Śiva and other gods that don’t belong to a particular sect.
 
{{Cquote|The Entity who is one and without a second, and one without any colours; who has created the colourful quinquelemental world for reasons unknown with the help of His many powers; in whom this entire universe dissolves; is no other than Parama Puruśa. Let that Entity guide our intellect along the path of supreme righteousness. |4=Śvetāśvatara Upaniṣad 4.1.12}}

==Both Immanency and Transcendence of God (Panentheism)==
{{Cquote|I take refuge in that self-existent Being in Whom is this Universe, and Who is beyond this (differentiated Nature) as also beyond that (Undifferentiated.)|4=[https://vedabase.io/en/library/sb/8/3/3/ Bhagvata Purana 8.3.3]}}
 
Karl Krause coined the term 'panentheism' inspired by his readings on Hinduism.<ref> P. 170 ''The Oxford Handbook of Natural Theology'' By Russell Re Manning; ''Karl Krause (1781–1832) borrowed Indian ideas in formulating his own panentheist doctrine of God as a non-personal essence (Wesen) with which the world must eventually be reunited.''"</ref> In Sanskrit, this is called ''Ishavasyam'' or ''vibhudyatvad'' (“''doctrine of pervading and surpassing''.”) While pantheism equates the visible universe with God, panentheism declares that God is omnipresent in Its creation and transcends Its creation too. This means God is the visible universe and more. Heaven and hell may not be in this universe, but another wherein God is also omnipresent. It would make sense that if God is all-pervasive that we would be within It. In other words, everything is submerged or within God. Purusha [[Sukta]] states that The Supreme is both immanent and transcendent - "''Sa bhumin vishvato vritva atyatishthat dashangulam.''" Even when Hindus greet each other by saying "''Namaste''," it means "''I bow to God within you''," showing panentheism in the very greeting. The ''Kaṭha Upaniṣad'' 2.2.12-13 states, “''Whatever we see is a manifestation of [[Brahman]].''”<ref> “''sarvaṁ khalv idaṁ brahma taj jalā[[niti]] śānta upāsīta''” </ref> Satguru Sivaya Subramuniyaswami, said that "''Panentheism is the view that the universe is part of the being of God, as distinguished from pantheism (all-is-God doctrine"), which identifies God with the total reality. In contrast, panentheism holds that God pervades the world, but is also beyond it. He is immanent and transcendent, relative and Absolute. This embracing of opposites is called dipolar. For the panentheist, God is in all, and all is in God.''"

{{Cquote|It is you from whom this universe of forms emerges, and it is you within whom it stays. It is you in whom it finally disappears. |4=Vedasara Shivastotram}} 

Professor Charles Hartshorne in his discussion of panentheism discussed Hinduism in 1953. Professor Lorilai Biernacki considers Hinduism to be one of the most panentheistic traditions.[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/panentheism/] Other [[Ārya Samudāy]] dharmas have also been written on by scholars as panentheist - Christopher Key Chapple on Jainism, Geoffrey Samuel on Buddhism, William M. Reynolds on [[Sikhism]]<ref> P. 90 ''Expanding Curriculum Theory: Dis/positions and Lines of Flight'' By William M. Reynolds and ‎Julie A. Webber </ref>, Ernest Lee Tuveson on Hermeticism<ref>P. 255 ''Gnosis and Hermeticism from Antiquity to Modern Times'' By R. van den Broek </ref>, and Dirk Baltzly on Neoplatonism.

<blockquote>
"It is in the [[Vedas]] that we find for the first time not merely traces or indications of Pantheism, but Pantheism itself in its full growth and maturity." - Constance E. Plumptre<ref> ''General Sketch of the History of Pantheism: Volume 1'' By Constance E. Plumptre </ref>
</blockquote>
{{Cquote|This entire cosmic manifestation is pervaded by Me in My unmanifest form. All living beings dwell in Me, but I do not dwell in them.|4=[https://www.holy-bhagavad-gita.org/chapter/9/verse/4 Bhagvad Gita 9.24]}}
 
Ishavasyam is a term which demonstrates the omnipresent nature of Brahm, wherein It is everywhere and is transcendent of the objects it possesses. In a story from Krishna's life, once when Krishna was an infant he was suspected to have placed mud into his mouth. Yashoda then said, “''If you have not taken any mud, then open your mouth. I shall see for myself.''” Upon seeing in his mouth, she saw the universe (i.e., galaxies, starts. ) This one event shows how the universe itself is within God Almighty.
 
{{Cquote|The Supreme Lord walks and does not walk. He is far away, but He is very near as well. He is within everything, and yet He is outside of everything.|4=[https://vedabase.io/en/library/iso/5/ Isha Upaniṣad 5]}}
 
In the below verse, [[Yama]] is saying the Brahm is present in the inanimate and animate objects of the world.
{{Cquote|I am the food. I am the eater of food.|4=Taittiriya Upaniṣad 3.10.6}}
 
{{Cquote|He who, dwelling in all things,
Yet is other than all things, 
Whom all things do not know, 
Whose body all things are, 
Who controls all things from within, 
He is your soul, the Inner Controller, the Immortal.|4=Brihad-Aranyaka Upaniṣad 3.7.15}}
 
The verse below illustrates that God is the Complete Whole, meaning all-pervasive in this universe and yet, transcendent of it:
{{Cquote|God is perfect and complete, and because It is completely perfect, all emanations from It, such as this phenomenal world, are perfectly equipped as complete wholes. Whatever is produced of the Complete Whole is also complete in itself. Because It is the Complete Whole, even through so many complete units emanate from It, It remains the complete balance.|4=Isha Upaniṣad invocation}}
 
Mahatma Gandhi was very fond of quoting from this Upaniṣadic couplet:
{{Cquote|Whatever is ephemeral in this changing universe is Ishavasya (enveloped by Isha.)|4=Isha Upaniṣad}}
 
The omnipresence of Brahm is related to the interconnectedness of the soul (aikatmyam), because it is this relationship which also helps connect the soul to Brahm for achieving Moksh - realizing Aham Brahmasmi and tapping into the [[Antaryamin]] (Brahm within.)

{{Cquote|That microcosm [within you] is That Universe [outside of you], That Universe [outside of you] is that microcosm [within you.]<ref>Yat pinde tatha Brahmānde yatha Brahmande tatha pinde[https://www.yogapedia.com/definition/9326/yat-pinde-tat-brahmande]</ref>|4=Yajur Veda}}

This concept is mentioned as ''Pind Brahmand [[Nyaya]]. ''

==Oneness of God (Monotheism)==
[[Image:Surya with attendents.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Surya]] as God (in [[Saura]] sectarian context) being worshipped by his attendants and crowds of humans, demonstrating monotheism.]]
[[Image:Cosmic Vishnu.jpg|thumb|250px|Krishna too is sometimes depicted as comprising of the whole universe and to have his abodes outside of the universe (as stated in the ''[[Bhagavad Gita|Bhagvad Gita]]''), demonstrating panentheism.]]
[[Image:Cosmic Jina.jpg|thumb|250px|The whole universe in [[Jain Dharm|Jainism]] too is depicted as a person - referred to as 'Lok Purusha', demonstrating panentheism.]]
[[Image:Cosmic Buddha.jpg|thumb|250px|The whole universe in [[Bauddh Dharm|Buddhism]] too is sometimes depicted as a person, demonstrating panentheism.]]
''Brahm'' and ''Parmatma'' are the generic terms for The One Above All. The Sanskrit term for this is
''ekantikvad'' or ''ekamata.'' How Hindus have practiced monotheism is by worshiping Parmatma by worshiping It as an Ishta-Dev. Even the worship of solely Krishna as Parmatma or God Almighty by followers was referred to ''Ekantika [[Dharma]]'' and ''[[Ekayana]]''. The latter term was used also by Vaiśnavas of the [[Rudra]] Sampraday for worshipers of only Vishnu. Śaiva sects too have enforced monotheism, such as the Alakh Panth and Virasaivs. Monotheism in worship is enforced by a few sects but worshiping God Almighty along with others (demi-gods and ancestors) isn’t forbidden by most sects.

==Oneness of Deities (Henotheism)==
:''See also: [[Worship]], [[God#Oneness of God|Oneness of God]]''
<blockquote>
"This concept of God is panentheistic and even the Vedic theism is nothing but panentheism. It is very well expressed in philosophical hymns like ''[[Puruṣa]] sūkta'', ''Hiranyagarbha sūkta'' and even ''Nāsadīya sūkta''." - Sahebrao Genu Nigal<ref> P. 81 ''Vedic Philosophy of Values'' By Sahebrao Genu Nigal </ref>
</blockquote>It is understood that any kind of worship is accepted by The One Above All, regardless of name or form addressed in worship. The Sanskrit term for this is ''sarvekāntatva'' (“''state of all being a part of one''.”) Even a worshiper who is not Hindu and worships God [or a god] at their church or home, is worshiping God (only in a different way.) This particular viewpoint was so profound to modern scholars studying Hinduism that new terms had to be invented in English just to describe it - 'henotheism'. Then from 'henothenism' came another another term - 'kathenotheism' - meaning to worship 1 god at a time (while recognizing there may be more than a single divine being.) Then in 1828 German philosopher Karl Krause coined the term 'panentheism'.

 
{{Cquote|Of the eternals you are The Chief Eternal, of the sentients you are The Chief Sentient 
The One Chief of the many, that assembles and who is desirable 
Dark (unseeable) and present in the soul who is watching and unwavering 
That eternal peace is a guiding force [within]|4=Katha Upaniṣad 2.2.13<ref> Nityo nityanam cetanas cetananam 
eko bahunam yo vidadhati kaman 
tam atma-stham ye ’nupasyanti dhiras 
tesham shantih sasvati netaresam</ref>}}

 
Even the earlier Mandalas of ''[[Rig Veda]]''<ref>Ṛgveda books 1 and 9</ref> which contain hymns dedicated to devas, are thought to have a tendency toward monotheism.<ref>Macdonell, Arthur Anthony. Vedic Mythology. Forgotten Books (May 23, 2012). P. 17. ISBN 1440094365.</ref> Often quoted isolated pada of the ''Ṛig Veda''<ref>Ṛgveda 1.164.46</ref> states (trans. Ralph T.H. Griffith):

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! English
! Sanskrit
|-
|
{{Cquote|
:They call him Indra, Mitra, Varuṇa, Agni, and he is heavenly nobly-winged Garutmān.
:To what is One, sages give many a title they call it Agni, Yama, Mātariśvan.}}
|
{{Cquote|
:Indraṃ mitraṃ varuṇamaghnimāhuratho divyaḥ sa suparṇo gharutmān
:ekaṃ sad viprā bahudhā vadantyaghniṃ yamaṃ mātariśvānamāhuḥ}}
|-
|}

Further, the ''Rig Veda'' states, “There is only one God, [[worship]] Him“<Ref> Ṛg Veda, 6.45.16 </ref> and “Do not worship any one beside Him“<ref> Ṛg Veda 8.1.1 </ref>. Recognizing that there is a Supreme God above any other divinities is seen in the Vaiśnava mantra “Dev devaya namo nama” and Śaiva mantra “Aum nama Shivay sarvaya deva devaya vai namaha,” both of which proclaim their respective Supreme as the “God of gods.”
 
{{Cquote|Patiṁ patīnāṁ paramaṁ parastāt|4=Śvetāśvatara Upaniṣad 6.7}}
 
The ''[[Brahma Samhitā]]''<ref>Brahma Samhitā 5.45</ref> declares, ''Lord Vishnu is milk; Lord Śiva is yogurt''. Other aspects of God are expansions or aspects of Vishnu or Śiva which is detailed in various [[Purānas]]. Vaiṣnavites, like other Hindus, have tolerance for other beliefs because [[Krishna]], an [[avatara]] of Vishnu, said so in the Gitā. Krishna says:
{{Cquote|Whatever deity or form a devotee worships, I make his or her faith steady. However, their wishes are only granted by Me alone."<ref>Gitā 7.21-22</ref>|4=Bhagvad Gita 7.21-22}}
Krishna also says in the Gitā:
{{Cquote|O [[Arjuna]], even those devotees who worship other lesser [[deities]] e.g., devas, with faith, they also worship Me, but in an improper way because I am the Supreme Being. I alone am the enjoyer of all sacrificial services (Seva, [[Yajna]]) and Lord of the universe."<ref>Gitā 9.23</ref>|4=[https://www.holy-bhagavad-gita.org/chapter/9/verse/3 Bhagvad Gita 9.23]}}
 
The theology of henotheism also applies to the treating of ancestors or other beings as venerable. Because divinity is extended to them by many Hindus, it does not mean that there is a violation of the belief in a One God Above All, but that piety is offered to them in respect.
 
{{Cquote|The Lord of lords is Supreme and beyond them (deities.)|4=Śvetāśvatara Upaniṣad 6.7}}

===Smarta view===
The system prevalent in Hinduism is defined by the Smartha philosophy; this theory allows for the veneration of numerous deities, but on the understanding that all of them are but manifestation of the one divine power.<ref>It is a belief sometimes called kathenotheism.</ref> That ultimate [[divinity]] is termed Brahm or Atman and is believed to have no specific form, name or attribute.<ref>{{cite book
| author = Sivaya Subramuniyaswami
| url = http://books.google.com/?id=EWlHPAkjBKUC&pg=PA425
| title = Dancing with Siva: Hinduism's Contemporary Catechism
| publisher = Himalayan Academy Publications
| year = 2004
| isbn = 0-945497-96-2}}</ref> Only a Smartha, or follower of the [[Advaita Vedanta|Advaita]] philosophy, would have no problem worshiping every imaginable deity with equal veneration; as the view is that all names and forms of deities are merely manifestations of the same God. Other Hindu sects such as [[Vaiśnavism]] and Śaivism conform more closely to a Western understanding of what a monotheistic faith is. For instance, a Vaiṣnavite considers Vishnu as being the one and only true God, an attitude that resonates with that of the [[Abrahamic religions]]. However, it is [[Advaita]] philosophy that defines the Smartha sect of mainstream Hinduism, and imparts to Indic spiritual and religious traditions their renowned liberalism.

===Swaminarayan view===
[[Swami Sahajananda]], founder of the Swaminarayan Sampraday, said in verse 115 of its scripture, “''[[Śikśapatri]] said, ‘[[Sri Krishna]] Bhagvan and Sri Krishna Bhagvan's incarnations alone are worthy of meditation. Similarly, Sri Krishna Bhagvan's images are worthy. And men or [[devas]], even if they are devotees of Sri Krishna Bhagvan or Brahmvetta,<ref>It is knower of [[divinity]].</ref> They are still not worthy of meditation and thus one should not meditate upon them.’''"

The ''[[Brahma Samhitā]]''<ref>It means ''Brahma Samhitā'' 5.45</ref> declares, Lord Vishnu is milk; [[Śiva|Lord Śiva]] is yogurt.<ref>http://vedabase.net/bs/5/45/en Sri Bramha Samhita 5.45</ref> Followers of Swaminaryan are [[Vaiṣnavas]], but differ from the viewpoint attested by Gaudiya Vaiṣnavas who emphasize Śiva as a subordinate demigod expansion of Krishna. For example, Swaminaryan states:
<ref>[http://www.swaminarayanwales.org.uk/Shikshapatri/shikshapatridetails.asp?shlockcode=85 Shree Swaminarayan Temple Cardiff - Scriptures - Shikshapatri]</ref>
{{Cquote|And the oneness of Narayan and Śiva should be understood, as the Vedas have described both to be Brahmarupa (or form of Brahm, i.e., Saguna Brahm), thus indicating that Vishnu and Śiva are different forms of the one and same God. And that [[Ishvara]] is Sri Krishna Bhagvan,<ref> (Sri Swaminarayan Bhagvan</ref> who is supreme [[Para Brahman|Parabrahm]], [[Purushottama|Purushottam]], our [[Ishta-deva]]<ref>It means principal deity.</ref> worthy of worship, and the cause of all incarnations.|4=Shikshapatri 47.84.108}}

===Vivekanandian view===
According to the speech of [[Swami Vivekananda]] in Chicago during 1906, the monotheism of Hindu is not only for Hindu. It can effective for every human living on the earth. The verse,

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! English
! Sanskrit
|-
|{{Cquote|
:It means the rain water fallen from the sky go to the ocean, the same worship of every deity goes to only one God." (Here in this verse God is mentioned as Keshav (one of the name of Krishna). It doesn't matter, you are Hindu or not.
:Every worship goes to that God.}}
|{{Cquote|
:akāsāt patitaM toyam yathā gacchati sāgaram
:sarvadeva namaskārān kesavam prati gacchati}}
|-
|}

==Relation Between Brahm and Individuals==
Sanatan Dharm is essentially to understand the relationship between the Self and self, which is why the phrases "''Aham Brahmasmi''" and "''Ayamatma Brahm''", both of which mean, "''I am part of the Supreme''."

==Upaniṣad Era==
In the time period that the [[Upaniṣads]] were written, worship of gods within Hindus is turning into worship of primarily one god. The ''Chāndogya [[Upaniṣad]]'' states,
{{Cquote|God is only one, not a second.“|4=Chāndogya [[Upaniṣad]] Ch. 6.2.1}}
 
The ''Rudra Upaniṣad'' from the ''[[Atharva]] Shiras Upaniṣad'' reads of Rudra declaring himself as Brahm, and describing his attributes. The text also reads:
{{Cquote|O Rudra, O Ishana, O Maheshwara, O Mahadeva, O lord, for thou art Parabrahm, the one and only god!<Ref> P. 443 ''Researches Into the Nature and Affinity of Ancient and Hindu Mythology'' By Vans Kennedy </ref>}}

==Bhakti movement==
:''See also: [[The Hindu Renaissance#Medieval Renaissance|Bhakti movement]], [[Bhakti]], [[Bhakti Marga|Bhakti Yoga]]''
Krishnaism is one notable instance of Vaiṣnava monotheism popularized in the [[Bhakti movement]]. Krishnaism refers to Krishna with the title ''Svayam Bhagvan'', meaning 'Lord Himself' and it is used exclusively to designate Krishna as the Supreme Lord.<ref name=Gupta20071>Gupra, 2007, p.36 note 9.</ref> Certain other [[Sampradaya|traditions]] of Hinduism consider Krishna to be the source of all emanations,<ref name = jsn>''[[Bhagwan Swaminarayan]] bicentenary commemoration volume, 1781-1981.'' p. 154: ...Shri [[Vallabhacharya]] [and] Shri Swaminarayan...Both of them designate the highest reality as Krishna, who is both the highest avatara and also the source of other avataras. To quote R. Kaladhar Bhatt in this context. "In this transcendental devotion (Nirguna [[Bhakti]]), the sole Deity and only" is Krishna. [http://books.google.com/books?id=_Q0YAAAAIAAJ&q=Avatara+Swaminarayan+Krishna+origina%3B&dq=Avatara+Swaminarayan+Krishna+origina%3B New Dimensions in Vedanta Philosophy - Page 154], Sahajā[[nanda]], [http://books.google.com/books?q=+subject:%22Vedanta%22 Vedanta]. 1981</ref> and the source of Vishnu himself or to be the same as [[Narayana|Narayan]].<ref name = "Delmonico2004">{{cite journal
| author = Delmonico, N.
| year = 2004
| title = The History Of Indic Monotheism And Modern Chaitanya Vaishnavism
| journal = The Hare Krishna Movement: the Postcharismatic Fate of a Religious Transplant
| url = http://books.google.com/?id=mBMxPdgrBhoC&pg=PA31&dq=Vaisnava+monotheism
| accessdate = 2008-04-12
| publisher = Columbia University Press
| isbn = 978-0-231-12256-6
}}</ref><ref name = "Elkman1986">{{cite book
| author = Elkman, S.M.
| coauthors = Gosvami, J.
| year = 1986
| title = Jiva Gosvamin's Tattvasandarbha: A Study on the Philosophical and Sectarian Development of the Gaudiya Vaishnava Movement
| publisher = Motilal Banarsidass Pub
| isbn =

}}</ref><ref name = Dimock1989>{{cite book
| author = Dimock Jr, E.C.
| coauthors = Dimock, E.C.
| year = 1989
| title = The Place of the Hidden Moon: Erotic Mysticism in the Vaisnava-Sahajiya Cult of Bengal
| publisher = University Of Chicago Press
| isbn =

}} [http://books.google.com/books?id=EAYa1BtUTm0C&pg=PA132&dq=Svayam+bhagavan&sig=jcyEA-4tyPoddQmWg-FnYKDBgEY page 132]
</ref> The term is seldom used to refer to other forms of Krishna and/or Vishnu within the context of certain religious texts such as the ''[[Bhagvata Purāṇa|Bhagvata Purāṇa]]''.

Though Krishna is recognized as ''Svayam Bhagvan'' by many,<ref name = "RKm">{{cite book
|author=Mepathur Narayana Bhattatiri
|title=Narayaneeyam-Bhagavata, Condensed Edition
|publisher=Sri Ramakrishna Math
|location=
|year=2003
|pages=
|isbn=81-7120-419-8
|oclc=
|doi=
|accessdate=
}}pp.234-239</ref> he is also perceived and understood from an eclectic assortment of perspectives and viewpoints.<ref name=Mahony1987>{{cite journal
| author = Mahony, W.K.
| year = 1987
| title = Perspectives on Krishna's Various Personalities
| journal = History of Religions
| volume = 26
| issue = 3
| pages = 333–335
| accessdate = 2008-04-12
| doi = 10.1086/463085
| jstor=1062381
}}</ref> When Krishna is recognized to be ''Svayam Bhagvan'', it can be understood that this is the belief of Gaudiya Vaiṣnavism,<ref name=Kennedy1925>{{cite book
| author = Kennedy, M.T.
| year = 1925
| title = The Chaitanya Movement: A Study of the Vaiṣnavism of Bengal
| publisher = H. Milford, Oxford university press
| isbn =

}}</ref> the Vallabha Sampradaya,<ref name = "flood">{{cite book
| author = Flood, Gavin D.
| authorlink = Gavin Flood
| title = An introduction to Hinduism
| publisher = Cambridge University Press
| location = Cambridge, UK
| year = 1996
| isbn = 0-521-43878-0
| url = http://books.google.com/?id=KpIWhKnYmF0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=gavin+flood
| accessdate = 2008-04-21
| page = 341
}}"Early [[Vaiṣnava]] worship focuses on three deities who become fused together, namely Vasudeva-Krishna, Krishna-Gopala and Narayana, who in turn all become identified with Vishnu. Put simply, Vasudeva-Krishna and Krishna-Gopala were worshiped by groups generally referred to as Bhagvatas, while Narayana was worshiped by the Pancaratra sect."</ref> and the [[Nimbarka Sampradaya]], where Krishna is accepted to be the source of all other manifestations and the source of Vishnu himself. This belief is drawn primarily from the famous statement of the Bhagvatam<ref name=Gupta2007/>:<ref name = Rosen>''Essential [[Hinduism]]'' S. Rosen, 2006, Greenwood Publishing Group [http://books.google.com/books?id=VlhX1h135DMC&pg=PA124&dq=Krishna+is+the+original+Personality+of+Godhead&client=firefox-a&sig=2Yojs3j3lTcocPQ7RaIqBnpLrq0 p.124] ISBN 0-275-99006-0</ref>
 
{{Cquote|All of the descents and incarnations are either plenary portions or portions of the plenary portions of the Lord, but Lord Śrī Krishna is the original Personality of Godhead.|4=Srimad Bhagvatam<ref>Śrimad Bhagvatam1.3.28</ref>}}
 
Vaiṣnavism is one of the earliest implicit manifestations of monotheism in the traditions of Vedas. ''Svayam Bhagvān'' is a [[Sanskrit]] term for the original deity of the Supreme God worshiped across many traditions of the Vaiṣnavism as the source of all, the monotheistic absolute Deity.<ref name=Delmonico2004>{{cite journal
| author = Delmonico, N.
| year = 2004
| title = The History Of Indic Monotheism And Modern Chaitanya Vaishnavism
| journal = The Hare Krishna Movement: the Postcharismatic Fate of a Religious Transplant
| url = http://books.google.com/?id=mBMxPdgrBhoC&pg=PA31&dq=Vaisnava+monotheism
| accessdate = 2008-04-12
| publisher = Columbia University Press
| isbn = 978-0-231-12256-6
}}</ref><ref name = "Elkman1986">{{cite book
| author = Elkman, S.M.
| coauthors = Gosvami, J.
| year = 1986
| title = Jiva Gosvamin's Tattvasandarbha: A Study on the Philosophical and Sectarian Development of the Gaudiya Vaisnava Movement
| publisher = Motilal Banarsidass Pub
| isbn =
}}</ref>
<ref name = "Klostermaier1974">{{cite journal
| author = Klostermaier, K.
| year = 1974
| title = The Bhaktirasamrtasindhubindu of Visvanatha Cakravartin
| journal = Journal of the American Oriental Society
| volume = 94
| issue = 1
| pages = 96–107
| accessdate = 2008-04-12
| doi = 10.2307/599733
| jstor = 599733
| publisher = American Oriental Society
}}
</ref> Within [[Hinduism]], Krishna is worshiped from a variety of perspectives.<ref name=Mahony1987>{{cite journal
| author = Mahony, W.K.
| year = 1987
| title = Perspectives on Krishna's Various Personalities
| journal = History of Religions
| volume = 26
| issue = 3
| pages = 333–335
| accessdate = 2008-04-12
| jstor=1062381
| doi=10.1086/463085
}}</ref> However, the Svayam Bhagvan concept refers to the Supreme Being of the Orthodox Gaudiya Vaiṣnavism,<ref name=Kennedy1925>{{cite book
| author = Kennedy, M.T.
| year = 1925
| title = The Chaitanya Movement: A Study of the Vaiṣnavism of Bengal
| publisher = H. Milford, Oxford university press
| isbn =
}}</ref> the Vallabha Sampradaya and the [[Nimbarka]] Sampradaya, where Krishna is worshiped as the source of all other avataras (including Vishnu).<ref name=Ojha1978>{{cite book
| author = Ojha, P.N.
| year = 1978
| title = Aspects of Medieval Indian Society and Culture
| publisher = BR Pub. Corp.; New Delhi: DK Publishers' Distributors
| isbn =
}}</ref>
<ref>[http://srimadbhagavatam.com/1/3/28/en1 ''Bhag'' 1.3.28] Chapter 3: Krishna Is the Source of All Incarnations</ref>
<ref name = McDaniel>See McDaniel, June, ''"Folk Vaishnavism and Thākur Pañcāyat: Life and status among village Krishna statues"'' in {{Harvnb|Beck|2005|p=39}}</ref> A distinguishing feature of the Vaisnava teachings is that God, Krishna or Vishnu,<ref name="Elkman1986"/> is a real person and His variegated creation is also real.<ref name="Elkman1986"/><ref name= Thomson>{{cite journal
| author = Richard Thompson, Ph. D.
| year = December 1994
| title = Reflections on the Relation Between Religion and Modern Rationalism
| url = http://www.iskcon.com/icj/1_2/12thompson.html
| accessdate = 2008-04-12
}}</ref>

Krishna worshiped in Vaiṣnava religion as the Supreme came into being as soon as all creatures came into existence. [[Brahma]] was the first Vaiṣnava. In Gaudiya Vaiṣnavism, Śiva Mahadeva is also a Vaiṣnava; in Śaivism, by contrast, Śiva is the supreme God. The ancient Prajapaties are all Vaiṣnavas. [[Narada]] who is the born child of Brahma, is a Vaiṣnava. Thus pure monotheistic Vaiṣnava religion began with the beginning of history.<ref name="Thomson"/> In the recent times man arrived once again at the instinctive monotheism of the Aryans and Vaiṣnavas.<ref name=Dalmia-luderitz1992>{{cite journal
| author = Dalmia-luderitz, V.
| year = 1992
| title = Hariscandra of Banaras and the reassessment of Vaisnava bhakti in the late nineteenth century
| journal = Devotional Literature in South Asia: Current Research, 1985-8
| url = http://books.google.com/?id=BE40dp6SCFUC&pg=PA281&dq=Vaisnava+monotheism
| accessdate = 2008-04-12
| publisher = Cambridge University Press
| isbn = 978-0-521-41311-4
}}</ref>

A different viewpoint, opposing this theological concept, is the concept of Krishna as an ''avatara'' of Narayan or Vishnu. However, although its is usual to speak of Vishnu as the source of the avataras, this is only one of the names of god of Vaiṣnavism, who is also known as Vishnu to some Vaiṣnava, Narayan to some, Vasudeva, or any of the other Vaiśnava persons, and behind each of those names there is a divine figure with attributed supremacy in Vaisnavism.<ref name = Krishna4>
{{Harvnb|Matchett|2000|p=4}}</ref> The theological interpretation of ''Svayam Bhagvān'' differs with each tradition and the translated from the Sanskrit language, the term literary means "[[Bhagvan]] Himself" or "directly Bhagvan".<ref name=Gupta2007/> Gaudiya Vaiṣnava tradition often translates it within its perspective as ''primeval Lord'' or ''original Personality of Godhead'', but also considers the terms such as ''Supreme Personality of Godhead'' and ''Supreme God'' as an equivalent to the term ''Svayam Bhagvan'', and may also choose to apply these terms to Vishnu, Narayan and many of their associated avatars.<ref> name=Knapp2005>{{cite book
| author = Knapp, S.
| year = 2005
| title = The Heart of Hinduism: The Eastern Path to Freedom, Empowerment and Illumination -
| publisher = iUniverse
| isbn =</ref>

"Krishna is the primeval Lord, the original Personality of Godhead, so He can expand Himself into unlimited forms with all potencies."<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=a2KPChj7lTwC&pg=PA161 page 161]</ref><ref name= ICJKnott>{{cite journal
| author = Dr. Kim Knott,
| year = 1993
| title = Contemporary Theological Trends In The Hare Krishna Movement: A Theology of Religions
| url = http://www.iskcon.com/icj/1_1/knott.html
| accessdate = 2008-04-12
}}..."''[[Bhakti]]'', the highest path, was that of surrender to [[Lord Krishna]], the way of pure devotional service to the Supreme Personality of Godhead".</ref>
Others have translated it simply as "the Lord Himself".<ref name="KK">{{cite book |author=K. Klostermaier |title=The Charles Strong Trust Lectures, 1972-1984 |publisher=Brill Academic Pub |location= |year=1997 |isbn=90-04-07863-0 |quote= For his worshippers he is not an avatara in the usual sense, but Svayam Bhagvan, the Lord himself.|url= http://books.google.com/?id=F_0UAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA109&dq=Svayam+bhagavan |accessdate= |page=206 | others = Crotty, Robert B.}} p.109 Klaus Klostermaier translates it simply as "the Lord Himself"</ref> Followers of Vishnu-centered sampradayas of Vaiṣnavism rarely address this term, but believe that it refers to their belief that Krishna is among the highest and fullest of all ''avatars''<ref name = Pal1958>{{cite book
| author = [[Bipin]] Chandra Pal
| year = 1964, 132 pages
| title = Shree Krishna: Letters Written to a Christian Friend
| publisher = Yugayatri/New India Printing
& Publishing Co.
| quote = First edition published in 1938 under the title of 'Europe asks: who is Shree Krishna'.
| isbn =</ref>

Sri Krishna stands at the top of this series. He is therefore called by his votaries as Purna Avatara or the highest and fullest incarnation of the Lord. and is considered to be the "''paripurna avatara''", complete in all respects and the same as the original.<ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://www.tirumala.org/sapthagiri/122002/purana.htm
|title=Sapthagiri
|publisher=www.tirumala.org
|accessdate=2008-05-03
|last=
|first=
}}</ref> Parashara Maharishi, [[Vyāsa]]'s father had devoted the largest [[Aṅṣa]]<ref>It means part.</ref> in ''[[Vishnu Purāṇa]]'' to the description of Sri Krishna Avatara the ''Paripoorna Avatara''. And according to Lord Krishna's own instructions ''upadeṣa'', "he who knows the secrets of His (Krishna's) Janma<ref>It means birth.</ref> and [[Karma]]<ref>It means actions.</ref> will not remain in [[saṅsāra]]<ref>''punar janma naiti-maam eti''.</ref> and attain Him after leaving the mortal coil."<ref>Bhagvad Gita 4.9</ref> [[Parāsara]] Maharishi ends up [[Añṣa]] 5 with a phalashruti in an identical vein (''Vishnu Purāna''<ref>Vishnu Purāna 5.38.94</ref>.)

The prime supporters of the Krishna-centered theology, Gaudiya Vaiṣnavas and followers of the Vallabha [[Sampradāya]] Nimbarka Samprā[[daya]], use the ''[[Gopala Tapani Upaniṣad]]'',<ref>{{cite book |author=B. V. Tripurari |title=Gopala-tapani Upaniṣad |publisher=Audarya Press |location= |year=2004 |pages= |isbn=1-932771-12-3 }}</ref> ''[[Vedanta Sutras]]''<ref name=Gupta2007/> and other Hindu scriptures such as the ''Bhagvata Purāna'' and the ''[[Brahma Vaivarta Purāna]]'', among others, to support their view that Krishna is indeed the ''Svayam Bhagvan''. This belief was summarized by the 16th century author [[Jiva Goswami]] in some of his works, such as ''Krishna-sandarbha''.<ref name=Gupta2007>{{cite book
| author = Gupta, Ravi M.
| coauthors =
| year = 2007
| title = Caitanya Vaisnava Vedanta of Jiva Gosvami
| publisher = Routledge
| isbn = 0-415-40548-3
}}</ref><ref name=Gupta2004>{{cite book
| author = Gupta, Ravi M.
| coauthors =
| year = 2004
| title = Caitanya Vaisnava Vedanta: Acintyabhedabheda in Jiva Gosvami's Catursutri tika
| publisher = University Of Oxford
| isbn =

}}</ref> While Krishna himself if mentioned in one of the earliest texts of Vedic literature - ''Rig Veda''.<ref>
Sunil Kumar Bhattacharya ''Krishna-cult in Indian Art''. 1996
M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd. ISBN 81-7533-001-5 p.126: "According to (D.R.Bhadarkar), the word Krishna referred to in the expression 'Krishna-drapsah' in the Ṛgveda, denotes the very same Krishna".</ref>

In the sixth book of the [[Hindu epic]] ''[[Mahābhārata]]'', the Bhishma Parva<ref>It is better known as the ''[[Bhagavad Gitā|Bhagvad Gitā]]''.</ref> Krishna offers numerous quotations that reaffirm the belief that he himself is the ''Svayam Bhagvan''. Verse [http://www.asitis.com/7/7.html 7.7] of the ''[[Bhagavad Gitā|Bhagvad Gitā]]'', is often used to support the opinion that Krishna himself is the ''Svayam Bhagvan'', and that no impersonal form of Brahm supersedes his existence, as it is a common view that ''Bhagvad Gitā'' was propounding Krishna-theism before first major proponents of [[Advaita Vedanta|monism of the Smarta school]].<ref name = "IST">{{cite book
|author=
|authorlink=
|editor = S. Devadas Pillai
|others=
|title=Indian Sociology Through Ghurye: A Dictionary
|edition=
|language=
|publisher=South Asia Books
|location=Columbia, Mo
|year=1997
|origyear=
|quote=
|isbn=81-7154-807-5
|oclc=
|doi=
|url=http://books.google.com/?id=P3uD22Ghqs4C&pg=PA283
|accessdate=
|page=403
}}</ref>

==Related Articles==
*[[Cosmogony]]
*[[Cosmology]]
*[[Darshana]]
*[[Divinity]]
*[[Brahm]]
*[[God]]
*[[Devatā]]
*[[Deities]]
*[[Worship]]
*[[Murti Puja]]

==External Resources==
*[http://enlightened-spirituality.org/panentheism.html "Panentheism and the Reality of God"] By Timothy Conway, Ph.D. (Published: October 2, 2015)
*[https://www.academia.edu/19511326/Panentheism_and_Hindu_Tantra_Abhinavagupta_s_Grammatical_Cosmology “Panentheism and Hindu Tantra: Abhinavagupta’s Grammatical Cosmology”] By Loriliai Biernacki

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

[[Category:Theology]]
[[Category:Hindu philosophical concepts]]
[[Category:Forms of worship]]

Cosmogony

2026-07-06T08:29:38Z

Himanshu Bhatt:

{{Author|Himanshu Bhatt}}
Whereas [[cosmology]] focuses on the properties/laws of the universe, cosmogony explores the mythic origins. Within the same Sanatan scripture—''[[Rig Veda]]''—exist multiple stories of how the universe came into being. The scripture itself declares<ref>Rig Veda 1.164.46</ref> that there the truth is 1 but people describe it in various ways.

There are many stories of the universe's creation across Sanatan texts and [[Folk & Tribal|oral folk traditions]] but the fundamental 7 chronicles are found in the RV:
#Hiranyagarbha Sukta
#[[Vak Suktham|Vak Sukta]]
#Nasadiya Sukta
#[[Aghamarsanasukta|Aghamarshaṇa Sukta]]
#[[Devagana]] Sukta
#Vishwakarman Suktas
#[[Purusha Suktham|Purush Suktha]]
;Table elaborating creation hymns
:''See also: [[Theology#Oneness of Deities (Henotheism)|Universe as Aparabrahm]]''
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Hymn
! Alias(es)
! Origin
! Principle
! Corresponding Upanishadic reference
! Upanishadic principle
|-
|Hiranyagarbha Sukta[https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rvsan/rv10121.htm][https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10121.htm]
|Ka Sukta, Parmātma Sukta, Prajapati Sukta
|Golden egg-womb
|[[Brahmānda]], the universal 'egg' we are all within
|
|
|-
|Vāk Sukta[https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rvsan/rv10125.htm][https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10125.htm]
|Devi Sukta
|Creation through sound (mantra)
|
|
|
|-
|Nāsadiya Sukta[https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rvsan/rv10129.htm][https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10129.htm]
|Parmātma Sukta
|
|That One
|Nārāyan Sukta
|Cosmic consciousness
|-
|Aghamarshana Sukta[https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rvsan/rv10190.htm][https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10190.htm]
|Bhavavṛtta Sukta
|Creation through cosmic sound (mantra) and order
|Cosmic order & desire
|Śri Devi
|Radiant spark of abundance
|-
|Devāgāna Sukta[https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rvsan/rv10072.htm][https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10072.htm]
|Aditi-Daksha Sukta, Devā Sukta, Devānām Jānā Sukta
|Mantra (forged by Brahmaṇaspati)
|Material emergence
|Bhu Devi
|Concrete physical Earth matrix, Aditi-Daksha paradox
|-
|Vishwakarman Suktas[https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rvsan/rv10081.htm][https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10081.htm][https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rvsan/rv10082.htm][https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10082.htm]
|Dhātar Suktas
|Blacksmith's forge
|Architectural support
|Nila Devi
|Spatial scaffold of cosmic stability
|-
|[[Purusha Suktham|Purush Sukta]][https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rvsan/rv10090.htm][https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10090.htm]
|Yajna Sukta
|Purusha self-sacrifice
|
|
|-
|}

==Related articles==
*[[Darshana|Metaphysical Worldviews]]
*[[Cosmology]]
*[[Overview of Cosmology in the Scriptures]]
*[[Theology]]
*[[Brahmānda]]

==External resources==
*[https://www.ssssahitya.org/discourses/1991/the-three-forms-of-god-viraat-hiranyagarbha-and-avyakrita "The Three Forms of God – Viraat, Hiranyagarbha and Avyakrita"] (May 31, 1991), Summer Course in Indian Culture and Spirituality in Brindavan, Karnataka
*[https://mahavidya.ca/2008/06/23/cosmogonies-in-the-vedic-samhitas/ "Cosmogonies in the Vedic Samhitas"] (June 23, 2008)
*[https://www.hindu-blog.com/2025/10/universally-accepted-concept-of-creation-hinduism.html "Universally Accepted Concept of Creation in Hinduism: Rig Veda and Upanishads"] By Abhilash Rajendran
*[https://hindutone.com/festivals/purusha-suktam-complete-guide-rig-veda-cosmic-hymn-16-verses/ "Purusha Suktam: Complete Guide to the Cosmic Hymn from Rig Veda 10.90"] (May 28, 2026)
*[https://www.sanskritimagazine.com/the-hymn-of-creation-nasadiya-sukta/ "The Hymn of Creation: Nasadiya Sukta"]
*[https://sanatanweb.com/en/rigveda-nasadiya-sukta/ "Rigveda Nasadiya Sukta (The Hymn Of Creation)"]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category: Cosmology]]
[[Category: Universal origins and properties]]

Cosmogony

2026-07-06T08:28:54Z

Himanshu Bhatt:

{{Author|Himanshu Bhatt}}
Whereas [[cosmology]] focuses on the properties/laws of the universe, cosmogony explores the mythic origins. Within the same Sanatan scripture—''[[Rig Veda]]''—exist multiple stories of how the universe came into being. The scripture itself declares<ref>Rig Veda 1.164.46</ref> that there the truth is 1 but people describe it in various ways.

There are many stories of the universe's creation across Sanatan texts and [[Folk & Tribal|oral folk traditions]] but the fundamental 7 chronicles are found in the RV:
#Hiranyagarbha Sukta
#[[Vak Suktham|Vak Sukta]]
#Nasadiya Sukta
#[[Aghamarsanasukta|Aghamarshaṇa Sukta]]
#[[Devagana]] Sukta
#Vishwakarma Suktas
#[[Purusha Suktham|Purush Suktha]]
;Table elaborating creation hymns
:''See also: [[Theology#Oneness of Deities (Henotheism)|Universe as Aparabrahm]]''
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Hymn
! Alias(es)
! Origin
! Principle
! Corresponding Upanishadic reference
! Upanishadic principle
|-
|Hiranyagarbha Sukta[https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rvsan/rv10121.htm][https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10121.htm]
|Ka Sukta, Parmātma Sukta, Prajapati Sukta
|Golden egg-womb
|[[Brahmānda]], the universal 'egg' we are all within
|
|
|-
|Vāk Sukta[https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rvsan/rv10125.htm][https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10125.htm]
|Devi Sukta
|Creation through sound (mantra)
|
|
|
|-
|Nāsadiya Sukta[https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rvsan/rv10129.htm][https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10129.htm]
|Parmātma Sukta
|
|That One
|Nārāyan Sukta
|Cosmic consciousness
|-
|Aghamarshana Sukta[https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rvsan/rv10190.htm][https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10190.htm]
|Bhavavṛtta Sukta
|Creation through cosmic sound (mantra) and order
|Cosmic order & desire
|Śri Devi
|Radiant spark of abundance
|-
|Devāgāna Sukta[https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rvsan/rv10072.htm][https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10072.htm]
|Aditi-Daksha Sukta, Devā Sukta, Devānām Jānā Sukta
|Mantra (forged by Brahmaṇaspati)
|Material emergence
|Bhu Devi
|Concrete physical Earth matrix, Aditi-Daksha paradox
|-
|Vishwakarma Suktas[https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rvsan/rv10081.htm][https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10081.htm][https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rvsan/rv10082.htm][https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10082.htm]
|Dhātar Suktas
|Blacksmith's forge
|Architectural support
|Nila Devi
|Spatial scaffold of cosmic stability
|-
|[[Purusha Suktham|Purush Sukta]][https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rvsan/rv10090.htm][https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10090.htm]
|Yajna Sukta
|Purusha self-sacrifice
|
|
|-
|}

==Related articles==
*[[Darshana|Metaphysical Worldviews]]
*[[Cosmology]]
*[[Overview of Cosmology in the Scriptures]]
*[[Theology]]
*[[Brahmānda]]

==External resources==
*[https://www.ssssahitya.org/discourses/1991/the-three-forms-of-god-viraat-hiranyagarbha-and-avyakrita "The Three Forms of God – Viraat, Hiranyagarbha and Avyakrita"] (May 31, 1991), Summer Course in Indian Culture and Spirituality in Brindavan, Karnataka
*[https://mahavidya.ca/2008/06/23/cosmogonies-in-the-vedic-samhitas/ "Cosmogonies in the Vedic Samhitas"] (June 23, 2008)
*[https://www.hindu-blog.com/2025/10/universally-accepted-concept-of-creation-hinduism.html "Universally Accepted Concept of Creation in Hinduism: Rig Veda and Upanishads"] By Abhilash Rajendran
*[https://hindutone.com/festivals/purusha-suktam-complete-guide-rig-veda-cosmic-hymn-16-verses/ "Purusha Suktam: Complete Guide to the Cosmic Hymn from Rig Veda 10.90"] (May 28, 2026)
*[https://www.sanskritimagazine.com/the-hymn-of-creation-nasadiya-sukta/ "The Hymn of Creation: Nasadiya Sukta"]
*[https://sanatanweb.com/en/rigveda-nasadiya-sukta/ "Rigveda Nasadiya Sukta (The Hymn Of Creation)"]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category: Cosmology]]
[[Category: Universal origins and properties]]

Theology

2026-07-06T08:24:11Z

Himanshu Bhatt: /* References to 3 aspects of God */ added reference-links to suktas

{{Author|Himanshu Bhatt}}
[[Image:Vishnu making universes.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Vishnu]] depicted as God (in [[Vaiśnava|Vaiśnava]] sectarian context) as making and ending universes while being within them, demonstrating panentheism.]]
[[Image:Gayatri Ma.jpg|thumb|250px|The monotheistic prayer Gayatri Mantra personified as God, demonstrating [[monotheism]] in itself.
 
The [[mantra]] demonstrates henotheism when it is called Sarva-[[devata]] Svarupini ("''Universal Form of All Deities''.")]]
<blockquote>
“The Hindu religion is the only one of the world’s great faiths dedicated to the idea that the Cosmos itself undergoes an immense, indeed an infinite, number of deaths and rebirths. It is the only religion in which the time scales correspond to those of modern scientific [[cosmology]]. Its cycles run from our ordinary day and night to a day and night of Brahma, 8.64 billion years long. Longer than the age of the Earth or the Sun and about half the time since the Big Bang.” - Carl Sagan, ''Cosmos''
</blockquote>
Panentheism is the first and foremost theology of the Sanatan Dharm while henotheism and monotheism are secondary but they are all in conformity with each other. This is because while recognizing there is only One Supreme Being above all ([[Brahm]] or [[God]]), the immanence and transcendence of It is a doctrine that goes beyond the generic monotheism preached by other religions. While accepting there is One God above all, it does not enforce worshiping only The One. So it is monotheistic because it believes there is God, but also henotheistic because others worshipping It in another form is accepted as still worshiping the One God. Worship as polytheism (i.e., praying to ancestors) is acceptable being it does not reject The One but venerates others as well. Once a human attains Moksh, it is united with Brahm or Parmatma. Brahm is not confined to space and so is everywhere, including within ourselves. This principle is Ishavasyam. Individuals on the other hand are also connected to all that exists, and this is the [[Environmentalism#Aikatmyam|principle of aikatmyam]]. Because of this omnipresence, the central Hindu theology is panentheism. It is monotheist too because there is just one God above all other spirits. It is henotheist because, while Brahm is The Supreme, other beings worthy of worship exist, which may be pious humans or angels ([[Devatā|demi-gods]].) Hindu theology is often aptly termed monistic theism and even open monotheism by some scholars, but is not purely polytheistic as outsiders perceive it to be. [[Bhakti Marga|Worship (Bhakti Yoga]]) is one of the three yogas to attain Moksh.<ref>The other two are [[Gyāna Mārga|Gyāna Yoga]] and [[Karma Mārga|Karma Yoga]].</ref> Monotheism is known in [[Overview Of Scriptures|Hindu scriptures]] as ekantikvad, and some sects practice it strictly, such as the [[Arya]] Samaj, Mahima, and certain [[Śaiva]] (i.e., Viraśaiva, Alakhgir) and the Vaiśnava (i.e., Pushtimarga, Ekasarana) sampradays.

Hinduism has often been considered to be polytheistic because of one leading denomination, Smartism, which follows the [[Advaita]] philosophy of absolute monism, and includes worship of all kinds of personal forms of God. Absolute monists see one unity with all personal forms of God as different aspects of one Supreme Spirit, like a single beam of light separated into colors by a prism. Thus Smartas consider all personal forms of God as equal including Devi, Vishnu, Śiva, Ganesh and Skanda but generally limit the recognized forms to be six. Other denominations of Hinduism don't adhere to the Smarta viewpoint, but are quite unlike Western perceptions of monotheism. Additionally, like Judeo-Christian traditions which believe in angels, Hindus also believe in other less powerful entities, such as [[deva]]s.<ref name = hop1>{{cite book |title=THE RELIGIONS OF INDIA|author=Edward Washburn Hopkins|url=http://books.google.com/?id=Dj33XvXqJO8C |publisher= Jr. Ginn & Co |pages=204 |year= 1896 |editor=Morris Jastrow, |isbn=978-1-60303-143-1}}</ref>

Sometimes the orthodox members of religions interpret religions with a puritan mindset. An example is that many Christians believe any form of worship not including Jesus as being 'idol worship', while Muslims consider idol worship specifically practicing worship through statues but revering the black stone at the Kaaba and circumambulating Kaaba as not idolatry. [Within the Hindu community too prejudices exist among certain people but the general belief is that 'all religions lead to God'.] This leads to religions discrediting other religions. It is resulted in Hinduism being classified as 'pagan cults' and/or a 'polytheistic religion with no heaven'. The underlying principle of the divine is that it has a Supreme Soul (literally 'Parmatma'), making Hinduism monotheistic in belief. Because Hindus believe that Parmatma possesses the universe, which It also transcends, Hinduism believes in panentheism. And because of the principles 'all religions lead to God' and 'All God is One', and that God can be worshiped in those various ways in various forms, Hinduism believes in henotheism.

Contemporary Hinduism can be categorized into four major sects:
# [[Vaiśnava|Vaiśnavism]]
# [[Śaiva|Śaivism]]
# [[Śākta|Śaktism]]
# Smartism
Vaiśnavism, Śaivism, and Śaktism [[worship]] [[Narayan]], [[Śiva]] and [[Devi]] - the Divine Mother as the Supreme Being respectively or considering all [[Hindu]] [[deities]] as aspects of the Supreme Being or Brahm.<ref>See [[Advaita]], or impersonalism.</ref> Other minor sects such as [[Ganapatya]] and [[Surya|Saura]] focus on [[Ganesha|Ganesh]] and [[Surya]] as the Supreme.

==Nature of God==
:''See also: [[God#Nature of God|Nature of God]]'' [[Image:Durga Ma.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Durga|Durga Ma]] as depicted as God (in [[Shakta]] sectarian context), the God of gods, demonstrating henotheism.]]
[[Image:God in all beings.jpg|thumb|250px|God is considered [[Antaryamin]] (Inner Dweller) or [[Caitya-purusa|Chaitya Purush]] (Inner Being.) While God is omnipresent in inanimate objects too, it is Its presence within living beings that enables a relationship between humans and It, and for humans to attain [[Moksha|Moksh]]. (This is an image of God in [[Vaiśnava]] context.)]]
The One Above All is called Brahm and Parmatma in Sanatan Dharm. This [[acintya|Supreme Being is beyond imagination]] and experience, and as such, transcends the universe. The [[Darshana|darshanas (metaphysical worldviews)]] discuss this universe being prakriti which releases from either Brahm Itself or from human under the influence of ignorance (i.e., [[Maya Panchakam|Maya]].) Brahm is also believed by most Hindus to incarnate in various avataras, which may be to answer a prayer of a devotee, [[test]] a human, or promote spirituality (i.e., Krishna.)

Brahm or God Almighty is spoken of as being ''alaukika'' ("''beyond this world''.") This world is seen as prakriti (nature) which God created. This nature of this world is such that karmas cause beings to be possessed with defilements. God is tri-guṇatit, meaning It is transcendental to the modes of material nature.

God is:
#Sarvavyapin (omnipresent)
#Sarvajna (omniscient)
#Sarvaśaktiman (omnipotent)
#Akal (without beginning, and forever)
#Tri-gunatit (transcendent of the 3 modes of material nature)
The sarvavyapin aspect of God is such that it pervades everything, both material and spiritual, and is also called ''Ishavasyam'' ("''God present in all.''") Sarvajna means to know all, and this is an aspect often highlighted when speaking of Moksh, because salvation means Brahmgyana ("''to know Brahm''") or to acquire Brahmvidya. Sarvaśaktiman means the power of Brahm is such that there is nothing it cannot do, and no other power is greater. ''Akal'' means "''timeless''" and refers to the self-existent state (''swayambhu'') of God, and that it will exist forever. Tri-gunatit means to be transcendent of this material universe which is imperfect.

===Dualistic Energies of God===
This is an understanding of Brahm based on its energies in this universe. While Brahm is the Supreme above all, the God Almighty, it is said to apply two forms of energies in this world. This means that the energy which surrounds us in this material realm is different from that of the spiritual world (Moksh), as is the energy which is with our souls. This is spoken of in different sects and [[Darshana|darshans]]. For example, in the Śaiva sect, Śiva is said to be Brahm while his other half is Prakriti (the divine energy possessing this world.) In the [[Samkhya Yoga]] darshan too, Brahm (Purusha) has a counterpart referred to as Prakriti, which is the nature that surrounds us in this reality. In the ''Bhagvad Gita'' too, Krishna says that Brahm is the total energy while the energy here in this reality he calls ''Parmatma''. In Vaiśnavism, this is notion of the Gita is elaborated wherein the energy of Brahm present in this universe is Mahamaya (or hiraṇmaya-[[mahat]]-[[tattva]]), whereas in the spiritual one it is Yogamaya (or jivan śakti.) The material energy is impacted by the three modes of material nature whereas spiritual energy is not, which is why prakriti is eternal and mutable (parimaminitya), whereas Yogamaya is eternal and immutable (parinamnitya.) The total energy of Brahm is called swarup śakti.

Personification of God's two energies has been presented in some instances as well. In Śaiva context, Śiva represents the spiritual energy and Śakti Ma represents the material energy. In Vaiśnavism too, Brahm is Krishna or Narayan and his energy (both spiritual and material) is a female, usually portrayed as Vishnu's wife, Śri (''Mantramayi Kriya Śakti''.)

====References to 3 aspects of God====
[[Image:Trimurti.jpg|thumb|250px|God represented in a syncretist context as [[Trimurti]] ("''Triune God''"), showing [[Brahmā]], [[Vishnu]], and [[Mahesh]] as God in Its 3 aspects.]]
Because the energies in the universe have normally been considered to be dualistic, they, together with God's total energy in the spiritual real, would be 3 aspects of God. From this logic, many Hindu thinkers have believed there are 3 aspects of God we can come to the conclusion of. Various scriptures have written on the One Supreme Lord being characterized of 3 aspects, in Hinduism and in the [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]]. In a conversation mentioned in the ''Brihadaranyaka [[Upanishad|Upaniṣad]]''<Ref> Chapter 3, Part 9 of ''Brihadaranyaka Upaniṣad'' </ref> between [[Yajnavalkya]] and Vidaghdha, the latter asks how many Devas (gods) there are, to which the former replies 33, but Vidaghdha keeps asking, and before coming to the answer of a single 1 God, he had said there are 3 gods [which can be taken to mean that single God has 3 aspects.] No other story legitimizes 3 aspects of Brahm more than the one of the ''[[Rig Veda]]'' wherein Ka (an epithet of the unseen presence or Parabrahm) or Apo (primordial waters) produced the universal womb Hiranyagarbha (Prajapati) with Prajapati within the womb having come into being the "one divine spirit", and Agni (souls)[https://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10121.htm]

Parallel to the 3 aspects of Brahm is the the [[Vaiśnava#Pāñcharātra Āgama|Pāñchrātra]], which consists of 5 venerable forms of Narayan (para, vyuha, vibhava, [[arca]], and antaryamin), the 3 aspects which as para, vyuha, and antaryamin fall within the same categories as the classifications of Brahm do in many other analyses. The vibhava aspect of God is basically formed from one or 2 of the other aspects (i.e., avatara of vyuha and consist of antaryamin.) Arca refers to representative icons of God which are venerated, which are created by matter. In this analysis, the Pāñchrātra holds consistent with the triune characterization of God. Some schools of Śaivism too break down the aspects of God into 3, like Śiva being Parabrahm, Śakti being Aparabrahm, and Yamala being Tapas or Agni. The last is called Tapas or Agni normally, as it is imperishable and is the same energy as the soul (Yogamaya.) That is why it is also called Apām Napāt (''Child of Apo''.)

The "Ka Sukta" (aliases "Hiranyagarbha Sukta", "Prajapati Sukta") of the ''Rig Veda'' is one the most popular cosmogonies in the Arya dharmas. What has been overlooked are the triple aspects detailed within the hymn. In it, Apo (God as 'primordial waters'), which "''possesses generational fire''" (Agni), incubates the Hiranyagarbha (womb containing Prajapati, "''born Only-Lord of all created beings''"). In other words, it ambiguously states Apo is God in the highest form (i.e., Parabrahm), Prajapati this material universe's Aparabrahm, and Agni the life-giving spark within all creatures. (This can be likened to the Pāñchrātrik para, vyuha, and antaryamin.) The hymn goes further to state that [[Devatā#Divine Council|the Devanam or ''people who've taken the title of God'']] (i.e., Devtas on the Divine Council of 33) return to God, meaning that the Devtas are representatives of God on Earth but they are none of the 3 aspects of God and aren't of equal status to God either.

As the material energy is Mahamaya and spiritual (superior) energy is Yogamaya, these energies can also help break down the Vak (cosmic speech.) The ''Rig Veda'' itself declares, "''Vak resides in four quarters (pada). The wise Brahmins who possess insight know them all. Three quarters are hidden in secret and do not stir; human beings speak only the fourth quarter.''"<ref>''Rig Veda'' 1.164.45</ref> The first 3 aspects of Vak itself—para, pashyanti, and madhyama—are spiritual, while the last (Vaikhari) is material energy. Therefore, it can be presumed that this together with synthesizing the commonalities in the creation myths, that the Aparabrahm or Universe is the lowest form of Vak.

"Purush Sukta" states that all creatures in this universe are 1/4 of the Purush (God) and that the others are spiritual—this would be in line with the trinitarian concept that the other 3/4 of Purush are the Parabrahm, Aparabrahm, and Antaryamin. All living beings here in the material world being 1/4 of Purush means that we are eternal, since are a part of the Purush Itself, and that we are of the same spiritual substance as Purush.

Below is a table summarizing and forming the connections between the trinity stated in various texts or beliefs.
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Derivation
! Heavenly Being
! All-Pervasive Being in Universe
! Inner Being
|-
!Vishwakarma Sukta (''Rig Veda'')
|Vishwakarma/Apo (Primordial Waters)/Garbha/Dhātar/Vidhātar/Sacrificial Seer<ref>ṛṣirhotā</ref>/Ascetic Father<ref>nyasīdatpitā</ref>/One Dev<ref>deva ekaḥ</ref>/Lord of Speech<ref>vācas patiṃ</ref>/One, Only One<ref>para ekamāhuḥ</ref>
|Universe
|
|-
!Ka Sukta[https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rvsan/rv10121.htm][https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10121.htm] (''Rig Veda'')
|Apo
|Hiranyagarbha (Prajapati)/Universe
|Agni
|-
!Vak Sukta[https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rvsan/rv10125.htm][https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10125.htm] (''Rig Veda'')
|Apsu (Primordial Waters<ref>Yonirapsvantaḥ</ref>)
|Universe
|Vak
|-
!Nasadiya Sukta[https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rvsan/rv10129.htm][https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10129.htm] (''Rig Veda'')
|Tad Ekam (That One)
|Sat (The Existent/Manifestation)/Universe
|Asat (The Non-Existent/Potentiality)
|-
!Aghamarṣaṇa Sukta[https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rvsan/rv10190.htm][https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10190.htm] (''Rig Veda'')
|Dhātar
|Sat (The Existent/Manifestation)/Ṛta (Cosmic Order) and Satya (Cosmic Truth)
|Tapas (Cosmic Heat)
|-
!Devāgāna Sukta[https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rvsan/rv10072.htm][https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10072.htm] (''Rig Veda'')
|Āsur Ek/Brahmaṇaspati/Dev Ek
|Sat (The Existent/Manifestation)
|Vak
|-
!Purush Sukta[https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rvsan/rv10090.htm][https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10090.htm] (''Rig Veda'')
|Adhi Purush
|Virāj/Universe
|Vak/Purush (other souls)
|-
!''Bhagavad Gita''<ref> “''O best of the embodied souls, the physical manifestation that is constantly changing is called adhibhūta; the universal form of God, which presides over the celestial gods in this creation, is called adhidaiva; I, who dwell in the heart of every living being, am called Adhiyajña, or the Lord of all sacrifices.''” - [https://www.holy-bhagavad-gita.org/chapter/8/verse/4 ''Bhagvad Gita'' 8.4] </ref>
|Parabrahm
|Aparabrahm
|Parmatma<Ref> “''Within the body also resides the Supreme Lord. He is said to be the Witness, the Permitter, the Supporter, Transcendental Enjoyer, the ultimate Controller, and the Paramātmā (Supreme Soul).''” - [https://www.holy-bhagavad-gita.org/chapter/13/verse/23 ''Bhagvad Gita'' 13.23] </ref>
|-
!''Bhagavat Purana''
|Narayan
|Mahamaya
|Yogamaya
|-
!''Isha Upaniṣad'' 6-7
|Uttam [Purush]
|Kshar
|Akshar
|-
!''Katha Upaniṣad'' (1.3.10–11)
|Purush
|Avyaktam
|Mahat (Mahan [[Atma]])
|-
!''Mahānārāyan Upaniṣad'' 24
|Tvashtā
| -
| -
|-
!''Maitrāyaṇīya Upaniṣad''
|Brahmā
|Vishnu
|Mahesh
|-
!''Sams'aya-taducchedavādah''
|Manomaya Purush ([[Avyaya]])
|Vangmaya (Kshar)
|Pranamaya Purush (Akshar)
|-
!''Sasongko Jati''
|Principle of Lord<ref>Suksma Kawekas</ref>
|Director of Life<ref>Suksma Sejati</ref>
|Lord of Life<ref>Roh Suci</ref>
|-
!''Sāttvat Saṃhitā''
|Para
|Vyuha
|Antaryamin
|-
!''Swaminarayan Bhashyam'' / ''Vachanamrut''
|Parabrahm
|Aparabrahm
|Aksharbrahm
|-
!''Vijñāna Bhairava Tantra''
|Śiva
|Śakti
|Yamala
|-
!''[[Vayu]] [[Purana]]'' 1.2
|Purush
|Manifested Prakriti
|Unmanifested Prakriti
|-
!''[[Yoga]] Sutra'' 2.20
|Drashtā
|Pratyaya-anupashya
|Shuddha
|-
|}

===Formlessness===
{{Cquote|Knowing That which is soundless, touchless, formless, undecaying; also tasteless, odorless, and eternal; beginningless, endless and immutable; beyond the Unmanifested: (knowing That) man escapes from the mouth of death.|4=Katha Upaniṣad 3.15}}
 
Brahm has been written of to be either Nirguna (Parabrahm) and Shaguna (Aparabrahm), including being both. Nirguna refers to God without physical and personality attributes (i.e., a body) while Shaguna is the opposite. Worshiping God as either is fine. Brahm is believed to take vyuhas or emanations, especially to communicate with humans in the physical world (i.e., to provide revelations), and has been seen particularly in Vaiṣnavism as both heavenly and earthly incarnations. Avatars of Śiva, Ganesh, [[Durga]], and others have also been documented and worshipped. 
{{Cquote|Brahm has indeed has 2 two modes, formless as well as manifested.|4=Brihad-Aranyaka Upaniṣad 2.3.1}}
 
Nirguna bhakti was a popular method of worshipping in the medieval era in particular when several sects appeared. Worshipping Vishnu in the formless manner was practiced by Ramanand [[Sampraday]] and its succeeding sects, including Kabir Panth, Ravidas Panth, Satnam Panth, and others. Mahima Dharm was a peculiar Vaiśnava sect because it adheres only to the ''Bhagvat Purana'' and normally referred to Vishnu as ''Alakh'' or ''Sunya'' (“''Void''.”) [[Temples]] of this sect never include [[idols]] which are venerated because the heavenly Vishnu, God before the creation of all, is considered unmanifested. Some Śaiva sects too have practiced worship without an idol, denying that God (Śiva) has a form. These sects include Alakhgirs and Nath Panthis, both of whom call Śiva ''Alakh'' (“''Invisible''.”) Manikkavasagar was a well-known saint from the Bhakti era that worshipped Śiva as formless.<ref> ''Shiva in the City of Nectar: Fifty-four divine tales of Shiva in ancient India'' By Preetha Rajah Kannan </ref> Arulnanti was a another Śaiva theologian from southern India at the time.
 
{{Cquote|Although the Supreme Lord is described as having no hands and legs, He nonetheless accepts all sacrificial offerings.|4=Śvetāśvatara Upaniṣad 3.19}}
 
Temples wherein Brahm is worshipped as formless are known as ''Sunya Mandirs''. Most of these are Vaiśnava belonging to the Ekasarana, Mahima, and Satnami sects, but Śaiva sects of Brahmā Kumaris are notable. There are also temples of Vishnu, Śiva and other gods that don’t belong to a particular sect.
 
{{Cquote|The Entity who is one and without a second, and one without any colours; who has created the colourful quinquelemental world for reasons unknown with the help of His many powers; in whom this entire universe dissolves; is no other than Parama Puruśa. Let that Entity guide our intellect along the path of supreme righteousness. |4=Śvetāśvatara Upaniṣad 4.1.12}}

==Both Immanency and Transcendence of God (Panentheism)==
{{Cquote|I take refuge in that self-existent Being in Whom is this Universe, and Who is beyond this (differentiated Nature) as also beyond that (Undifferentiated.)|4=[https://vedabase.io/en/library/sb/8/3/3/ Bhagvata Purana 8.3.3]}}
 
Karl Krause coined the term 'panentheism' inspired by his readings on Hinduism.<ref> P. 170 ''The Oxford Handbook of Natural Theology'' By Russell Re Manning; ''Karl Krause (1781–1832) borrowed Indian ideas in formulating his own panentheist doctrine of God as a non-personal essence (Wesen) with which the world must eventually be reunited.''"</ref> In Sanskrit, this is called ''Ishavasyam'' or ''vibhudyatvad'' (“''doctrine of pervading and surpassing''.”) While pantheism equates the visible universe with God, panentheism declares that God is omnipresent in Its creation and transcends Its creation too. This means God is the visible universe and more. Heaven and hell may not be in this universe, but another wherein God is also omnipresent. It would make sense that if God is all-pervasive that we would be within It. In other words, everything is submerged or within God. Purusha [[Sukta]] states that The Supreme is both immanent and transcendent - "''Sa bhumin vishvato vritva atyatishthat dashangulam.''" Even when Hindus greet each other by saying "''Namaste''," it means "''I bow to God within you''," showing panentheism in the very greeting. The ''Kaṭha Upaniṣad'' 2.2.12-13 states, “''Whatever we see is a manifestation of [[Brahman]].''”<ref> “''sarvaṁ khalv idaṁ brahma taj jalā[[niti]] śānta upāsīta''” </ref> Satguru Sivaya Subramuniyaswami, said that "''Panentheism is the view that the universe is part of the being of God, as distinguished from pantheism (all-is-God doctrine"), which identifies God with the total reality. In contrast, panentheism holds that God pervades the world, but is also beyond it. He is immanent and transcendent, relative and Absolute. This embracing of opposites is called dipolar. For the panentheist, God is in all, and all is in God.''"

{{Cquote|It is you from whom this universe of forms emerges, and it is you within whom it stays. It is you in whom it finally disappears. |4=Vedasara Shivastotram}} 

Professor Charles Hartshorne in his discussion of panentheism discussed Hinduism in 1953. Professor Lorilai Biernacki considers Hinduism to be one of the most panentheistic traditions.[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/panentheism/] Other [[Ārya Samudāy]] dharmas have also been written on by scholars as panentheist - Christopher Key Chapple on Jainism, Geoffrey Samuel on Buddhism, William M. Reynolds on [[Sikhism]]<ref> P. 90 ''Expanding Curriculum Theory: Dis/positions and Lines of Flight'' By William M. Reynolds and ‎Julie A. Webber </ref>, Ernest Lee Tuveson on Hermeticism<ref>P. 255 ''Gnosis and Hermeticism from Antiquity to Modern Times'' By R. van den Broek </ref>, and Dirk Baltzly on Neoplatonism.

<blockquote>
"It is in the [[Vedas]] that we find for the first time not merely traces or indications of Pantheism, but Pantheism itself in its full growth and maturity." - Constance E. Plumptre<ref> ''General Sketch of the History of Pantheism: Volume 1'' By Constance E. Plumptre </ref>
</blockquote>
{{Cquote|This entire cosmic manifestation is pervaded by Me in My unmanifest form. All living beings dwell in Me, but I do not dwell in them.|4=[https://www.holy-bhagavad-gita.org/chapter/9/verse/4 Bhagvad Gita 9.24]}}
 
Ishavasyam is a term which demonstrates the omnipresent nature of Brahm, wherein It is everywhere and is transcendent of the objects it possesses. In a story from Krishna's life, once when Krishna was an infant he was suspected to have placed mud into his mouth. Yashoda then said, “''If you have not taken any mud, then open your mouth. I shall see for myself.''” Upon seeing in his mouth, she saw the universe (i.e., galaxies, starts. ) This one event shows how the universe itself is within God Almighty.
 
{{Cquote|The Supreme Lord walks and does not walk. He is far away, but He is very near as well. He is within everything, and yet He is outside of everything.|4=[https://vedabase.io/en/library/iso/5/ Isha Upaniṣad 5]}}
 
In the below verse, [[Yama]] is saying the Brahm is present in the inanimate and animate objects of the world.
{{Cquote|I am the food. I am the eater of food.|4=Taittiriya Upaniṣad 3.10.6}}
 
{{Cquote|He who, dwelling in all things,
Yet is other than all things, 
Whom all things do not know, 
Whose body all things are, 
Who controls all things from within, 
He is your soul, the Inner Controller, the Immortal.|4=Brihad-Aranyaka Upaniṣad 3.7.15}}
 
The verse below illustrates that God is the Complete Whole, meaning all-pervasive in this universe and yet, transcendent of it:
{{Cquote|God is perfect and complete, and because It is completely perfect, all emanations from It, such as this phenomenal world, are perfectly equipped as complete wholes. Whatever is produced of the Complete Whole is also complete in itself. Because It is the Complete Whole, even through so many complete units emanate from It, It remains the complete balance.|4=Isha Upaniṣad invocation}}
 
Mahatma Gandhi was very fond of quoting from this Upaniṣadic couplet:
{{Cquote|Whatever is ephemeral in this changing universe is Ishavasya (enveloped by Isha.)|4=Isha Upaniṣad}}
 
The omnipresence of Brahm is related to the interconnectedness of the soul (aikatmyam), because it is this relationship which also helps connect the soul to Brahm for achieving Moksh - realizing Aham Brahmasmi and tapping into the [[Antaryamin]] (Brahm within.)

{{Cquote|That microcosm [within you] is That Universe [outside of you], That Universe [outside of you] is that microcosm [within you.]<ref>Yat pinde tatha Brahmānde yatha Brahmande tatha pinde[https://www.yogapedia.com/definition/9326/yat-pinde-tat-brahmande]</ref>|4=Yajur Veda}}

This concept is mentioned as ''Pind Brahmand [[Nyaya]]. ''

==Oneness of God (Monotheism)==
[[Image:Surya with attendents.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Surya]] as God (in [[Saura]] sectarian context) being worshipped by his attendants and crowds of humans, demonstrating monotheism.]]
[[Image:Cosmic Vishnu.jpg|thumb|250px|Krishna too is sometimes depicted as comprising of the whole universe and to have his abodes outside of the universe (as stated in the ''[[Bhagavad Gita|Bhagvad Gita]]''), demonstrating panentheism.]]
[[Image:Cosmic Jina.jpg|thumb|250px|The whole universe in [[Jain Dharm|Jainism]] too is depicted as a person - referred to as 'Lok Purusha', demonstrating panentheism.]]
[[Image:Cosmic Buddha.jpg|thumb|250px|The whole universe in [[Bauddh Dharm|Buddhism]] too is sometimes depicted as a person, demonstrating panentheism.]]
''Brahm'' and ''Parmatma'' are the generic terms for The One Above All. The Sanskrit term for this is
''ekantikvad'' or ''ekamata.'' How Hindus have practiced monotheism is by worshiping Parmatma by worshiping It as an Ishta-Dev. Even the worship of solely Krishna as Parmatma or God Almighty by followers was referred to ''Ekantika [[Dharma]]'' and ''[[Ekayana]]''. The latter term was used also by Vaiśnavas of the [[Rudra]] Sampraday for worshipers of only Vishnu. Śaiva sects too have enforced monotheism, such as the Alakh Panth and Virasaivs. Monotheism in worship is enforced by a few sects but worshiping God Almighty along with others (demi-gods and ancestors) isn’t forbidden by most sects.

==Oneness of Deities (Henotheism)==
:''See also: [[Worship]], [[God#Oneness of God|Oneness of God]]''
<blockquote>
"This concept of God is panentheistic and even the Vedic theism is nothing but panentheism. It is very well expressed in philosophical hymns like ''[[Puruṣa]] sūkta'', ''Hiranyagarbha sūkta'' and even ''Nāsadīya sūkta''." - Sahebrao Genu Nigal<ref> P. 81 ''Vedic Philosophy of Values'' By Sahebrao Genu Nigal </ref>
</blockquote>It is understood that any kind of worship is accepted by The One Above All, regardless of name or form addressed in worship. The Sanskrit term for this is ''sarvekāntatva'' (“''state of all being a part of one''.”) Even a worshiper who is not Hindu and worships God [or a god] at their church or home, is worshiping God (only in a different way.) This particular viewpoint was so profound to modern scholars studying Hinduism that new terms had to be invented in English just to describe it - 'henotheism'. Then from 'henothenism' came another another term - 'kathenotheism' - meaning to worship 1 god at a time (while recognizing there may be more than a single divine being.) Then in 1828 German philosopher Karl Krause coined the term 'panentheism'.

 
{{Cquote|Of the eternals you are The Chief Eternal, of the sentients you are The Chief Sentient 
The One Chief of the many, that assembles and who is desirable 
Dark (unseeable) and present in the soul who is watching and unwavering 
That eternal peace is a guiding force [within]|4=Katha Upaniṣad 2.2.13<ref> Nityo nityanam cetanas cetananam 
eko bahunam yo vidadhati kaman 
tam atma-stham ye ’nupasyanti dhiras 
tesham shantih sasvati netaresam</ref>}}

 
Even the earlier Mandalas of ''[[Rig Veda]]''<ref>Ṛgveda books 1 and 9</ref> which contain hymns dedicated to devas, are thought to have a tendency toward monotheism.<ref>Macdonell, Arthur Anthony. Vedic Mythology. Forgotten Books (May 23, 2012). P. 17. ISBN 1440094365.</ref> Often quoted isolated pada of the ''Ṛig Veda''<ref>Ṛgveda 1.164.46</ref> states (trans. Ralph T.H. Griffith):

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! English
! Sanskrit
|-
|
{{Cquote|
:They call him Indra, Mitra, Varuṇa, Agni, and he is heavenly nobly-winged Garutmān.
:To what is One, sages give many a title they call it Agni, Yama, Mātariśvan.}}
|
{{Cquote|
:Indraṃ mitraṃ varuṇamaghnimāhuratho divyaḥ sa suparṇo gharutmān
:ekaṃ sad viprā bahudhā vadantyaghniṃ yamaṃ mātariśvānamāhuḥ}}
|-
|}

Further, the ''Rig Veda'' states, “There is only one God, [[worship]] Him“<Ref> Ṛg Veda, 6.45.16 </ref> and “Do not worship any one beside Him“<ref> Ṛg Veda 8.1.1 </ref>. Recognizing that there is a Supreme God above any other divinities is seen in the Vaiśnava mantra “Dev devaya namo nama” and Śaiva mantra “Aum nama Shivay sarvaya deva devaya vai namaha,” both of which proclaim their respective Supreme as the “God of gods.”
 
{{Cquote|Patiṁ patīnāṁ paramaṁ parastāt|4=Śvetāśvatara Upaniṣad 6.7}}
 
The ''[[Brahma Samhitā]]''<ref>Brahma Samhitā 5.45</ref> declares, ''Lord Vishnu is milk; Lord Śiva is yogurt''. Other aspects of God are expansions or aspects of Vishnu or Śiva which is detailed in various [[Purānas]]. Vaiṣnavites, like other Hindus, have tolerance for other beliefs because [[Krishna]], an [[avatara]] of Vishnu, said so in the Gitā. Krishna says:
{{Cquote|Whatever deity or form a devotee worships, I make his or her faith steady. However, their wishes are only granted by Me alone."<ref>Gitā 7.21-22</ref>|4=Bhagvad Gita 7.21-22}}
Krishna also says in the Gitā:
{{Cquote|O [[Arjuna]], even those devotees who worship other lesser [[deities]] e.g., devas, with faith, they also worship Me, but in an improper way because I am the Supreme Being. I alone am the enjoyer of all sacrificial services (Seva, [[Yajna]]) and Lord of the universe."<ref>Gitā 9.23</ref>|4=[https://www.holy-bhagavad-gita.org/chapter/9/verse/3 Bhagvad Gita 9.23]}}
 
The theology of henotheism also applies to the treating of ancestors or other beings as venerable. Because divinity is extended to them by many Hindus, it does not mean that there is a violation of the belief in a One God Above All, but that piety is offered to them in respect.
 
{{Cquote|The Lord of lords is Supreme and beyond them (deities.)|4=Śvetāśvatara Upaniṣad 6.7}}

===Smarta view===
The system prevalent in Hinduism is defined by the Smartha philosophy; this theory allows for the veneration of numerous deities, but on the understanding that all of them are but manifestation of the one divine power.<ref>It is a belief sometimes called kathenotheism.</ref> That ultimate [[divinity]] is termed Brahm or Atman and is believed to have no specific form, name or attribute.<ref>{{cite book
| author = Sivaya Subramuniyaswami
| url = http://books.google.com/?id=EWlHPAkjBKUC&pg=PA425
| title = Dancing with Siva: Hinduism's Contemporary Catechism
| publisher = Himalayan Academy Publications
| year = 2004
| isbn = 0-945497-96-2}}</ref> Only a Smartha, or follower of the [[Advaita Vedanta|Advaita]] philosophy, would have no problem worshiping every imaginable deity with equal veneration; as the view is that all names and forms of deities are merely manifestations of the same God. Other Hindu sects such as [[Vaiśnavism]] and Śaivism conform more closely to a Western understanding of what a monotheistic faith is. For instance, a Vaiṣnavite considers Vishnu as being the one and only true God, an attitude that resonates with that of the [[Abrahamic religions]]. However, it is [[Advaita]] philosophy that defines the Smartha sect of mainstream Hinduism, and imparts to Indic spiritual and religious traditions their renowned liberalism.

===Swaminarayan view===
[[Swami Sahajananda]], founder of the Swaminarayan Sampraday, said in verse 115 of its scripture, “''[[Śikśapatri]] said, ‘[[Sri Krishna]] Bhagvan and Sri Krishna Bhagvan's incarnations alone are worthy of meditation. Similarly, Sri Krishna Bhagvan's images are worthy. And men or [[devas]], even if they are devotees of Sri Krishna Bhagvan or Brahmvetta,<ref>It is knower of [[divinity]].</ref> They are still not worthy of meditation and thus one should not meditate upon them.’''"

The ''[[Brahma Samhitā]]''<ref>It means ''Brahma Samhitā'' 5.45</ref> declares, Lord Vishnu is milk; [[Śiva|Lord Śiva]] is yogurt.<ref>http://vedabase.net/bs/5/45/en Sri Bramha Samhita 5.45</ref> Followers of Swaminaryan are [[Vaiṣnavas]], but differ from the viewpoint attested by Gaudiya Vaiṣnavas who emphasize Śiva as a subordinate demigod expansion of Krishna. For example, Swaminaryan states:
<ref>[http://www.swaminarayanwales.org.uk/Shikshapatri/shikshapatridetails.asp?shlockcode=85 Shree Swaminarayan Temple Cardiff - Scriptures - Shikshapatri]</ref>
{{Cquote|And the oneness of Narayan and Śiva should be understood, as the Vedas have described both to be Brahmarupa (or form of Brahm, i.e., Saguna Brahm), thus indicating that Vishnu and Śiva are different forms of the one and same God. And that [[Ishvara]] is Sri Krishna Bhagvan,<ref> (Sri Swaminarayan Bhagvan</ref> who is supreme [[Para Brahman|Parabrahm]], [[Purushottama|Purushottam]], our [[Ishta-deva]]<ref>It means principal deity.</ref> worthy of worship, and the cause of all incarnations.|4=Shikshapatri 47.84.108}}

===Vivekanandian view===
According to the speech of [[Swami Vivekananda]] in Chicago during 1906, the monotheism of Hindu is not only for Hindu. It can effective for every human living on the earth. The verse,

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! English
! Sanskrit
|-
|{{Cquote|
:It means the rain water fallen from the sky go to the ocean, the same worship of every deity goes to only one God." (Here in this verse God is mentioned as Keshav (one of the name of Krishna). It doesn't matter, you are Hindu or not.
:Every worship goes to that God.}}
|{{Cquote|
:akāsāt patitaM toyam yathā gacchati sāgaram
:sarvadeva namaskārān kesavam prati gacchati}}
|-
|}

==Relation Between Brahm and Individuals==
Sanatan Dharm is essentially to understand the relationship between the Self and self, which is why the phrases "''Aham Brahmasmi''" and "''Ayamatma Brahm''", both of which mean, "''I am part of the Supreme''."

==Upaniṣad Era==
In the time period that the [[Upaniṣads]] were written, worship of gods within Hindus is turning into worship of primarily one god. The ''Chāndogya [[Upaniṣad]]'' states,
{{Cquote|God is only one, not a second.“|4=Chāndogya [[Upaniṣad]] Ch. 6.2.1}}
 
The ''Rudra Upaniṣad'' from the ''[[Atharva]] Shiras Upaniṣad'' reads of Rudra declaring himself as Brahm, and describing his attributes. The text also reads:
{{Cquote|O Rudra, O Ishana, O Maheshwara, O Mahadeva, O lord, for thou art Parabrahm, the one and only god!<Ref> P. 443 ''Researches Into the Nature and Affinity of Ancient and Hindu Mythology'' By Vans Kennedy </ref>}}

==Bhakti movement==
:''See also: [[The Hindu Renaissance#Medieval Renaissance|Bhakti movement]], [[Bhakti]], [[Bhakti Marga|Bhakti Yoga]]''
Krishnaism is one notable instance of Vaiṣnava monotheism popularized in the [[Bhakti movement]]. Krishnaism refers to Krishna with the title ''Svayam Bhagvan'', meaning 'Lord Himself' and it is used exclusively to designate Krishna as the Supreme Lord.<ref name=Gupta20071>Gupra, 2007, p.36 note 9.</ref> Certain other [[Sampradaya|traditions]] of Hinduism consider Krishna to be the source of all emanations,<ref name = jsn>''[[Bhagwan Swaminarayan]] bicentenary commemoration volume, 1781-1981.'' p. 154: ...Shri [[Vallabhacharya]] [and] Shri Swaminarayan...Both of them designate the highest reality as Krishna, who is both the highest avatara and also the source of other avataras. To quote R. Kaladhar Bhatt in this context. "In this transcendental devotion (Nirguna [[Bhakti]]), the sole Deity and only" is Krishna. [http://books.google.com/books?id=_Q0YAAAAIAAJ&q=Avatara+Swaminarayan+Krishna+origina%3B&dq=Avatara+Swaminarayan+Krishna+origina%3B New Dimensions in Vedanta Philosophy - Page 154], Sahajā[[nanda]], [http://books.google.com/books?q=+subject:%22Vedanta%22 Vedanta]. 1981</ref> and the source of Vishnu himself or to be the same as [[Narayana|Narayan]].<ref name = "Delmonico2004">{{cite journal
| author = Delmonico, N.
| year = 2004
| title = The History Of Indic Monotheism And Modern Chaitanya Vaishnavism
| journal = The Hare Krishna Movement: the Postcharismatic Fate of a Religious Transplant
| url = http://books.google.com/?id=mBMxPdgrBhoC&pg=PA31&dq=Vaisnava+monotheism
| accessdate = 2008-04-12
| publisher = Columbia University Press
| isbn = 978-0-231-12256-6
}}</ref><ref name = "Elkman1986">{{cite book
| author = Elkman, S.M.
| coauthors = Gosvami, J.
| year = 1986
| title = Jiva Gosvamin's Tattvasandarbha: A Study on the Philosophical and Sectarian Development of the Gaudiya Vaishnava Movement
| publisher = Motilal Banarsidass Pub
| isbn =

}}</ref><ref name = Dimock1989>{{cite book
| author = Dimock Jr, E.C.
| coauthors = Dimock, E.C.
| year = 1989
| title = The Place of the Hidden Moon: Erotic Mysticism in the Vaisnava-Sahajiya Cult of Bengal
| publisher = University Of Chicago Press
| isbn =

}} [http://books.google.com/books?id=EAYa1BtUTm0C&pg=PA132&dq=Svayam+bhagavan&sig=jcyEA-4tyPoddQmWg-FnYKDBgEY page 132]
</ref> The term is seldom used to refer to other forms of Krishna and/or Vishnu within the context of certain religious texts such as the ''[[Bhagvata Purāṇa|Bhagvata Purāṇa]]''.

Though Krishna is recognized as ''Svayam Bhagvan'' by many,<ref name = "RKm">{{cite book
|author=Mepathur Narayana Bhattatiri
|title=Narayaneeyam-Bhagavata, Condensed Edition
|publisher=Sri Ramakrishna Math
|location=
|year=2003
|pages=
|isbn=81-7120-419-8
|oclc=
|doi=
|accessdate=
}}pp.234-239</ref> he is also perceived and understood from an eclectic assortment of perspectives and viewpoints.<ref name=Mahony1987>{{cite journal
| author = Mahony, W.K.
| year = 1987
| title = Perspectives on Krishna's Various Personalities
| journal = History of Religions
| volume = 26
| issue = 3
| pages = 333–335
| accessdate = 2008-04-12
| doi = 10.1086/463085
| jstor=1062381
}}</ref> When Krishna is recognized to be ''Svayam Bhagvan'', it can be understood that this is the belief of Gaudiya Vaiṣnavism,<ref name=Kennedy1925>{{cite book
| author = Kennedy, M.T.
| year = 1925
| title = The Chaitanya Movement: A Study of the Vaiṣnavism of Bengal
| publisher = H. Milford, Oxford university press
| isbn =

}}</ref> the Vallabha Sampradaya,<ref name = "flood">{{cite book
| author = Flood, Gavin D.
| authorlink = Gavin Flood
| title = An introduction to Hinduism
| publisher = Cambridge University Press
| location = Cambridge, UK
| year = 1996
| isbn = 0-521-43878-0
| url = http://books.google.com/?id=KpIWhKnYmF0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=gavin+flood
| accessdate = 2008-04-21
| page = 341
}}"Early [[Vaiṣnava]] worship focuses on three deities who become fused together, namely Vasudeva-Krishna, Krishna-Gopala and Narayana, who in turn all become identified with Vishnu. Put simply, Vasudeva-Krishna and Krishna-Gopala were worshiped by groups generally referred to as Bhagvatas, while Narayana was worshiped by the Pancaratra sect."</ref> and the [[Nimbarka Sampradaya]], where Krishna is accepted to be the source of all other manifestations and the source of Vishnu himself. This belief is drawn primarily from the famous statement of the Bhagvatam<ref name=Gupta2007/>:<ref name = Rosen>''Essential [[Hinduism]]'' S. Rosen, 2006, Greenwood Publishing Group [http://books.google.com/books?id=VlhX1h135DMC&pg=PA124&dq=Krishna+is+the+original+Personality+of+Godhead&client=firefox-a&sig=2Yojs3j3lTcocPQ7RaIqBnpLrq0 p.124] ISBN 0-275-99006-0</ref>
 
{{Cquote|All of the descents and incarnations are either plenary portions or portions of the plenary portions of the Lord, but Lord Śrī Krishna is the original Personality of Godhead.|4=Srimad Bhagvatam<ref>Śrimad Bhagvatam1.3.28</ref>}}
 
Vaiṣnavism is one of the earliest implicit manifestations of monotheism in the traditions of Vedas. ''Svayam Bhagvān'' is a [[Sanskrit]] term for the original deity of the Supreme God worshiped across many traditions of the Vaiṣnavism as the source of all, the monotheistic absolute Deity.<ref name=Delmonico2004>{{cite journal
| author = Delmonico, N.
| year = 2004
| title = The History Of Indic Monotheism And Modern Chaitanya Vaishnavism
| journal = The Hare Krishna Movement: the Postcharismatic Fate of a Religious Transplant
| url = http://books.google.com/?id=mBMxPdgrBhoC&pg=PA31&dq=Vaisnava+monotheism
| accessdate = 2008-04-12
| publisher = Columbia University Press
| isbn = 978-0-231-12256-6
}}</ref><ref name = "Elkman1986">{{cite book
| author = Elkman, S.M.
| coauthors = Gosvami, J.
| year = 1986
| title = Jiva Gosvamin's Tattvasandarbha: A Study on the Philosophical and Sectarian Development of the Gaudiya Vaisnava Movement
| publisher = Motilal Banarsidass Pub
| isbn =
}}</ref>
<ref name = "Klostermaier1974">{{cite journal
| author = Klostermaier, K.
| year = 1974
| title = The Bhaktirasamrtasindhubindu of Visvanatha Cakravartin
| journal = Journal of the American Oriental Society
| volume = 94
| issue = 1
| pages = 96–107
| accessdate = 2008-04-12
| doi = 10.2307/599733
| jstor = 599733
| publisher = American Oriental Society
}}
</ref> Within [[Hinduism]], Krishna is worshiped from a variety of perspectives.<ref name=Mahony1987>{{cite journal
| author = Mahony, W.K.
| year = 1987
| title = Perspectives on Krishna's Various Personalities
| journal = History of Religions
| volume = 26
| issue = 3
| pages = 333–335
| accessdate = 2008-04-12
| jstor=1062381
| doi=10.1086/463085
}}</ref> However, the Svayam Bhagvan concept refers to the Supreme Being of the Orthodox Gaudiya Vaiṣnavism,<ref name=Kennedy1925>{{cite book
| author = Kennedy, M.T.
| year = 1925
| title = The Chaitanya Movement: A Study of the Vaiṣnavism of Bengal
| publisher = H. Milford, Oxford university press
| isbn =
}}</ref> the Vallabha Sampradaya and the [[Nimbarka]] Sampradaya, where Krishna is worshiped as the source of all other avataras (including Vishnu).<ref name=Ojha1978>{{cite book
| author = Ojha, P.N.
| year = 1978
| title = Aspects of Medieval Indian Society and Culture
| publisher = BR Pub. Corp.; New Delhi: DK Publishers' Distributors
| isbn =
}}</ref>
<ref>[http://srimadbhagavatam.com/1/3/28/en1 ''Bhag'' 1.3.28] Chapter 3: Krishna Is the Source of All Incarnations</ref>
<ref name = McDaniel>See McDaniel, June, ''"Folk Vaishnavism and Thākur Pañcāyat: Life and status among village Krishna statues"'' in {{Harvnb|Beck|2005|p=39}}</ref> A distinguishing feature of the Vaisnava teachings is that God, Krishna or Vishnu,<ref name="Elkman1986"/> is a real person and His variegated creation is also real.<ref name="Elkman1986"/><ref name= Thomson>{{cite journal
| author = Richard Thompson, Ph. D.
| year = December 1994
| title = Reflections on the Relation Between Religion and Modern Rationalism
| url = http://www.iskcon.com/icj/1_2/12thompson.html
| accessdate = 2008-04-12
}}</ref>

Krishna worshiped in Vaiṣnava religion as the Supreme came into being as soon as all creatures came into existence. [[Brahma]] was the first Vaiṣnava. In Gaudiya Vaiṣnavism, Śiva Mahadeva is also a Vaiṣnava; in Śaivism, by contrast, Śiva is the supreme God. The ancient Prajapaties are all Vaiṣnavas. [[Narada]] who is the born child of Brahma, is a Vaiṣnava. Thus pure monotheistic Vaiṣnava religion began with the beginning of history.<ref name="Thomson"/> In the recent times man arrived once again at the instinctive monotheism of the Aryans and Vaiṣnavas.<ref name=Dalmia-luderitz1992>{{cite journal
| author = Dalmia-luderitz, V.
| year = 1992
| title = Hariscandra of Banaras and the reassessment of Vaisnava bhakti in the late nineteenth century
| journal = Devotional Literature in South Asia: Current Research, 1985-8
| url = http://books.google.com/?id=BE40dp6SCFUC&pg=PA281&dq=Vaisnava+monotheism
| accessdate = 2008-04-12
| publisher = Cambridge University Press
| isbn = 978-0-521-41311-4
}}</ref>

A different viewpoint, opposing this theological concept, is the concept of Krishna as an ''avatara'' of Narayan or Vishnu. However, although its is usual to speak of Vishnu as the source of the avataras, this is only one of the names of god of Vaiṣnavism, who is also known as Vishnu to some Vaiṣnava, Narayan to some, Vasudeva, or any of the other Vaiśnava persons, and behind each of those names there is a divine figure with attributed supremacy in Vaisnavism.<ref name = Krishna4>
{{Harvnb|Matchett|2000|p=4}}</ref> The theological interpretation of ''Svayam Bhagvān'' differs with each tradition and the translated from the Sanskrit language, the term literary means "[[Bhagvan]] Himself" or "directly Bhagvan".<ref name=Gupta2007/> Gaudiya Vaiṣnava tradition often translates it within its perspective as ''primeval Lord'' or ''original Personality of Godhead'', but also considers the terms such as ''Supreme Personality of Godhead'' and ''Supreme God'' as an equivalent to the term ''Svayam Bhagvan'', and may also choose to apply these terms to Vishnu, Narayan and many of their associated avatars.<ref> name=Knapp2005>{{cite book
| author = Knapp, S.
| year = 2005
| title = The Heart of Hinduism: The Eastern Path to Freedom, Empowerment and Illumination -
| publisher = iUniverse
| isbn =</ref>

"Krishna is the primeval Lord, the original Personality of Godhead, so He can expand Himself into unlimited forms with all potencies."<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=a2KPChj7lTwC&pg=PA161 page 161]</ref><ref name= ICJKnott>{{cite journal
| author = Dr. Kim Knott,
| year = 1993
| title = Contemporary Theological Trends In The Hare Krishna Movement: A Theology of Religions
| url = http://www.iskcon.com/icj/1_1/knott.html
| accessdate = 2008-04-12
}}..."''[[Bhakti]]'', the highest path, was that of surrender to [[Lord Krishna]], the way of pure devotional service to the Supreme Personality of Godhead".</ref>
Others have translated it simply as "the Lord Himself".<ref name="KK">{{cite book |author=K. Klostermaier |title=The Charles Strong Trust Lectures, 1972-1984 |publisher=Brill Academic Pub |location= |year=1997 |isbn=90-04-07863-0 |quote= For his worshippers he is not an avatara in the usual sense, but Svayam Bhagvan, the Lord himself.|url= http://books.google.com/?id=F_0UAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA109&dq=Svayam+bhagavan |accessdate= |page=206 | others = Crotty, Robert B.}} p.109 Klaus Klostermaier translates it simply as "the Lord Himself"</ref> Followers of Vishnu-centered sampradayas of Vaiṣnavism rarely address this term, but believe that it refers to their belief that Krishna is among the highest and fullest of all ''avatars''<ref name = Pal1958>{{cite book
| author = [[Bipin]] Chandra Pal
| year = 1964, 132 pages
| title = Shree Krishna: Letters Written to a Christian Friend
| publisher = Yugayatri/New India Printing
& Publishing Co.
| quote = First edition published in 1938 under the title of 'Europe asks: who is Shree Krishna'.
| isbn =</ref>

Sri Krishna stands at the top of this series. He is therefore called by his votaries as Purna Avatara or the highest and fullest incarnation of the Lord. and is considered to be the "''paripurna avatara''", complete in all respects and the same as the original.<ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://www.tirumala.org/sapthagiri/122002/purana.htm
|title=Sapthagiri
|publisher=www.tirumala.org
|accessdate=2008-05-03
|last=
|first=
}}</ref> Parashara Maharishi, [[Vyāsa]]'s father had devoted the largest [[Aṅṣa]]<ref>It means part.</ref> in ''[[Vishnu Purāṇa]]'' to the description of Sri Krishna Avatara the ''Paripoorna Avatara''. And according to Lord Krishna's own instructions ''upadeṣa'', "he who knows the secrets of His (Krishna's) Janma<ref>It means birth.</ref> and [[Karma]]<ref>It means actions.</ref> will not remain in [[saṅsāra]]<ref>''punar janma naiti-maam eti''.</ref> and attain Him after leaving the mortal coil."<ref>Bhagvad Gita 4.9</ref> [[Parāsara]] Maharishi ends up [[Añṣa]] 5 with a phalashruti in an identical vein (''Vishnu Purāna''<ref>Vishnu Purāna 5.38.94</ref>.)

The prime supporters of the Krishna-centered theology, Gaudiya Vaiṣnavas and followers of the Vallabha [[Sampradāya]] Nimbarka Samprā[[daya]], use the ''[[Gopala Tapani Upaniṣad]]'',<ref>{{cite book |author=B. V. Tripurari |title=Gopala-tapani Upaniṣad |publisher=Audarya Press |location= |year=2004 |pages= |isbn=1-932771-12-3 }}</ref> ''[[Vedanta Sutras]]''<ref name=Gupta2007/> and other Hindu scriptures such as the ''Bhagvata Purāna'' and the ''[[Brahma Vaivarta Purāna]]'', among others, to support their view that Krishna is indeed the ''Svayam Bhagvan''. This belief was summarized by the 16th century author [[Jiva Goswami]] in some of his works, such as ''Krishna-sandarbha''.<ref name=Gupta2007>{{cite book
| author = Gupta, Ravi M.
| coauthors =
| year = 2007
| title = Caitanya Vaisnava Vedanta of Jiva Gosvami
| publisher = Routledge
| isbn = 0-415-40548-3
}}</ref><ref name=Gupta2004>{{cite book
| author = Gupta, Ravi M.
| coauthors =
| year = 2004
| title = Caitanya Vaisnava Vedanta: Acintyabhedabheda in Jiva Gosvami's Catursutri tika
| publisher = University Of Oxford
| isbn =

}}</ref> While Krishna himself if mentioned in one of the earliest texts of Vedic literature - ''Rig Veda''.<ref>
Sunil Kumar Bhattacharya ''Krishna-cult in Indian Art''. 1996
M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd. ISBN 81-7533-001-5 p.126: "According to (D.R.Bhadarkar), the word Krishna referred to in the expression 'Krishna-drapsah' in the Ṛgveda, denotes the very same Krishna".</ref>

In the sixth book of the [[Hindu epic]] ''[[Mahābhārata]]'', the Bhishma Parva<ref>It is better known as the ''[[Bhagavad Gitā|Bhagvad Gitā]]''.</ref> Krishna offers numerous quotations that reaffirm the belief that he himself is the ''Svayam Bhagvan''. Verse [http://www.asitis.com/7/7.html 7.7] of the ''[[Bhagavad Gitā|Bhagvad Gitā]]'', is often used to support the opinion that Krishna himself is the ''Svayam Bhagvan'', and that no impersonal form of Brahm supersedes his existence, as it is a common view that ''Bhagvad Gitā'' was propounding Krishna-theism before first major proponents of [[Advaita Vedanta|monism of the Smarta school]].<ref name = "IST">{{cite book
|author=
|authorlink=
|editor = S. Devadas Pillai
|others=
|title=Indian Sociology Through Ghurye: A Dictionary
|edition=
|language=
|publisher=South Asia Books
|location=Columbia, Mo
|year=1997
|origyear=
|quote=
|isbn=81-7154-807-5
|oclc=
|doi=
|url=http://books.google.com/?id=P3uD22Ghqs4C&pg=PA283
|accessdate=
|page=403
}}</ref>

==Related Articles==
*[[Cosmogony]]
*[[Cosmology]]
*[[Darshana]]
*[[Divinity]]
*[[Brahm]]
*[[God]]
*[[Devatā]]
*[[Deities]]
*[[Worship]]
*[[Murti Puja]]

==External Resources==
*[http://enlightened-spirituality.org/panentheism.html "Panentheism and the Reality of God"] By Timothy Conway, Ph.D. (Published: October 2, 2015)
*[https://www.academia.edu/19511326/Panentheism_and_Hindu_Tantra_Abhinavagupta_s_Grammatical_Cosmology “Panentheism and Hindu Tantra: Abhinavagupta’s Grammatical Cosmology”] By Loriliai Biernacki

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

[[Category:Theology]]
[[Category:Hindu philosophical concepts]]
[[Category:Forms of worship]]

Theology

2026-07-06T07:36:11Z

Himanshu Bhatt: /* References to 3 aspects of God */

{{Author|Himanshu Bhatt}}
[[Image:Vishnu making universes.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Vishnu]] depicted as God (in [[Vaiśnava|Vaiśnava]] sectarian context) as making and ending universes while being within them, demonstrating panentheism.]]
[[Image:Gayatri Ma.jpg|thumb|250px|The monotheistic prayer Gayatri Mantra personified as God, demonstrating [[monotheism]] in itself.
 
The [[mantra]] demonstrates henotheism when it is called Sarva-[[devata]] Svarupini ("''Universal Form of All Deities''.")]]
<blockquote>
“The Hindu religion is the only one of the world’s great faiths dedicated to the idea that the Cosmos itself undergoes an immense, indeed an infinite, number of deaths and rebirths. It is the only religion in which the time scales correspond to those of modern scientific [[cosmology]]. Its cycles run from our ordinary day and night to a day and night of Brahma, 8.64 billion years long. Longer than the age of the Earth or the Sun and about half the time since the Big Bang.” - Carl Sagan, ''Cosmos''
</blockquote>
Panentheism is the first and foremost theology of the Sanatan Dharm while henotheism and monotheism are secondary but they are all in conformity with each other. This is because while recognizing there is only One Supreme Being above all ([[Brahm]] or [[God]]), the immanence and transcendence of It is a doctrine that goes beyond the generic monotheism preached by other religions. While accepting there is One God above all, it does not enforce worshiping only The One. So it is monotheistic because it believes there is God, but also henotheistic because others worshipping It in another form is accepted as still worshiping the One God. Worship as polytheism (i.e., praying to ancestors) is acceptable being it does not reject The One but venerates others as well. Once a human attains Moksh, it is united with Brahm or Parmatma. Brahm is not confined to space and so is everywhere, including within ourselves. This principle is Ishavasyam. Individuals on the other hand are also connected to all that exists, and this is the [[Environmentalism#Aikatmyam|principle of aikatmyam]]. Because of this omnipresence, the central Hindu theology is panentheism. It is monotheist too because there is just one God above all other spirits. It is henotheist because, while Brahm is The Supreme, other beings worthy of worship exist, which may be pious humans or angels ([[Devatā|demi-gods]].) Hindu theology is often aptly termed monistic theism and even open monotheism by some scholars, but is not purely polytheistic as outsiders perceive it to be. [[Bhakti Marga|Worship (Bhakti Yoga]]) is one of the three yogas to attain Moksh.<ref>The other two are [[Gyāna Mārga|Gyāna Yoga]] and [[Karma Mārga|Karma Yoga]].</ref> Monotheism is known in [[Overview Of Scriptures|Hindu scriptures]] as ekantikvad, and some sects practice it strictly, such as the [[Arya]] Samaj, Mahima, and certain [[Śaiva]] (i.e., Viraśaiva, Alakhgir) and the Vaiśnava (i.e., Pushtimarga, Ekasarana) sampradays.

Hinduism has often been considered to be polytheistic because of one leading denomination, Smartism, which follows the [[Advaita]] philosophy of absolute monism, and includes worship of all kinds of personal forms of God. Absolute monists see one unity with all personal forms of God as different aspects of one Supreme Spirit, like a single beam of light separated into colors by a prism. Thus Smartas consider all personal forms of God as equal including Devi, Vishnu, Śiva, Ganesh and Skanda but generally limit the recognized forms to be six. Other denominations of Hinduism don't adhere to the Smarta viewpoint, but are quite unlike Western perceptions of monotheism. Additionally, like Judeo-Christian traditions which believe in angels, Hindus also believe in other less powerful entities, such as [[deva]]s.<ref name = hop1>{{cite book |title=THE RELIGIONS OF INDIA|author=Edward Washburn Hopkins|url=http://books.google.com/?id=Dj33XvXqJO8C |publisher= Jr. Ginn & Co |pages=204 |year= 1896 |editor=Morris Jastrow, |isbn=978-1-60303-143-1}}</ref>

Sometimes the orthodox members of religions interpret religions with a puritan mindset. An example is that many Christians believe any form of worship not including Jesus as being 'idol worship', while Muslims consider idol worship specifically practicing worship through statues but revering the black stone at the Kaaba and circumambulating Kaaba as not idolatry. [Within the Hindu community too prejudices exist among certain people but the general belief is that 'all religions lead to God'.] This leads to religions discrediting other religions. It is resulted in Hinduism being classified as 'pagan cults' and/or a 'polytheistic religion with no heaven'. The underlying principle of the divine is that it has a Supreme Soul (literally 'Parmatma'), making Hinduism monotheistic in belief. Because Hindus believe that Parmatma possesses the universe, which It also transcends, Hinduism believes in panentheism. And because of the principles 'all religions lead to God' and 'All God is One', and that God can be worshiped in those various ways in various forms, Hinduism believes in henotheism.

Contemporary Hinduism can be categorized into four major sects:
# [[Vaiśnava|Vaiśnavism]]
# [[Śaiva|Śaivism]]
# [[Śākta|Śaktism]]
# Smartism
Vaiśnavism, Śaivism, and Śaktism [[worship]] [[Narayan]], [[Śiva]] and [[Devi]] - the Divine Mother as the Supreme Being respectively or considering all [[Hindu]] [[deities]] as aspects of the Supreme Being or Brahm.<ref>See [[Advaita]], or impersonalism.</ref> Other minor sects such as [[Ganapatya]] and [[Surya|Saura]] focus on [[Ganesha|Ganesh]] and [[Surya]] as the Supreme.

==Nature of God==
:''See also: [[God#Nature of God|Nature of God]]'' [[Image:Durga Ma.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Durga|Durga Ma]] as depicted as God (in [[Shakta]] sectarian context), the God of gods, demonstrating henotheism.]]
[[Image:God in all beings.jpg|thumb|250px|God is considered [[Antaryamin]] (Inner Dweller) or [[Caitya-purusa|Chaitya Purush]] (Inner Being.) While God is omnipresent in inanimate objects too, it is Its presence within living beings that enables a relationship between humans and It, and for humans to attain [[Moksha|Moksh]]. (This is an image of God in [[Vaiśnava]] context.)]]
The One Above All is called Brahm and Parmatma in Sanatan Dharm. This [[acintya|Supreme Being is beyond imagination]] and experience, and as such, transcends the universe. The [[Darshana|darshanas (metaphysical worldviews)]] discuss this universe being prakriti which releases from either Brahm Itself or from human under the influence of ignorance (i.e., [[Maya Panchakam|Maya]].) Brahm is also believed by most Hindus to incarnate in various avataras, which may be to answer a prayer of a devotee, [[test]] a human, or promote spirituality (i.e., Krishna.)

Brahm or God Almighty is spoken of as being ''alaukika'' ("''beyond this world''.") This world is seen as prakriti (nature) which God created. This nature of this world is such that karmas cause beings to be possessed with defilements. God is tri-guṇatit, meaning It is transcendental to the modes of material nature.

God is:
#Sarvavyapin (omnipresent)
#Sarvajna (omniscient)
#Sarvaśaktiman (omnipotent)
#Akal (without beginning, and forever)
#Tri-gunatit (transcendent of the 3 modes of material nature)
The sarvavyapin aspect of God is such that it pervades everything, both material and spiritual, and is also called ''Ishavasyam'' ("''God present in all.''") Sarvajna means to know all, and this is an aspect often highlighted when speaking of Moksh, because salvation means Brahmgyana ("''to know Brahm''") or to acquire Brahmvidya. Sarvaśaktiman means the power of Brahm is such that there is nothing it cannot do, and no other power is greater. ''Akal'' means "''timeless''" and refers to the self-existent state (''swayambhu'') of God, and that it will exist forever. Tri-gunatit means to be transcendent of this material universe which is imperfect.

===Dualistic Energies of God===
This is an understanding of Brahm based on its energies in this universe. While Brahm is the Supreme above all, the God Almighty, it is said to apply two forms of energies in this world. This means that the energy which surrounds us in this material realm is different from that of the spiritual world (Moksh), as is the energy which is with our souls. This is spoken of in different sects and [[Darshana|darshans]]. For example, in the Śaiva sect, Śiva is said to be Brahm while his other half is Prakriti (the divine energy possessing this world.) In the [[Samkhya Yoga]] darshan too, Brahm (Purusha) has a counterpart referred to as Prakriti, which is the nature that surrounds us in this reality. In the ''Bhagvad Gita'' too, Krishna says that Brahm is the total energy while the energy here in this reality he calls ''Parmatma''. In Vaiśnavism, this is notion of the Gita is elaborated wherein the energy of Brahm present in this universe is Mahamaya (or hiraṇmaya-[[mahat]]-[[tattva]]), whereas in the spiritual one it is Yogamaya (or jivan śakti.) The material energy is impacted by the three modes of material nature whereas spiritual energy is not, which is why prakriti is eternal and mutable (parimaminitya), whereas Yogamaya is eternal and immutable (parinamnitya.) The total energy of Brahm is called swarup śakti.

Personification of God's two energies has been presented in some instances as well. In Śaiva context, Śiva represents the spiritual energy and Śakti Ma represents the material energy. In Vaiśnavism too, Brahm is Krishna or Narayan and his energy (both spiritual and material) is a female, usually portrayed as Vishnu's wife, Śri (''Mantramayi Kriya Śakti''.)

====References to 3 aspects of God====
[[Image:Trimurti.jpg|thumb|250px|God represented in a syncretist context as [[Trimurti]] ("''Triune God''"), showing [[Brahmā]], [[Vishnu]], and [[Mahesh]] as God in Its 3 aspects.]]
Because the energies in the universe have normally been considered to be dualistic, they, together with God's total energy in the spiritual real, would be 3 aspects of God. From this logic, many Hindu thinkers have believed there are 3 aspects of God we can come to the conclusion of. Various scriptures have written on the One Supreme Lord being characterized of 3 aspects, in Hinduism and in the [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]]. In a conversation mentioned in the ''Brihadaranyaka [[Upanishad|Upaniṣad]]''<Ref> Chapter 3, Part 9 of ''Brihadaranyaka Upaniṣad'' </ref> between [[Yajnavalkya]] and Vidaghdha, the latter asks how many Devas (gods) there are, to which the former replies 33, but Vidaghdha keeps asking, and before coming to the answer of a single 1 God, he had said there are 3 gods [which can be taken to mean that single God has 3 aspects.] No other story legitimizes 3 aspects of Brahm more than the one of the ''[[Rig Veda]]'' wherein Ka (an epithet of the unseen presence or Parabrahm) or Apo (primordial waters) produced the universal womb Hiranyagarbha (Prajapati) with Prajapati within the womb having come into being the "one divine spirit", and Agni (souls)[https://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10121.htm]

Parallel to the 3 aspects of Brahm is the the [[Vaiśnava#Pāñcharātra Āgama|Pāñchrātra]], which consists of 5 venerable forms of Narayan (para, vyuha, vibhava, [[arca]], and antaryamin), the 3 aspects which as para, vyuha, and antaryamin fall within the same categories as the classifications of Brahm do in many other analyses. The vibhava aspect of God is basically formed from one or 2 of the other aspects (i.e., avatara of vyuha and consist of antaryamin.) Arca refers to representative icons of God which are venerated, which are created by matter. In this analysis, the Pāñchrātra holds consistent with the triune characterization of God. Some schools of Śaivism too break down the aspects of God into 3, like Śiva being Parabrahm, Śakti being Aparabrahm, and Yamala being Tapas or Agni. The last is called Tapas or Agni normally, as it is imperishable and is the same energy as the soul (Yogamaya.) That is why it is also called Apām Napāt (''Child of Apo''.)

The "Ka Sukta" (aliases "Hiranyagarbha Sukta", "Prajapati Sukta") of the ''Rig Veda'' is one the most popular cosmogonies in the Arya dharmas. What has been overlooked are the triple aspects detailed within the hymn. In it, Apo (God as 'primordial waters'), which "''possesses generational fire''" (Agni), incubates the Hiranyagarbha (womb containing Prajapati, "''born Only-Lord of all created beings''"). In other words, it ambiguously states Apo is God in the highest form (i.e., Parabrahm), Prajapati this material universe's Aparabrahm, and Agni the life-giving spark within all creatures. (This can be likened to the Pāñchrātrik para, vyuha, and antaryamin.) The hymn goes further to state that [[Devatā#Divine Council|the Devanam or ''people who've taken the title of God'']] (i.e., Devtas on the Divine Council of 33) return to God, meaning that the Devtas are representatives of God on Earth but they are none of the 3 aspects of God and aren't of equal status to God either.

As the material energy is Mahamaya and spiritual (superior) energy is Yogamaya, these energies can also help break down the Vak (cosmic speech.) The ''Rig Veda'' itself declares, "''Vak resides in four quarters (pada). The wise Brahmins who possess insight know them all. Three quarters are hidden in secret and do not stir; human beings speak only the fourth quarter.''"<ref>''Rig Veda'' 1.164.45</ref> The first 3 aspects of Vak itself—para, pashyanti, and madhyama—are spiritual, while the last (Vaikhari) is material energy. Therefore, it can be presumed that this together with synthesizing the commonalities in the creation myths, that the Aparabrahm or Universe is the lowest form of Vak.

"Purush Sukta" states that all creatures in this universe are 1/4 of the Purush (God) and that the others are spiritual—this would be in line with the trinitarian concept that the other 3/4 of Purush are the Parabrahm, Aparabrahm, and Antaryamin. All living beings here in the material world being 1/4 of Purush means that we are eternal, since are a part of the Purush Itself, and that we are of the same spiritual substance as Purush.

Below is a table summarizing and forming the connections between the trinity stated in various texts or beliefs.
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Derivation
! Heavenly Being
! All-Pervasive Being in Universe
! Inner Being
|-
!Vishwakarma Sukta (''Rig Veda'')
|Vishwakarma/Apo (Primordial Waters)/Garbha/Dhātar/Vidhātar/Sacrificial Seer<ref>ṛṣirhotā</ref>/Ascetic Father<ref>nyasīdatpitā</ref>/One Dev<ref>deva ekaḥ</ref>/Lord of Speech<ref>vācas patiṃ</ref>/One, Only One<ref>para ekamāhuḥ</ref>
|Universe
|
|-
!Ka Sukta (''Rig Veda'')
|Apo
|Hiranyagarbha (Prajapati)/Universe
|Agni
|-
!Vak Sukta (''Rig Veda'')
|Apsu (Primordial Waters<ref>Yonirapsvantaḥ</ref>)
|Universe
|Vak
|-
!Nasadiya Sukta (''Rig Veda'')
|Tad Ekam (That One)
|Sat (The Existent/Manifestation)/Universe
|Asat (The Non-Existent/Potentiality)
|-
!Aghamarṣaṇa Sukta (''Rig Veda'')
|Dhātar
|Sat (The Existent/Manifestation)/Ṛta (Cosmic Order) and Satya (Cosmic Truth)
|Tapas (Cosmic Heat)
|-
!Devāgāna Sukta (''Rig Veda'')
|Āsur Ek/Brahmaṇaspati/Dev Ek
|Sat (The Existent/Manifestation)
|Vak
|-
!Purush Sukta (''Rig Veda'')
|Adhi Purush
|Virāj/Universe
|Vak/Purush (other souls)
|-
!''Bhagavad Gita''<ref> “''O best of the embodied souls, the physical manifestation that is constantly changing is called adhibhūta; the universal form of God, which presides over the celestial gods in this creation, is called adhidaiva; I, who dwell in the heart of every living being, am called Adhiyajña, or the Lord of all sacrifices.''” - [https://www.holy-bhagavad-gita.org/chapter/8/verse/4 ''Bhagvad Gita'' 8.4] </ref>
|Parabrahm
|Aparabrahm
|Parmatma<Ref> “''Within the body also resides the Supreme Lord. He is said to be the Witness, the Permitter, the Supporter, Transcendental Enjoyer, the ultimate Controller, and the Paramātmā (Supreme Soul).''” - [https://www.holy-bhagavad-gita.org/chapter/13/verse/23 ''Bhagvad Gita'' 13.23] </ref>
|-
!''Bhagavat Purana''
|Narayan
|Mahamaya
|Yogamaya
|-
!''Isha Upaniṣad'' 6-7
|Uttam [Purush]
|Kshar
|Akshar
|-
!''Katha Upaniṣad'' (1.3.10–11)
|Purush
|Avyaktam
|Mahat (Mahan [[Atma]])
|-
!''Mahānārāyan Upaniṣad'' 24
|Tvashtā
| -
| -
|-
!''Maitrāyaṇīya Upaniṣad''
|Brahmā
|Vishnu
|Mahesh
|-
!''Sams'aya-taducchedavādah''
|Manomaya Purush ([[Avyaya]])
|Vangmaya (Kshar)
|Pranamaya Purush (Akshar)
|-
!''Sasongko Jati''
|Principle of Lord<ref>Suksma Kawekas</ref>
|Director of Life<ref>Suksma Sejati</ref>
|Lord of Life<ref>Roh Suci</ref>
|-
!''Sāttvat Saṃhitā''
|Para
|Vyuha
|Antaryamin
|-
!''Swaminarayan Bhashyam'' / ''Vachanamrut''
|Parabrahm
|Aparabrahm
|Aksharbrahm
|-
!''Vijñāna Bhairava Tantra''
|Śiva
|Śakti
|Yamala
|-
!''[[Vayu]] [[Purana]]'' 1.2
|Purush
|Manifested Prakriti
|Unmanifested Prakriti
|-
!''[[Yoga]] Sutra'' 2.20
|Drashtā
|Pratyaya-anupashya
|Shuddha
|-
|}

===Formlessness===
{{Cquote|Knowing That which is soundless, touchless, formless, undecaying; also tasteless, odorless, and eternal; beginningless, endless and immutable; beyond the Unmanifested: (knowing That) man escapes from the mouth of death.|4=Katha Upaniṣad 3.15}}
 
Brahm has been written of to be either Nirguna (Parabrahm) and Shaguna (Aparabrahm), including being both. Nirguna refers to God without physical and personality attributes (i.e., a body) while Shaguna is the opposite. Worshiping God as either is fine. Brahm is believed to take vyuhas or emanations, especially to communicate with humans in the physical world (i.e., to provide revelations), and has been seen particularly in Vaiṣnavism as both heavenly and earthly incarnations. Avatars of Śiva, Ganesh, [[Durga]], and others have also been documented and worshipped. 
{{Cquote|Brahm has indeed has 2 two modes, formless as well as manifested.|4=Brihad-Aranyaka Upaniṣad 2.3.1}}
 
Nirguna bhakti was a popular method of worshipping in the medieval era in particular when several sects appeared. Worshipping Vishnu in the formless manner was practiced by Ramanand [[Sampraday]] and its succeeding sects, including Kabir Panth, Ravidas Panth, Satnam Panth, and others. Mahima Dharm was a peculiar Vaiśnava sect because it adheres only to the ''Bhagvat Purana'' and normally referred to Vishnu as ''Alakh'' or ''Sunya'' (“''Void''.”) [[Temples]] of this sect never include [[idols]] which are venerated because the heavenly Vishnu, God before the creation of all, is considered unmanifested. Some Śaiva sects too have practiced worship without an idol, denying that God (Śiva) has a form. These sects include Alakhgirs and Nath Panthis, both of whom call Śiva ''Alakh'' (“''Invisible''.”) Manikkavasagar was a well-known saint from the Bhakti era that worshipped Śiva as formless.<ref> ''Shiva in the City of Nectar: Fifty-four divine tales of Shiva in ancient India'' By Preetha Rajah Kannan </ref> Arulnanti was a another Śaiva theologian from southern India at the time.
 
{{Cquote|Although the Supreme Lord is described as having no hands and legs, He nonetheless accepts all sacrificial offerings.|4=Śvetāśvatara Upaniṣad 3.19}}
 
Temples wherein Brahm is worshipped as formless are known as ''Sunya Mandirs''. Most of these are Vaiśnava belonging to the Ekasarana, Mahima, and Satnami sects, but Śaiva sects of Brahmā Kumaris are notable. There are also temples of Vishnu, Śiva and other gods that don’t belong to a particular sect.
 
{{Cquote|The Entity who is one and without a second, and one without any colours; who has created the colourful quinquelemental world for reasons unknown with the help of His many powers; in whom this entire universe dissolves; is no other than Parama Puruśa. Let that Entity guide our intellect along the path of supreme righteousness. |4=Śvetāśvatara Upaniṣad 4.1.12}}

==Both Immanency and Transcendence of God (Panentheism)==
{{Cquote|I take refuge in that self-existent Being in Whom is this Universe, and Who is beyond this (differentiated Nature) as also beyond that (Undifferentiated.)|4=[https://vedabase.io/en/library/sb/8/3/3/ Bhagvata Purana 8.3.3]}}
 
Karl Krause coined the term 'panentheism' inspired by his readings on Hinduism.<ref> P. 170 ''The Oxford Handbook of Natural Theology'' By Russell Re Manning; ''Karl Krause (1781–1832) borrowed Indian ideas in formulating his own panentheist doctrine of God as a non-personal essence (Wesen) with which the world must eventually be reunited.''"</ref> In Sanskrit, this is called ''Ishavasyam'' or ''vibhudyatvad'' (“''doctrine of pervading and surpassing''.”) While pantheism equates the visible universe with God, panentheism declares that God is omnipresent in Its creation and transcends Its creation too. This means God is the visible universe and more. Heaven and hell may not be in this universe, but another wherein God is also omnipresent. It would make sense that if God is all-pervasive that we would be within It. In other words, everything is submerged or within God. Purusha [[Sukta]] states that The Supreme is both immanent and transcendent - "''Sa bhumin vishvato vritva atyatishthat dashangulam.''" Even when Hindus greet each other by saying "''Namaste''," it means "''I bow to God within you''," showing panentheism in the very greeting. The ''Kaṭha Upaniṣad'' 2.2.12-13 states, “''Whatever we see is a manifestation of [[Brahman]].''”<ref> “''sarvaṁ khalv idaṁ brahma taj jalā[[niti]] śānta upāsīta''” </ref> Satguru Sivaya Subramuniyaswami, said that "''Panentheism is the view that the universe is part of the being of God, as distinguished from pantheism (all-is-God doctrine"), which identifies God with the total reality. In contrast, panentheism holds that God pervades the world, but is also beyond it. He is immanent and transcendent, relative and Absolute. This embracing of opposites is called dipolar. For the panentheist, God is in all, and all is in God.''"

{{Cquote|It is you from whom this universe of forms emerges, and it is you within whom it stays. It is you in whom it finally disappears. |4=Vedasara Shivastotram}} 

Professor Charles Hartshorne in his discussion of panentheism discussed Hinduism in 1953. Professor Lorilai Biernacki considers Hinduism to be one of the most panentheistic traditions.[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/panentheism/] Other [[Ārya Samudāy]] dharmas have also been written on by scholars as panentheist - Christopher Key Chapple on Jainism, Geoffrey Samuel on Buddhism, William M. Reynolds on [[Sikhism]]<ref> P. 90 ''Expanding Curriculum Theory: Dis/positions and Lines of Flight'' By William M. Reynolds and ‎Julie A. Webber </ref>, Ernest Lee Tuveson on Hermeticism<ref>P. 255 ''Gnosis and Hermeticism from Antiquity to Modern Times'' By R. van den Broek </ref>, and Dirk Baltzly on Neoplatonism.

<blockquote>
"It is in the [[Vedas]] that we find for the first time not merely traces or indications of Pantheism, but Pantheism itself in its full growth and maturity." - Constance E. Plumptre<ref> ''General Sketch of the History of Pantheism: Volume 1'' By Constance E. Plumptre </ref>
</blockquote>
{{Cquote|This entire cosmic manifestation is pervaded by Me in My unmanifest form. All living beings dwell in Me, but I do not dwell in them.|4=[https://www.holy-bhagavad-gita.org/chapter/9/verse/4 Bhagvad Gita 9.24]}}
 
Ishavasyam is a term which demonstrates the omnipresent nature of Brahm, wherein It is everywhere and is transcendent of the objects it possesses. In a story from Krishna's life, once when Krishna was an infant he was suspected to have placed mud into his mouth. Yashoda then said, “''If you have not taken any mud, then open your mouth. I shall see for myself.''” Upon seeing in his mouth, she saw the universe (i.e., galaxies, starts. ) This one event shows how the universe itself is within God Almighty.
 
{{Cquote|The Supreme Lord walks and does not walk. He is far away, but He is very near as well. He is within everything, and yet He is outside of everything.|4=[https://vedabase.io/en/library/iso/5/ Isha Upaniṣad 5]}}
 
In the below verse, [[Yama]] is saying the Brahm is present in the inanimate and animate objects of the world.
{{Cquote|I am the food. I am the eater of food.|4=Taittiriya Upaniṣad 3.10.6}}
 
{{Cquote|He who, dwelling in all things,
Yet is other than all things, 
Whom all things do not know, 
Whose body all things are, 
Who controls all things from within, 
He is your soul, the Inner Controller, the Immortal.|4=Brihad-Aranyaka Upaniṣad 3.7.15}}
 
The verse below illustrates that God is the Complete Whole, meaning all-pervasive in this universe and yet, transcendent of it:
{{Cquote|God is perfect and complete, and because It is completely perfect, all emanations from It, such as this phenomenal world, are perfectly equipped as complete wholes. Whatever is produced of the Complete Whole is also complete in itself. Because It is the Complete Whole, even through so many complete units emanate from It, It remains the complete balance.|4=Isha Upaniṣad invocation}}
 
Mahatma Gandhi was very fond of quoting from this Upaniṣadic couplet:
{{Cquote|Whatever is ephemeral in this changing universe is Ishavasya (enveloped by Isha.)|4=Isha Upaniṣad}}
 
The omnipresence of Brahm is related to the interconnectedness of the soul (aikatmyam), because it is this relationship which also helps connect the soul to Brahm for achieving Moksh - realizing Aham Brahmasmi and tapping into the [[Antaryamin]] (Brahm within.)

{{Cquote|That microcosm [within you] is That Universe [outside of you], That Universe [outside of you] is that microcosm [within you.]<ref>Yat pinde tatha Brahmānde yatha Brahmande tatha pinde[https://www.yogapedia.com/definition/9326/yat-pinde-tat-brahmande]</ref>|4=Yajur Veda}}

This concept is mentioned as ''Pind Brahmand [[Nyaya]]. ''

==Oneness of God (Monotheism)==
[[Image:Surya with attendents.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Surya]] as God (in [[Saura]] sectarian context) being worshipped by his attendants and crowds of humans, demonstrating monotheism.]]
[[Image:Cosmic Vishnu.jpg|thumb|250px|Krishna too is sometimes depicted as comprising of the whole universe and to have his abodes outside of the universe (as stated in the ''[[Bhagavad Gita|Bhagvad Gita]]''), demonstrating panentheism.]]
[[Image:Cosmic Jina.jpg|thumb|250px|The whole universe in [[Jain Dharm|Jainism]] too is depicted as a person - referred to as 'Lok Purusha', demonstrating panentheism.]]
[[Image:Cosmic Buddha.jpg|thumb|250px|The whole universe in [[Bauddh Dharm|Buddhism]] too is sometimes depicted as a person, demonstrating panentheism.]]
''Brahm'' and ''Parmatma'' are the generic terms for The One Above All. The Sanskrit term for this is
''ekantikvad'' or ''ekamata.'' How Hindus have practiced monotheism is by worshiping Parmatma by worshiping It as an Ishta-Dev. Even the worship of solely Krishna as Parmatma or God Almighty by followers was referred to ''Ekantika [[Dharma]]'' and ''[[Ekayana]]''. The latter term was used also by Vaiśnavas of the [[Rudra]] Sampraday for worshipers of only Vishnu. Śaiva sects too have enforced monotheism, such as the Alakh Panth and Virasaivs. Monotheism in worship is enforced by a few sects but worshiping God Almighty along with others (demi-gods and ancestors) isn’t forbidden by most sects.

==Oneness of Deities (Henotheism)==
:''See also: [[Worship]], [[God#Oneness of God|Oneness of God]]''
<blockquote>
"This concept of God is panentheistic and even the Vedic theism is nothing but panentheism. It is very well expressed in philosophical hymns like ''[[Puruṣa]] sūkta'', ''Hiranyagarbha sūkta'' and even ''Nāsadīya sūkta''." - Sahebrao Genu Nigal<ref> P. 81 ''Vedic Philosophy of Values'' By Sahebrao Genu Nigal </ref>
</blockquote>It is understood that any kind of worship is accepted by The One Above All, regardless of name or form addressed in worship. The Sanskrit term for this is ''sarvekāntatva'' (“''state of all being a part of one''.”) Even a worshiper who is not Hindu and worships God [or a god] at their church or home, is worshiping God (only in a different way.) This particular viewpoint was so profound to modern scholars studying Hinduism that new terms had to be invented in English just to describe it - 'henotheism'. Then from 'henothenism' came another another term - 'kathenotheism' - meaning to worship 1 god at a time (while recognizing there may be more than a single divine being.) Then in 1828 German philosopher Karl Krause coined the term 'panentheism'.

 
{{Cquote|Of the eternals you are The Chief Eternal, of the sentients you are The Chief Sentient 
The One Chief of the many, that assembles and who is desirable 
Dark (unseeable) and present in the soul who is watching and unwavering 
That eternal peace is a guiding force [within]|4=Katha Upaniṣad 2.2.13<ref> Nityo nityanam cetanas cetananam 
eko bahunam yo vidadhati kaman 
tam atma-stham ye ’nupasyanti dhiras 
tesham shantih sasvati netaresam</ref>}}

 
Even the earlier Mandalas of ''[[Rig Veda]]''<ref>Ṛgveda books 1 and 9</ref> which contain hymns dedicated to devas, are thought to have a tendency toward monotheism.<ref>Macdonell, Arthur Anthony. Vedic Mythology. Forgotten Books (May 23, 2012). P. 17. ISBN 1440094365.</ref> Often quoted isolated pada of the ''Ṛig Veda''<ref>Ṛgveda 1.164.46</ref> states (trans. Ralph T.H. Griffith):

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! English
! Sanskrit
|-
|
{{Cquote|
:They call him Indra, Mitra, Varuṇa, Agni, and he is heavenly nobly-winged Garutmān.
:To what is One, sages give many a title they call it Agni, Yama, Mātariśvan.}}
|
{{Cquote|
:Indraṃ mitraṃ varuṇamaghnimāhuratho divyaḥ sa suparṇo gharutmān
:ekaṃ sad viprā bahudhā vadantyaghniṃ yamaṃ mātariśvānamāhuḥ}}
|-
|}

Further, the ''Rig Veda'' states, “There is only one God, [[worship]] Him“<Ref> Ṛg Veda, 6.45.16 </ref> and “Do not worship any one beside Him“<ref> Ṛg Veda 8.1.1 </ref>. Recognizing that there is a Supreme God above any other divinities is seen in the Vaiśnava mantra “Dev devaya namo nama” and Śaiva mantra “Aum nama Shivay sarvaya deva devaya vai namaha,” both of which proclaim their respective Supreme as the “God of gods.”
 
{{Cquote|Patiṁ patīnāṁ paramaṁ parastāt|4=Śvetāśvatara Upaniṣad 6.7}}
 
The ''[[Brahma Samhitā]]''<ref>Brahma Samhitā 5.45</ref> declares, ''Lord Vishnu is milk; Lord Śiva is yogurt''. Other aspects of God are expansions or aspects of Vishnu or Śiva which is detailed in various [[Purānas]]. Vaiṣnavites, like other Hindus, have tolerance for other beliefs because [[Krishna]], an [[avatara]] of Vishnu, said so in the Gitā. Krishna says:
{{Cquote|Whatever deity or form a devotee worships, I make his or her faith steady. However, their wishes are only granted by Me alone."<ref>Gitā 7.21-22</ref>|4=Bhagvad Gita 7.21-22}}
Krishna also says in the Gitā:
{{Cquote|O [[Arjuna]], even those devotees who worship other lesser [[deities]] e.g., devas, with faith, they also worship Me, but in an improper way because I am the Supreme Being. I alone am the enjoyer of all sacrificial services (Seva, [[Yajna]]) and Lord of the universe."<ref>Gitā 9.23</ref>|4=[https://www.holy-bhagavad-gita.org/chapter/9/verse/3 Bhagvad Gita 9.23]}}
 
The theology of henotheism also applies to the treating of ancestors or other beings as venerable. Because divinity is extended to them by many Hindus, it does not mean that there is a violation of the belief in a One God Above All, but that piety is offered to them in respect.
 
{{Cquote|The Lord of lords is Supreme and beyond them (deities.)|4=Śvetāśvatara Upaniṣad 6.7}}

===Smarta view===
The system prevalent in Hinduism is defined by the Smartha philosophy; this theory allows for the veneration of numerous deities, but on the understanding that all of them are but manifestation of the one divine power.<ref>It is a belief sometimes called kathenotheism.</ref> That ultimate [[divinity]] is termed Brahm or Atman and is believed to have no specific form, name or attribute.<ref>{{cite book
| author = Sivaya Subramuniyaswami
| url = http://books.google.com/?id=EWlHPAkjBKUC&pg=PA425
| title = Dancing with Siva: Hinduism's Contemporary Catechism
| publisher = Himalayan Academy Publications
| year = 2004
| isbn = 0-945497-96-2}}</ref> Only a Smartha, or follower of the [[Advaita Vedanta|Advaita]] philosophy, would have no problem worshiping every imaginable deity with equal veneration; as the view is that all names and forms of deities are merely manifestations of the same God. Other Hindu sects such as [[Vaiśnavism]] and Śaivism conform more closely to a Western understanding of what a monotheistic faith is. For instance, a Vaiṣnavite considers Vishnu as being the one and only true God, an attitude that resonates with that of the [[Abrahamic religions]]. However, it is [[Advaita]] philosophy that defines the Smartha sect of mainstream Hinduism, and imparts to Indic spiritual and religious traditions their renowned liberalism.

===Swaminarayan view===
[[Swami Sahajananda]], founder of the Swaminarayan Sampraday, said in verse 115 of its scripture, “''[[Śikśapatri]] said, ‘[[Sri Krishna]] Bhagvan and Sri Krishna Bhagvan's incarnations alone are worthy of meditation. Similarly, Sri Krishna Bhagvan's images are worthy. And men or [[devas]], even if they are devotees of Sri Krishna Bhagvan or Brahmvetta,<ref>It is knower of [[divinity]].</ref> They are still not worthy of meditation and thus one should not meditate upon them.’''"

The ''[[Brahma Samhitā]]''<ref>It means ''Brahma Samhitā'' 5.45</ref> declares, Lord Vishnu is milk; [[Śiva|Lord Śiva]] is yogurt.<ref>http://vedabase.net/bs/5/45/en Sri Bramha Samhita 5.45</ref> Followers of Swaminaryan are [[Vaiṣnavas]], but differ from the viewpoint attested by Gaudiya Vaiṣnavas who emphasize Śiva as a subordinate demigod expansion of Krishna. For example, Swaminaryan states:
<ref>[http://www.swaminarayanwales.org.uk/Shikshapatri/shikshapatridetails.asp?shlockcode=85 Shree Swaminarayan Temple Cardiff - Scriptures - Shikshapatri]</ref>
{{Cquote|And the oneness of Narayan and Śiva should be understood, as the Vedas have described both to be Brahmarupa (or form of Brahm, i.e., Saguna Brahm), thus indicating that Vishnu and Śiva are different forms of the one and same God. And that [[Ishvara]] is Sri Krishna Bhagvan,<ref> (Sri Swaminarayan Bhagvan</ref> who is supreme [[Para Brahman|Parabrahm]], [[Purushottama|Purushottam]], our [[Ishta-deva]]<ref>It means principal deity.</ref> worthy of worship, and the cause of all incarnations.|4=Shikshapatri 47.84.108}}

===Vivekanandian view===
According to the speech of [[Swami Vivekananda]] in Chicago during 1906, the monotheism of Hindu is not only for Hindu. It can effective for every human living on the earth. The verse,

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! English
! Sanskrit
|-
|{{Cquote|
:It means the rain water fallen from the sky go to the ocean, the same worship of every deity goes to only one God." (Here in this verse God is mentioned as Keshav (one of the name of Krishna). It doesn't matter, you are Hindu or not.
:Every worship goes to that God.}}
|{{Cquote|
:akāsāt patitaM toyam yathā gacchati sāgaram
:sarvadeva namaskārān kesavam prati gacchati}}
|-
|}

==Relation Between Brahm and Individuals==
Sanatan Dharm is essentially to understand the relationship between the Self and self, which is why the phrases "''Aham Brahmasmi''" and "''Ayamatma Brahm''", both of which mean, "''I am part of the Supreme''."

==Upaniṣad Era==
In the time period that the [[Upaniṣads]] were written, worship of gods within Hindus is turning into worship of primarily one god. The ''Chāndogya [[Upaniṣad]]'' states,
{{Cquote|God is only one, not a second.“|4=Chāndogya [[Upaniṣad]] Ch. 6.2.1}}
 
The ''Rudra Upaniṣad'' from the ''[[Atharva]] Shiras Upaniṣad'' reads of Rudra declaring himself as Brahm, and describing his attributes. The text also reads:
{{Cquote|O Rudra, O Ishana, O Maheshwara, O Mahadeva, O lord, for thou art Parabrahm, the one and only god!<Ref> P. 443 ''Researches Into the Nature and Affinity of Ancient and Hindu Mythology'' By Vans Kennedy </ref>}}

==Bhakti movement==
:''See also: [[The Hindu Renaissance#Medieval Renaissance|Bhakti movement]], [[Bhakti]], [[Bhakti Marga|Bhakti Yoga]]''
Krishnaism is one notable instance of Vaiṣnava monotheism popularized in the [[Bhakti movement]]. Krishnaism refers to Krishna with the title ''Svayam Bhagvan'', meaning 'Lord Himself' and it is used exclusively to designate Krishna as the Supreme Lord.<ref name=Gupta20071>Gupra, 2007, p.36 note 9.</ref> Certain other [[Sampradaya|traditions]] of Hinduism consider Krishna to be the source of all emanations,<ref name = jsn>''[[Bhagwan Swaminarayan]] bicentenary commemoration volume, 1781-1981.'' p. 154: ...Shri [[Vallabhacharya]] [and] Shri Swaminarayan...Both of them designate the highest reality as Krishna, who is both the highest avatara and also the source of other avataras. To quote R. Kaladhar Bhatt in this context. "In this transcendental devotion (Nirguna [[Bhakti]]), the sole Deity and only" is Krishna. [http://books.google.com/books?id=_Q0YAAAAIAAJ&q=Avatara+Swaminarayan+Krishna+origina%3B&dq=Avatara+Swaminarayan+Krishna+origina%3B New Dimensions in Vedanta Philosophy - Page 154], Sahajā[[nanda]], [http://books.google.com/books?q=+subject:%22Vedanta%22 Vedanta]. 1981</ref> and the source of Vishnu himself or to be the same as [[Narayana|Narayan]].<ref name = "Delmonico2004">{{cite journal
| author = Delmonico, N.
| year = 2004
| title = The History Of Indic Monotheism And Modern Chaitanya Vaishnavism
| journal = The Hare Krishna Movement: the Postcharismatic Fate of a Religious Transplant
| url = http://books.google.com/?id=mBMxPdgrBhoC&pg=PA31&dq=Vaisnava+monotheism
| accessdate = 2008-04-12
| publisher = Columbia University Press
| isbn = 978-0-231-12256-6
}}</ref><ref name = "Elkman1986">{{cite book
| author = Elkman, S.M.
| coauthors = Gosvami, J.
| year = 1986
| title = Jiva Gosvamin's Tattvasandarbha: A Study on the Philosophical and Sectarian Development of the Gaudiya Vaishnava Movement
| publisher = Motilal Banarsidass Pub
| isbn =

}}</ref><ref name = Dimock1989>{{cite book
| author = Dimock Jr, E.C.
| coauthors = Dimock, E.C.
| year = 1989
| title = The Place of the Hidden Moon: Erotic Mysticism in the Vaisnava-Sahajiya Cult of Bengal
| publisher = University Of Chicago Press
| isbn =

}} [http://books.google.com/books?id=EAYa1BtUTm0C&pg=PA132&dq=Svayam+bhagavan&sig=jcyEA-4tyPoddQmWg-FnYKDBgEY page 132]
</ref> The term is seldom used to refer to other forms of Krishna and/or Vishnu within the context of certain religious texts such as the ''[[Bhagvata Purāṇa|Bhagvata Purāṇa]]''.

Though Krishna is recognized as ''Svayam Bhagvan'' by many,<ref name = "RKm">{{cite book
|author=Mepathur Narayana Bhattatiri
|title=Narayaneeyam-Bhagavata, Condensed Edition
|publisher=Sri Ramakrishna Math
|location=
|year=2003
|pages=
|isbn=81-7120-419-8
|oclc=
|doi=
|accessdate=
}}pp.234-239</ref> he is also perceived and understood from an eclectic assortment of perspectives and viewpoints.<ref name=Mahony1987>{{cite journal
| author = Mahony, W.K.
| year = 1987
| title = Perspectives on Krishna's Various Personalities
| journal = History of Religions
| volume = 26
| issue = 3
| pages = 333–335
| accessdate = 2008-04-12
| doi = 10.1086/463085
| jstor=1062381
}}</ref> When Krishna is recognized to be ''Svayam Bhagvan'', it can be understood that this is the belief of Gaudiya Vaiṣnavism,<ref name=Kennedy1925>{{cite book
| author = Kennedy, M.T.
| year = 1925
| title = The Chaitanya Movement: A Study of the Vaiṣnavism of Bengal
| publisher = H. Milford, Oxford university press
| isbn =

}}</ref> the Vallabha Sampradaya,<ref name = "flood">{{cite book
| author = Flood, Gavin D.
| authorlink = Gavin Flood
| title = An introduction to Hinduism
| publisher = Cambridge University Press
| location = Cambridge, UK
| year = 1996
| isbn = 0-521-43878-0
| url = http://books.google.com/?id=KpIWhKnYmF0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=gavin+flood
| accessdate = 2008-04-21
| page = 341
}}"Early [[Vaiṣnava]] worship focuses on three deities who become fused together, namely Vasudeva-Krishna, Krishna-Gopala and Narayana, who in turn all become identified with Vishnu. Put simply, Vasudeva-Krishna and Krishna-Gopala were worshiped by groups generally referred to as Bhagvatas, while Narayana was worshiped by the Pancaratra sect."</ref> and the [[Nimbarka Sampradaya]], where Krishna is accepted to be the source of all other manifestations and the source of Vishnu himself. This belief is drawn primarily from the famous statement of the Bhagvatam<ref name=Gupta2007/>:<ref name = Rosen>''Essential [[Hinduism]]'' S. Rosen, 2006, Greenwood Publishing Group [http://books.google.com/books?id=VlhX1h135DMC&pg=PA124&dq=Krishna+is+the+original+Personality+of+Godhead&client=firefox-a&sig=2Yojs3j3lTcocPQ7RaIqBnpLrq0 p.124] ISBN 0-275-99006-0</ref>
 
{{Cquote|All of the descents and incarnations are either plenary portions or portions of the plenary portions of the Lord, but Lord Śrī Krishna is the original Personality of Godhead.|4=Srimad Bhagvatam<ref>Śrimad Bhagvatam1.3.28</ref>}}
 
Vaiṣnavism is one of the earliest implicit manifestations of monotheism in the traditions of Vedas. ''Svayam Bhagvān'' is a [[Sanskrit]] term for the original deity of the Supreme God worshiped across many traditions of the Vaiṣnavism as the source of all, the monotheistic absolute Deity.<ref name=Delmonico2004>{{cite journal
| author = Delmonico, N.
| year = 2004
| title = The History Of Indic Monotheism And Modern Chaitanya Vaishnavism
| journal = The Hare Krishna Movement: the Postcharismatic Fate of a Religious Transplant
| url = http://books.google.com/?id=mBMxPdgrBhoC&pg=PA31&dq=Vaisnava+monotheism
| accessdate = 2008-04-12
| publisher = Columbia University Press
| isbn = 978-0-231-12256-6
}}</ref><ref name = "Elkman1986">{{cite book
| author = Elkman, S.M.
| coauthors = Gosvami, J.
| year = 1986
| title = Jiva Gosvamin's Tattvasandarbha: A Study on the Philosophical and Sectarian Development of the Gaudiya Vaisnava Movement
| publisher = Motilal Banarsidass Pub
| isbn =
}}</ref>
<ref name = "Klostermaier1974">{{cite journal
| author = Klostermaier, K.
| year = 1974
| title = The Bhaktirasamrtasindhubindu of Visvanatha Cakravartin
| journal = Journal of the American Oriental Society
| volume = 94
| issue = 1
| pages = 96–107
| accessdate = 2008-04-12
| doi = 10.2307/599733
| jstor = 599733
| publisher = American Oriental Society
}}
</ref> Within [[Hinduism]], Krishna is worshiped from a variety of perspectives.<ref name=Mahony1987>{{cite journal
| author = Mahony, W.K.
| year = 1987
| title = Perspectives on Krishna's Various Personalities
| journal = History of Religions
| volume = 26
| issue = 3
| pages = 333–335
| accessdate = 2008-04-12
| jstor=1062381
| doi=10.1086/463085
}}</ref> However, the Svayam Bhagvan concept refers to the Supreme Being of the Orthodox Gaudiya Vaiṣnavism,<ref name=Kennedy1925>{{cite book
| author = Kennedy, M.T.
| year = 1925
| title = The Chaitanya Movement: A Study of the Vaiṣnavism of Bengal
| publisher = H. Milford, Oxford university press
| isbn =
}}</ref> the Vallabha Sampradaya and the [[Nimbarka]] Sampradaya, where Krishna is worshiped as the source of all other avataras (including Vishnu).<ref name=Ojha1978>{{cite book
| author = Ojha, P.N.
| year = 1978
| title = Aspects of Medieval Indian Society and Culture
| publisher = BR Pub. Corp.; New Delhi: DK Publishers' Distributors
| isbn =
}}</ref>
<ref>[http://srimadbhagavatam.com/1/3/28/en1 ''Bhag'' 1.3.28] Chapter 3: Krishna Is the Source of All Incarnations</ref>
<ref name = McDaniel>See McDaniel, June, ''"Folk Vaishnavism and Thākur Pañcāyat: Life and status among village Krishna statues"'' in {{Harvnb|Beck|2005|p=39}}</ref> A distinguishing feature of the Vaisnava teachings is that God, Krishna or Vishnu,<ref name="Elkman1986"/> is a real person and His variegated creation is also real.<ref name="Elkman1986"/><ref name= Thomson>{{cite journal
| author = Richard Thompson, Ph. D.
| year = December 1994
| title = Reflections on the Relation Between Religion and Modern Rationalism
| url = http://www.iskcon.com/icj/1_2/12thompson.html
| accessdate = 2008-04-12
}}</ref>

Krishna worshiped in Vaiṣnava religion as the Supreme came into being as soon as all creatures came into existence. [[Brahma]] was the first Vaiṣnava. In Gaudiya Vaiṣnavism, Śiva Mahadeva is also a Vaiṣnava; in Śaivism, by contrast, Śiva is the supreme God. The ancient Prajapaties are all Vaiṣnavas. [[Narada]] who is the born child of Brahma, is a Vaiṣnava. Thus pure monotheistic Vaiṣnava religion began with the beginning of history.<ref name="Thomson"/> In the recent times man arrived once again at the instinctive monotheism of the Aryans and Vaiṣnavas.<ref name=Dalmia-luderitz1992>{{cite journal
| author = Dalmia-luderitz, V.
| year = 1992
| title = Hariscandra of Banaras and the reassessment of Vaisnava bhakti in the late nineteenth century
| journal = Devotional Literature in South Asia: Current Research, 1985-8
| url = http://books.google.com/?id=BE40dp6SCFUC&pg=PA281&dq=Vaisnava+monotheism
| accessdate = 2008-04-12
| publisher = Cambridge University Press
| isbn = 978-0-521-41311-4
}}</ref>

A different viewpoint, opposing this theological concept, is the concept of Krishna as an ''avatara'' of Narayan or Vishnu. However, although its is usual to speak of Vishnu as the source of the avataras, this is only one of the names of god of Vaiṣnavism, who is also known as Vishnu to some Vaiṣnava, Narayan to some, Vasudeva, or any of the other Vaiśnava persons, and behind each of those names there is a divine figure with attributed supremacy in Vaisnavism.<ref name = Krishna4>
{{Harvnb|Matchett|2000|p=4}}</ref> The theological interpretation of ''Svayam Bhagvān'' differs with each tradition and the translated from the Sanskrit language, the term literary means "[[Bhagvan]] Himself" or "directly Bhagvan".<ref name=Gupta2007/> Gaudiya Vaiṣnava tradition often translates it within its perspective as ''primeval Lord'' or ''original Personality of Godhead'', but also considers the terms such as ''Supreme Personality of Godhead'' and ''Supreme God'' as an equivalent to the term ''Svayam Bhagvan'', and may also choose to apply these terms to Vishnu, Narayan and many of their associated avatars.<ref> name=Knapp2005>{{cite book
| author = Knapp, S.
| year = 2005
| title = The Heart of Hinduism: The Eastern Path to Freedom, Empowerment and Illumination -
| publisher = iUniverse
| isbn =</ref>

"Krishna is the primeval Lord, the original Personality of Godhead, so He can expand Himself into unlimited forms with all potencies."<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=a2KPChj7lTwC&pg=PA161 page 161]</ref><ref name= ICJKnott>{{cite journal
| author = Dr. Kim Knott,
| year = 1993
| title = Contemporary Theological Trends In The Hare Krishna Movement: A Theology of Religions
| url = http://www.iskcon.com/icj/1_1/knott.html
| accessdate = 2008-04-12
}}..."''[[Bhakti]]'', the highest path, was that of surrender to [[Lord Krishna]], the way of pure devotional service to the Supreme Personality of Godhead".</ref>
Others have translated it simply as "the Lord Himself".<ref name="KK">{{cite book |author=K. Klostermaier |title=The Charles Strong Trust Lectures, 1972-1984 |publisher=Brill Academic Pub |location= |year=1997 |isbn=90-04-07863-0 |quote= For his worshippers he is not an avatara in the usual sense, but Svayam Bhagvan, the Lord himself.|url= http://books.google.com/?id=F_0UAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA109&dq=Svayam+bhagavan |accessdate= |page=206 | others = Crotty, Robert B.}} p.109 Klaus Klostermaier translates it simply as "the Lord Himself"</ref> Followers of Vishnu-centered sampradayas of Vaiṣnavism rarely address this term, but believe that it refers to their belief that Krishna is among the highest and fullest of all ''avatars''<ref name = Pal1958>{{cite book
| author = [[Bipin]] Chandra Pal
| year = 1964, 132 pages
| title = Shree Krishna: Letters Written to a Christian Friend
| publisher = Yugayatri/New India Printing
& Publishing Co.
| quote = First edition published in 1938 under the title of 'Europe asks: who is Shree Krishna'.
| isbn =</ref>

Sri Krishna stands at the top of this series. He is therefore called by his votaries as Purna Avatara or the highest and fullest incarnation of the Lord. and is considered to be the "''paripurna avatara''", complete in all respects and the same as the original.<ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://www.tirumala.org/sapthagiri/122002/purana.htm
|title=Sapthagiri
|publisher=www.tirumala.org
|accessdate=2008-05-03
|last=
|first=
}}</ref> Parashara Maharishi, [[Vyāsa]]'s father had devoted the largest [[Aṅṣa]]<ref>It means part.</ref> in ''[[Vishnu Purāṇa]]'' to the description of Sri Krishna Avatara the ''Paripoorna Avatara''. And according to Lord Krishna's own instructions ''upadeṣa'', "he who knows the secrets of His (Krishna's) Janma<ref>It means birth.</ref> and [[Karma]]<ref>It means actions.</ref> will not remain in [[saṅsāra]]<ref>''punar janma naiti-maam eti''.</ref> and attain Him after leaving the mortal coil."<ref>Bhagvad Gita 4.9</ref> [[Parāsara]] Maharishi ends up [[Añṣa]] 5 with a phalashruti in an identical vein (''Vishnu Purāna''<ref>Vishnu Purāna 5.38.94</ref>.)

The prime supporters of the Krishna-centered theology, Gaudiya Vaiṣnavas and followers of the Vallabha [[Sampradāya]] Nimbarka Samprā[[daya]], use the ''[[Gopala Tapani Upaniṣad]]'',<ref>{{cite book |author=B. V. Tripurari |title=Gopala-tapani Upaniṣad |publisher=Audarya Press |location= |year=2004 |pages= |isbn=1-932771-12-3 }}</ref> ''[[Vedanta Sutras]]''<ref name=Gupta2007/> and other Hindu scriptures such as the ''Bhagvata Purāna'' and the ''[[Brahma Vaivarta Purāna]]'', among others, to support their view that Krishna is indeed the ''Svayam Bhagvan''. This belief was summarized by the 16th century author [[Jiva Goswami]] in some of his works, such as ''Krishna-sandarbha''.<ref name=Gupta2007>{{cite book
| author = Gupta, Ravi M.
| coauthors =
| year = 2007
| title = Caitanya Vaisnava Vedanta of Jiva Gosvami
| publisher = Routledge
| isbn = 0-415-40548-3
}}</ref><ref name=Gupta2004>{{cite book
| author = Gupta, Ravi M.
| coauthors =
| year = 2004
| title = Caitanya Vaisnava Vedanta: Acintyabhedabheda in Jiva Gosvami's Catursutri tika
| publisher = University Of Oxford
| isbn =

}}</ref> While Krishna himself if mentioned in one of the earliest texts of Vedic literature - ''Rig Veda''.<ref>
Sunil Kumar Bhattacharya ''Krishna-cult in Indian Art''. 1996
M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd. ISBN 81-7533-001-5 p.126: "According to (D.R.Bhadarkar), the word Krishna referred to in the expression 'Krishna-drapsah' in the Ṛgveda, denotes the very same Krishna".</ref>

In the sixth book of the [[Hindu epic]] ''[[Mahābhārata]]'', the Bhishma Parva<ref>It is better known as the ''[[Bhagavad Gitā|Bhagvad Gitā]]''.</ref> Krishna offers numerous quotations that reaffirm the belief that he himself is the ''Svayam Bhagvan''. Verse [http://www.asitis.com/7/7.html 7.7] of the ''[[Bhagavad Gitā|Bhagvad Gitā]]'', is often used to support the opinion that Krishna himself is the ''Svayam Bhagvan'', and that no impersonal form of Brahm supersedes his existence, as it is a common view that ''Bhagvad Gitā'' was propounding Krishna-theism before first major proponents of [[Advaita Vedanta|monism of the Smarta school]].<ref name = "IST">{{cite book
|author=
|authorlink=
|editor = S. Devadas Pillai
|others=
|title=Indian Sociology Through Ghurye: A Dictionary
|edition=
|language=
|publisher=South Asia Books
|location=Columbia, Mo
|year=1997
|origyear=
|quote=
|isbn=81-7154-807-5
|oclc=
|doi=
|url=http://books.google.com/?id=P3uD22Ghqs4C&pg=PA283
|accessdate=
|page=403
}}</ref>

==Related Articles==
*[[Cosmogony]]
*[[Cosmology]]
*[[Darshana]]
*[[Divinity]]
*[[Brahm]]
*[[God]]
*[[Devatā]]
*[[Deities]]
*[[Worship]]
*[[Murti Puja]]

==External Resources==
*[http://enlightened-spirituality.org/panentheism.html "Panentheism and the Reality of God"] By Timothy Conway, Ph.D. (Published: October 2, 2015)
*[https://www.academia.edu/19511326/Panentheism_and_Hindu_Tantra_Abhinavagupta_s_Grammatical_Cosmology “Panentheism and Hindu Tantra: Abhinavagupta’s Grammatical Cosmology”] By Loriliai Biernacki

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

[[Category:Theology]]
[[Category:Hindu philosophical concepts]]
[[Category:Forms of worship]]

Devatā

2026-07-06T07:29:27Z

Himanshu Bhatt: /* Divine Council */ added related article piece

By [[User:Shankara Bharadwaj Khandavalli|Shankara Bharadwaj Khandavalli]] and [[User:Himanshu Bhatt|Himanshu Bhatt]]

Devatā or deity is [[a]] multifaceted concept in Sanātana [[Dharma]]. There are very many different aspects of devatā. Apart from object of [[worship]], devatā is [[a]] symbol representing different things in different forms of knowledge. Commonly we see that [[devatās]] are described as having consorts, weapons and vehicles. And they have number of heads, hands and feet. They are also associated with different sets of numbers. All these have different meanings in different senses, when we [[talk]] of different aspects of the devatā. Some of the [[symbols]] become more important or less important based on the aspect we are talking of.

Then there are different likes and dislikes for each devatā. Not having a form and qualities in the human sense, likes and dislikes do not apply to devatā the way they apply to humans. They represent methods that make the devatā easily reachable or in other words, they are the means to realize the devatā.

Broadly, the different aspects of devatā are:

<blockquote>Belonging to a level of [[consciousness]] - transcendental : Devatā represents a faculty of higher [[consciousness]]. Consorts represent the associate [[consciousness]] powers of devatā that are inseparable from devatā. Weapons and vehicles represent powers, instruments and methods that enables one to reach the devatā. Kapāli epithet of [[Śiva]]<ref>It includes the Kapālini aspect of [[Śakti]] too.</ref> is a good example of this, which means that He wears kapālas or in other words resides in the kapālas of the devotees.</blockquote>

Different forms of devatā are said to reside in or rule different worlds. Though devatās pervade all the worlds, we usually apply the word devatā in the seven urdhva lokas, especially from swarga [[loka]] and above.

What is symbolically narrated in general by allegories of gods killing demons is the story of transcendence. There are demons and gods. Demons do evil acts, hurt noble people; gods slay them and protect the noble. In Sanātana [[dharma]], there is nothing that is noble or evil. Everything, good or bad, is seen as a part of evolution of man. Only evil is ignorance of man or nescience that will be transcended by gnosis. Devatā killing an [[Asura]], is also a psychological suggestion. It symbolizes the growth of man over his inner enemies such as hatred and lust that emanate from ignorance and his march towards truth. Gods are the nobler facets of human nature that are manifestations of knowledge and realization. They help man elevate himself to higher states of consciousness by slaying demons. Man himself, by his will power, reaches to those states is another version of the same statement. [[Arjuna]] fighting gods and later knowing that gods were testing him, then taking astras from them, pleading [[Lord Śiva]] to get the Pashupāta, [[Bhima]] defeating the Airāwata of [[Indra]] are accounts of their divine romance and their quest for truth. Their consequent physical victory is an account of how [[dharma]] was established. These stories narrate a moral action followed and inspired by a spiritual realization. In fact the great [[Mahābhārata]] war followed a great discourse on cosmic mechanism and its spiritual principle, [[Bhagavad Gitā]].

;'''Part of Virāt Purusha, a cosmic conception''' 
Devatā is infinite and universal. Devatā is depicted as a part of the Unviersal Being or Virāt [[Puruṣa]]. Also, in the [[worship]] of each devatā the devatā is equated to the Virāt Puruṣa Himself. It is said that the word "[[deva]]" applies up to Paramātma, that is each devatā is not only a part of but also represents the whole of the Eternal. This is to say, the absolute/eternal could be realized through [[worship]] of any devatā.

Devatā is both universal and personal. Devatā is said to grow when man worships. This is the personal aspect. The growth of devatā in man is the development and fulfillment of man's being, material, emotional, intellectual and spiritual.

[[Śri Kṛṣṇa]] says:
<blockquote>
devan bhavayatanena te [[deva]] bhavayantu vah parasparam bhavayantah sreyah param avapsyatha <ref> ''Bhagavad Gita'' 3.11</ref>
</blockquote>

Gods grow when men [[worship]] and please them. They in turn bring about man's well-being. Thus they mutually help each other. Representative of a power of nature: The [[sound]]-form of each devatā's energy is represented by [[Mantra]]. Mantras are of many types like [[stri]] and puruṣa mantras. They have waking and sleeping times. Each [[mantra]] devatā represents a "[[nādi]]" and the active and inactive times of those are represented by this. There are also different ragas in Sangita, which are said to please different devatas.<ref>For e.g. Śivaranjani, Śanmukha priya.</ref>

Yogic : Devatā is a yogic symbol too. The various weapons and associate [[symbols]] of devatā represent methods, clues and instruments to awaken higher levels of consciousness hidden in man. The heads, hands, legs of devatā that are in different numbers, are also such suggestions. Vajrayudha of Indra, Bowl and [[Gadā]] in the hands of [[Gāyatri]], the great Serpant that [[Viṣṇu]] sleeps on and Śiva wears as adornment, [[Garuda]] and Mayura the vehicles of [[Viṣṇu]] and Kumaraswamy that are enemies of snakes, Vṛṣ[[abha]] the vehicle of Union of Śiva and Śakti, Kumaraswamy having Six heads, are all examples. They are all clues to [[yoga]], that the suśumna marga in the spine could be used to awaken the hidden consciousness and union with the divine.

Astronomical : Alternately, Devatā is an astronomical suggestion. Each devatā represents a star or a constellation.

The consorts, vehicles, [[symbols]] on flag, can also be seen in this light. The star closest to another star is depicted as an adornment or consort. A star while rising is followed by another, the latter is said to be the vehicle. While setting the direction changes and the latter gets ahead of the former - in this case the latter becomes symbol on the former's flagstaff. For instance, Mithuna<ref>It means Gemini.</ref> is Parvati-Parameswara Mithuna. When Gemini rises after sunset, Vrshabha<ref>It means Taurus.</ref> rises just ahead of it. Then Parvati-Parameswara become Vrshabha [[Dhvaja]], with Taurus as the symbol on their flag. Before sunrise when Gemini sets, the positions are reversed and it appears above Taurus. Then Śiva-Parvati are Vrshabha [[vāhana]], Taurus becomes their vehicle. [[Durga]] as Siṅha vāhana<ref>It refers to Virgo over Leo.</ref> Kumara Swamy as Mayura vāhana, [[Ganesha]] as Muṣika Vāhana, Manmatha as [[Makara]] Dhwaja are examples.

A devatā killing an [[asura]] is an astronomical symbolism too. If a character A is said to kill a character B, it means that the star symbolized by B sets at the time at which the star symbolized by A rises. If it is an indirect killing then it means that these stars are not diametrically opposite but there is a small time difference between the rise of A and set of B. In general, enmity is to be seen as diametrically opposite. At the time of the set of B, the star nearest to A is said to have helped A in killing B. Indra killing Vritra, [[Rāma]] killing [[Rāvaṇa]], [[Arjuna]] hitting [[Bhiṣma]] with the help of Śikhandi, enmity between Garuda and Sarpa, are examples.

==Divine Council==
Many religions have a divine council of some sort, mentioned even in the early Semitic religions of the Canaanites (headed by El) and Hebrews (headed by Yahweh El Shaddai.)

The [[Arya Samuday]] dharms of Hinduism, [[Bauddh Dharm|Buddhism]], [[Jain Dharm|Jainism]]<ref> P. 31 ''The [[Kalpa]] Sutra, and Nava Tatva :: Two Works Illustrative of the Jain Religion and Philosophy'' By [[Bhadrabāhu]] </ref>, [[Sikh Dharm|Sikhism]]<ref>''Sri [[Guru]] Granth Sahib:'' “''Teen Dev Ar Korr Thaetheesa Tin Kee Hairat Kachh Na Rahee ||''” 
“''The three Devas, and the thirty three crore [Devas], were astonished.''” “''Kott Thaethees Jaachehi Prabh Naaeik Dhaedhae Thott Naahee Bhanddaar ||''” 
“''Thirty three crore [Devas] beg of God the Master; even as He gives, His treasures are never exhausted.''” “''Thith Naam Laag Thaethees Dhhiaavehi Jathee Thapeesur Man Vasiaa ||''” “''The thirty three [Devas] meditate, attached to the Naam; it is enshrined within the minds of the celibates and [[ascetics]].''” “''Kott Kott Thaethees Dhhiaaeiou Har Japathiaa Anth N Paaeiaa ||''” “''Crores and crores of the thirty three [Devas] meditate on Him; there is no end to those who meditate on the Lord.''”</ref>, [[Yungdrung Bon]], and [[Zoroastrianism and Hinduism#Divine Council of 33 Persons|Zoroastrianism]] mention one consisting of 33 Devas (gods); 12 Adityas, 11 Rudras, and 10 Vasus. These were humans of the mentioned 3 [[gotra]] (tribes) who had sociopolitical authority over the matters of governance and spiritual ethics. These persons were worshiped as Parmatma Itself so that worshipers can attain Moksh as the Devas on the council did. The council continued and consisted of representatives from the same gotras. Their assembly was called the Sudharma Devasabha and it was at [[Amaravati]] city on Mt. [[Meru]] (modern Mt. K2.)

This divine council is called in [[Overview Of Scriptures|Hindu scriptures]] ''Trayastrimsati Koti'', in Bauddh shastras ''Trayastrimsa Deva'', in Jain shastras ''Trayastrimsa Dogundak'', in Sikh shastras ''Thaethees'', in Bonpo shastras as ''Sumchu Tsasumpai Liu''<ref> Sum-cu-rtsa-gsum-pa’i le’u, which transliterates in [[Sanskrit]] to Trayastrimshat-parivarta; P. 475 ''Mahamudra: The Moonlight -- Quintessence of [[Mind]] and Meditation'' By Dakpo Tashi Namgyal, Bkra-śis-rnam-rgyal (Dwags-po Paṇ-chen) </ref>, and in Zoroastrian scriptures ''Ratavô Thrayasca Thrisãsca''.

This council, according to the Bauddh ''Digha Nikaya'' II, ''Majjhima'' II, ''Samyutta'' I, and ''Jataka'' VI, would normally convene on the 8th of each month, to hear sermons, and in festival days.<ref> P. 152 ''Śūraṃgamasamādhisūtra The Concentration of Heroic Progress : an Early Mahāyāna Buddhist Scripture'' By Etienne Lamotte and Sara Boin-Webb </ref>

===Achieving authority or godhood===
:''See also:'' [[Rta and Spiritual Authority#Devas|Devas receiving Spiritual Authority]]
To be a God among men or a Devta, one had to be pious in mind, speech, and action.

{{Cquote|Thus, Devās have stablished me in many places with many homes to enter and abide in... I, verily, Myself announce and utter the word that Devās and men alike shall welcome.|4=Rig Veda 10.125.3-5 <ref> [https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10125.htm ''Rig Veda'' Hymn 10.125 (Vak Sukta)] </ref>}}

It is God Itself (Brahm) who bestows authority for humans to receive the name of God (Devānām.)

====Devānām====
;Vishwakarman Sukta
{{Cquote|He who is our Father and Creator, who is the Disposer (Vidhatā), who knows all the worlds of the universe,
He is the Devānām's Name-giver (Nāmadhā); all other beings come to Him to inquire.|4=Rig Veda 10.82.3 <ref> [https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10082.htm ''Rig Veda'' Hymn 10.82.3 (Vishwakarman Sukta)] </ref>}}
This makes it clear that, God, the one who created everything, is the name-giver of the Devānām (those who have received the name of God), and that he is superior to them.
;Hiranyagarbha Sukta
{{Cquote|Āpo, truly all-enveloping-abode, womb possessing-generating-fire,
Those of the Devānām same-return [to] Āsur Ek, to Whom should we offer oblation?|4=Rig Veda 10.121.7 <ref> [https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rvsan/rv10121.htm ''Rig Veda'' Hymn 10.121.7 (Hiranyagarbhā Sukta)] </ref>}}
In this classic sholk, Apo is Āsur Ek or God and it states that the people who have received the name of God (Devānām) return to It. It asks rhetorically, "''To Whom shall we offer oblation?''" It's emphasizing that God is more important than the demigods.
;Devāgāna Sukta
{{Cquote|Of the Devānām, we have knowledge, we say joyfully,
While the hymns are being recited/praised here so that someone may see in the future yuga(s). 
These Brahmaṇaspati produced with blast and smelting, like a Smith, 
Existence, in an earlier age of Gods, from Non-existence sprang. 
Existence, in the earliest age of Gods, from Non-existence sprang. 
Thereafter were the regions born. This sprang from the Productive Power.|4=Rig Veda 10.72.1-3 <ref> [https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10072.htm ''Rig Veda'' Hymn 10.72.1-3 (Devāgāna Sukta)] </ref>}}
This shlok emphasizes that God, who is called Brahmaṇaspati here, is the maker of all, even the Devtas.

===Succeeding Generation to Generation===
This council existed throughout different generations to promote spiritual guidance and political harmony. The successor councils had 33 members who held the same titles in scriptures. This can be seen when Ravan [who postdated the 33 Devas mentioned in the [[Vedas]], as well as earlier generations of avatars] is written in some [[Ramayana]] versions to have attained a boon from [[Shiva]]. Other examples of [[Asuras]] attaining boons from Devas are also of persons who lived later than the original 33 Devas of the Vedas. If there were avatars of [[Vishnu]] before Ravana and other Asuras, then logically Vishnu [like the rest of the 33 Devas’ council] would’ve had to come behind.

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Supreme Being]]
[[Category:Worship]]
[[Category:Core concepts]]

Devatā

2026-07-06T07:12:30Z

Himanshu Bhatt: /* Devānām */

By [[User:Shankara Bharadwaj Khandavalli|Shankara Bharadwaj Khandavalli]] and [[User:Himanshu Bhatt|Himanshu Bhatt]]

Devatā or deity is [[a]] multifaceted concept in Sanātana [[Dharma]]. There are very many different aspects of devatā. Apart from object of [[worship]], devatā is [[a]] symbol representing different things in different forms of knowledge. Commonly we see that [[devatās]] are described as having consorts, weapons and vehicles. And they have number of heads, hands and feet. They are also associated with different sets of numbers. All these have different meanings in different senses, when we [[talk]] of different aspects of the devatā. Some of the [[symbols]] become more important or less important based on the aspect we are talking of.

Then there are different likes and dislikes for each devatā. Not having a form and qualities in the human sense, likes and dislikes do not apply to devatā the way they apply to humans. They represent methods that make the devatā easily reachable or in other words, they are the means to realize the devatā.

Broadly, the different aspects of devatā are:

<blockquote>Belonging to a level of [[consciousness]] - transcendental : Devatā represents a faculty of higher [[consciousness]]. Consorts represent the associate [[consciousness]] powers of devatā that are inseparable from devatā. Weapons and vehicles represent powers, instruments and methods that enables one to reach the devatā. Kapāli epithet of [[Śiva]]<ref>It includes the Kapālini aspect of [[Śakti]] too.</ref> is a good example of this, which means that He wears kapālas or in other words resides in the kapālas of the devotees.</blockquote>

Different forms of devatā are said to reside in or rule different worlds. Though devatās pervade all the worlds, we usually apply the word devatā in the seven urdhva lokas, especially from swarga [[loka]] and above.

What is symbolically narrated in general by allegories of gods killing demons is the story of transcendence. There are demons and gods. Demons do evil acts, hurt noble people; gods slay them and protect the noble. In Sanātana [[dharma]], there is nothing that is noble or evil. Everything, good or bad, is seen as a part of evolution of man. Only evil is ignorance of man or nescience that will be transcended by gnosis. Devatā killing an [[Asura]], is also a psychological suggestion. It symbolizes the growth of man over his inner enemies such as hatred and lust that emanate from ignorance and his march towards truth. Gods are the nobler facets of human nature that are manifestations of knowledge and realization. They help man elevate himself to higher states of consciousness by slaying demons. Man himself, by his will power, reaches to those states is another version of the same statement. [[Arjuna]] fighting gods and later knowing that gods were testing him, then taking astras from them, pleading [[Lord Śiva]] to get the Pashupāta, [[Bhima]] defeating the Airāwata of [[Indra]] are accounts of their divine romance and their quest for truth. Their consequent physical victory is an account of how [[dharma]] was established. These stories narrate a moral action followed and inspired by a spiritual realization. In fact the great [[Mahābhārata]] war followed a great discourse on cosmic mechanism and its spiritual principle, [[Bhagavad Gitā]].

;'''Part of Virāt Purusha, a cosmic conception''' 
Devatā is infinite and universal. Devatā is depicted as a part of the Unviersal Being or Virāt [[Puruṣa]]. Also, in the [[worship]] of each devatā the devatā is equated to the Virāt Puruṣa Himself. It is said that the word "[[deva]]" applies up to Paramātma, that is each devatā is not only a part of but also represents the whole of the Eternal. This is to say, the absolute/eternal could be realized through [[worship]] of any devatā.

Devatā is both universal and personal. Devatā is said to grow when man worships. This is the personal aspect. The growth of devatā in man is the development and fulfillment of man's being, material, emotional, intellectual and spiritual.

[[Śri Kṛṣṇa]] says:
<blockquote>
devan bhavayatanena te [[deva]] bhavayantu vah parasparam bhavayantah sreyah param avapsyatha <ref> ''Bhagavad Gita'' 3.11</ref>
</blockquote>

Gods grow when men [[worship]] and please them. They in turn bring about man's well-being. Thus they mutually help each other. Representative of a power of nature: The [[sound]]-form of each devatā's energy is represented by [[Mantra]]. Mantras are of many types like [[stri]] and puruṣa mantras. They have waking and sleeping times. Each [[mantra]] devatā represents a "[[nādi]]" and the active and inactive times of those are represented by this. There are also different ragas in Sangita, which are said to please different devatas.<ref>For e.g. Śivaranjani, Śanmukha priya.</ref>

Yogic : Devatā is a yogic symbol too. The various weapons and associate [[symbols]] of devatā represent methods, clues and instruments to awaken higher levels of consciousness hidden in man. The heads, hands, legs of devatā that are in different numbers, are also such suggestions. Vajrayudha of Indra, Bowl and [[Gadā]] in the hands of [[Gāyatri]], the great Serpant that [[Viṣṇu]] sleeps on and Śiva wears as adornment, [[Garuda]] and Mayura the vehicles of [[Viṣṇu]] and Kumaraswamy that are enemies of snakes, Vṛṣ[[abha]] the vehicle of Union of Śiva and Śakti, Kumaraswamy having Six heads, are all examples. They are all clues to [[yoga]], that the suśumna marga in the spine could be used to awaken the hidden consciousness and union with the divine.

Astronomical : Alternately, Devatā is an astronomical suggestion. Each devatā represents a star or a constellation.

The consorts, vehicles, [[symbols]] on flag, can also be seen in this light. The star closest to another star is depicted as an adornment or consort. A star while rising is followed by another, the latter is said to be the vehicle. While setting the direction changes and the latter gets ahead of the former - in this case the latter becomes symbol on the former's flagstaff. For instance, Mithuna<ref>It means Gemini.</ref> is Parvati-Parameswara Mithuna. When Gemini rises after sunset, Vrshabha<ref>It means Taurus.</ref> rises just ahead of it. Then Parvati-Parameswara become Vrshabha [[Dhvaja]], with Taurus as the symbol on their flag. Before sunrise when Gemini sets, the positions are reversed and it appears above Taurus. Then Śiva-Parvati are Vrshabha [[vāhana]], Taurus becomes their vehicle. [[Durga]] as Siṅha vāhana<ref>It refers to Virgo over Leo.</ref> Kumara Swamy as Mayura vāhana, [[Ganesha]] as Muṣika Vāhana, Manmatha as [[Makara]] Dhwaja are examples.

A devatā killing an [[asura]] is an astronomical symbolism too. If a character A is said to kill a character B, it means that the star symbolized by B sets at the time at which the star symbolized by A rises. If it is an indirect killing then it means that these stars are not diametrically opposite but there is a small time difference between the rise of A and set of B. In general, enmity is to be seen as diametrically opposite. At the time of the set of B, the star nearest to A is said to have helped A in killing B. Indra killing Vritra, [[Rāma]] killing [[Rāvaṇa]], [[Arjuna]] hitting [[Bhiṣma]] with the help of Śikhandi, enmity between Garuda and Sarpa, are examples.

==Divine Council==
Many religions have a divine council of some sort, mentioned even in the early Semitic religions of the Canaanites (headed by El) and Hebrews (headed by Yahweh El Shaddai.)

The [[Arya Samuday]] dharms of Hinduism, [[Bauddh Dharm|Buddhism]], [[Jain Dharm|Jainism]]<ref> P. 31 ''The [[Kalpa]] Sutra, and Nava Tatva :: Two Works Illustrative of the Jain Religion and Philosophy'' By [[Bhadrabāhu]] </ref>, [[Sikh Dharm|Sikhism]]<ref>''Sri [[Guru]] Granth Sahib:'' “''Teen Dev Ar Korr Thaetheesa Tin Kee Hairat Kachh Na Rahee ||''” 
“''The three Devas, and the thirty three crore [Devas], were astonished.''” “''Kott Thaethees Jaachehi Prabh Naaeik Dhaedhae Thott Naahee Bhanddaar ||''” 
“''Thirty three crore [Devas] beg of God the Master; even as He gives, His treasures are never exhausted.''” “''Thith Naam Laag Thaethees Dhhiaavehi Jathee Thapeesur Man Vasiaa ||''” “''The thirty three [Devas] meditate, attached to the Naam; it is enshrined within the minds of the celibates and [[ascetics]].''” “''Kott Kott Thaethees Dhhiaaeiou Har Japathiaa Anth N Paaeiaa ||''” “''Crores and crores of the thirty three [Devas] meditate on Him; there is no end to those who meditate on the Lord.''”</ref>, [[Yungdrung Bon]], and [[Zoroastrianism and Hinduism#Divine Council of 33 Persons|Zoroastrianism]] mention one consisting of 33 Devas (gods); 12 Adityas, 11 Rudras, and 10 Vasus. These were humans of the mentioned 3 [[gotra]] (tribes) who had sociopolitical authority over the matters of governance and spiritual ethics. These persons were worshiped as Parmatma Itself so that worshipers can attain Moksh as the Devas on the council did. The council continued and consisted of representatives from the same gotras. Their assembly was called the Sudharma Devasabha and it was at [[Amaravati]] city on Mt. [[Meru]] (modern Mt. K2.)

This divine council is called in [[Overview Of Scriptures|Hindu scriptures]] ''Trayastrimsati Koti'', in Bauddh shastras ''Trayastrimsa Deva'', in Jain shastras ''Trayastrimsa Dogundak'', in Sikh shastras ''Thaethees'', in Bonpo shastras as ''Sumchu Tsasumpai Liu''<ref> Sum-cu-rtsa-gsum-pa’i le’u, which transliterates in [[Sanskrit]] to Trayastrimshat-parivarta; P. 475 ''Mahamudra: The Moonlight -- Quintessence of [[Mind]] and Meditation'' By Dakpo Tashi Namgyal, Bkra-śis-rnam-rgyal (Dwags-po Paṇ-chen) </ref>, and in Zoroastrian scriptures ''Ratavô Thrayasca Thrisãsca''.

This council, according to the Bauddh ''Digha Nikaya'' II, ''Majjhima'' II, ''Samyutta'' I, and ''Jataka'' VI, would normally convene on the 8th of each month, to hear sermons, and in festival days.<ref> P. 152 ''Śūraṃgamasamādhisūtra The Concentration of Heroic Progress : an Early Mahāyāna Buddhist Scripture'' By Etienne Lamotte and Sara Boin-Webb </ref>

===Succeeding Generation to Generation===
This council existed throughout different generations to promote spiritual guidance and political harmony. The successor councils had 33 members who held the same titles in scriptures. This can be seen when Ravan [who postdated the 33 Devas mentioned in the [[Vedas]], as well as earlier generations of avatars] is written in some [[Ramayana]] versions to have attained a boon from [[Shiva]]. Other examples of [[Asuras]] attaining boons from Devas are also of persons who lived later than the original 33 Devas of the Vedas. If there were avatars of [[Vishnu]] before Ravana and other Asuras, then logically Vishnu [like the rest of the 33 Devas’ council] would’ve had to come behind.

===Achieving authority or godhood===
To be a God among men or a Devta, one had to be pious in mind, speech, and action.

{{Cquote|Thus, Devās have stablished me in many places with many homes to enter and abide in... I, verily, Myself announce and utter the word that Devās and men alike shall welcome.|4=Rig Veda 10.125.3-5 <ref> [https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10125.htm ''Rig Veda'' Hymn 10.125 (Vak Sukta)] </ref>}}

It is God Itself (Brahm) who bestows authority for humans to receive the name of God (Devānām.)

====Devānām====
;Vishwakarman Sukta
{{Cquote|He who is our Father and Creator, who is the Disposer (Vidhatā), who knows all the worlds of the universe,
He is the Devānām's Name-giver (Nāmadhā); all other beings come to Him to inquire.|4=Rig Veda 10.82.3 <ref> [https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10082.htm ''Rig Veda'' Hymn 10.82.3 (Vishwakarman Sukta)] </ref>}}
This makes it clear that, God, the one who created everything, is the name-giver of the Devānām (those who have received the name of God), and that he is superior to them.
;Hiranyagarbha Sukta
{{Cquote|Āpo, truly all-enveloping-abode, womb possessing-generating-fire,
Those of the Devānām same-return [to] Āsur Ek, to Whom should we offer oblation?|4=Rig Veda 10.121.7 <ref> [https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rvsan/rv10121.htm ''Rig Veda'' Hymn 10.121.7 (Hiranyagarbhā Sukta)] </ref>}}
In this classic sholk, Apo is Āsur Ek or God and it states that the people who have received the name of God (Devānām) return to It. It asks rhetorically, "''To Whom shall we offer oblation?''" It's emphasizing that God is more important than the demigods.
;Devāgāna Sukta
{{Cquote|Of the Devānām, we have knowledge, we say joyfully,
While the hymns are being recited/praised here so that someone may see in the future yuga(s). 
These Brahmaṇaspati produced with blast and smelting, like a Smith, 
Existence, in an earlier age of Gods, from Non-existence sprang. 
Existence, in the earliest age of Gods, from Non-existence sprang. 
Thereafter were the regions born. This sprang from the Productive Power.|4=Rig Veda 10.72.1-3 <ref> [https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10072.htm ''Rig Veda'' Hymn 10.72.1-3 (Devāgāna Sukta)] </ref>}}
This shlok emphasizes that God, who is called Brahmaṇaspati here, is the maker of all, even the Devtas.

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Supreme Being]]
[[Category:Worship]]
[[Category:Core concepts]]

Devatā

2026-07-06T07:11:56Z

Himanshu Bhatt: /* Devānām */

By [[User:Shankara Bharadwaj Khandavalli|Shankara Bharadwaj Khandavalli]] and [[User:Himanshu Bhatt|Himanshu Bhatt]]

Devatā or deity is [[a]] multifaceted concept in Sanātana [[Dharma]]. There are very many different aspects of devatā. Apart from object of [[worship]], devatā is [[a]] symbol representing different things in different forms of knowledge. Commonly we see that [[devatās]] are described as having consorts, weapons and vehicles. And they have number of heads, hands and feet. They are also associated with different sets of numbers. All these have different meanings in different senses, when we [[talk]] of different aspects of the devatā. Some of the [[symbols]] become more important or less important based on the aspect we are talking of.

Then there are different likes and dislikes for each devatā. Not having a form and qualities in the human sense, likes and dislikes do not apply to devatā the way they apply to humans. They represent methods that make the devatā easily reachable or in other words, they are the means to realize the devatā.

Broadly, the different aspects of devatā are:

<blockquote>Belonging to a level of [[consciousness]] - transcendental : Devatā represents a faculty of higher [[consciousness]]. Consorts represent the associate [[consciousness]] powers of devatā that are inseparable from devatā. Weapons and vehicles represent powers, instruments and methods that enables one to reach the devatā. Kapāli epithet of [[Śiva]]<ref>It includes the Kapālini aspect of [[Śakti]] too.</ref> is a good example of this, which means that He wears kapālas or in other words resides in the kapālas of the devotees.</blockquote>

Different forms of devatā are said to reside in or rule different worlds. Though devatās pervade all the worlds, we usually apply the word devatā in the seven urdhva lokas, especially from swarga [[loka]] and above.

What is symbolically narrated in general by allegories of gods killing demons is the story of transcendence. There are demons and gods. Demons do evil acts, hurt noble people; gods slay them and protect the noble. In Sanātana [[dharma]], there is nothing that is noble or evil. Everything, good or bad, is seen as a part of evolution of man. Only evil is ignorance of man or nescience that will be transcended by gnosis. Devatā killing an [[Asura]], is also a psychological suggestion. It symbolizes the growth of man over his inner enemies such as hatred and lust that emanate from ignorance and his march towards truth. Gods are the nobler facets of human nature that are manifestations of knowledge and realization. They help man elevate himself to higher states of consciousness by slaying demons. Man himself, by his will power, reaches to those states is another version of the same statement. [[Arjuna]] fighting gods and later knowing that gods were testing him, then taking astras from them, pleading [[Lord Śiva]] to get the Pashupāta, [[Bhima]] defeating the Airāwata of [[Indra]] are accounts of their divine romance and their quest for truth. Their consequent physical victory is an account of how [[dharma]] was established. These stories narrate a moral action followed and inspired by a spiritual realization. In fact the great [[Mahābhārata]] war followed a great discourse on cosmic mechanism and its spiritual principle, [[Bhagavad Gitā]].

;'''Part of Virāt Purusha, a cosmic conception''' 
Devatā is infinite and universal. Devatā is depicted as a part of the Unviersal Being or Virāt [[Puruṣa]]. Also, in the [[worship]] of each devatā the devatā is equated to the Virāt Puruṣa Himself. It is said that the word "[[deva]]" applies up to Paramātma, that is each devatā is not only a part of but also represents the whole of the Eternal. This is to say, the absolute/eternal could be realized through [[worship]] of any devatā.

Devatā is both universal and personal. Devatā is said to grow when man worships. This is the personal aspect. The growth of devatā in man is the development and fulfillment of man's being, material, emotional, intellectual and spiritual.

[[Śri Kṛṣṇa]] says:
<blockquote>
devan bhavayatanena te [[deva]] bhavayantu vah parasparam bhavayantah sreyah param avapsyatha <ref> ''Bhagavad Gita'' 3.11</ref>
</blockquote>

Gods grow when men [[worship]] and please them. They in turn bring about man's well-being. Thus they mutually help each other. Representative of a power of nature: The [[sound]]-form of each devatā's energy is represented by [[Mantra]]. Mantras are of many types like [[stri]] and puruṣa mantras. They have waking and sleeping times. Each [[mantra]] devatā represents a "[[nādi]]" and the active and inactive times of those are represented by this. There are also different ragas in Sangita, which are said to please different devatas.<ref>For e.g. Śivaranjani, Śanmukha priya.</ref>

Yogic : Devatā is a yogic symbol too. The various weapons and associate [[symbols]] of devatā represent methods, clues and instruments to awaken higher levels of consciousness hidden in man. The heads, hands, legs of devatā that are in different numbers, are also such suggestions. Vajrayudha of Indra, Bowl and [[Gadā]] in the hands of [[Gāyatri]], the great Serpant that [[Viṣṇu]] sleeps on and Śiva wears as adornment, [[Garuda]] and Mayura the vehicles of [[Viṣṇu]] and Kumaraswamy that are enemies of snakes, Vṛṣ[[abha]] the vehicle of Union of Śiva and Śakti, Kumaraswamy having Six heads, are all examples. They are all clues to [[yoga]], that the suśumna marga in the spine could be used to awaken the hidden consciousness and union with the divine.

Astronomical : Alternately, Devatā is an astronomical suggestion. Each devatā represents a star or a constellation.

The consorts, vehicles, [[symbols]] on flag, can also be seen in this light. The star closest to another star is depicted as an adornment or consort. A star while rising is followed by another, the latter is said to be the vehicle. While setting the direction changes and the latter gets ahead of the former - in this case the latter becomes symbol on the former's flagstaff. For instance, Mithuna<ref>It means Gemini.</ref> is Parvati-Parameswara Mithuna. When Gemini rises after sunset, Vrshabha<ref>It means Taurus.</ref> rises just ahead of it. Then Parvati-Parameswara become Vrshabha [[Dhvaja]], with Taurus as the symbol on their flag. Before sunrise when Gemini sets, the positions are reversed and it appears above Taurus. Then Śiva-Parvati are Vrshabha [[vāhana]], Taurus becomes their vehicle. [[Durga]] as Siṅha vāhana<ref>It refers to Virgo over Leo.</ref> Kumara Swamy as Mayura vāhana, [[Ganesha]] as Muṣika Vāhana, Manmatha as [[Makara]] Dhwaja are examples.

A devatā killing an [[asura]] is an astronomical symbolism too. If a character A is said to kill a character B, it means that the star symbolized by B sets at the time at which the star symbolized by A rises. If it is an indirect killing then it means that these stars are not diametrically opposite but there is a small time difference between the rise of A and set of B. In general, enmity is to be seen as diametrically opposite. At the time of the set of B, the star nearest to A is said to have helped A in killing B. Indra killing Vritra, [[Rāma]] killing [[Rāvaṇa]], [[Arjuna]] hitting [[Bhiṣma]] with the help of Śikhandi, enmity between Garuda and Sarpa, are examples.

==Divine Council==
Many religions have a divine council of some sort, mentioned even in the early Semitic religions of the Canaanites (headed by El) and Hebrews (headed by Yahweh El Shaddai.)

The [[Arya Samuday]] dharms of Hinduism, [[Bauddh Dharm|Buddhism]], [[Jain Dharm|Jainism]]<ref> P. 31 ''The [[Kalpa]] Sutra, and Nava Tatva :: Two Works Illustrative of the Jain Religion and Philosophy'' By [[Bhadrabāhu]] </ref>, [[Sikh Dharm|Sikhism]]<ref>''Sri [[Guru]] Granth Sahib:'' “''Teen Dev Ar Korr Thaetheesa Tin Kee Hairat Kachh Na Rahee ||''” 
“''The three Devas, and the thirty three crore [Devas], were astonished.''” “''Kott Thaethees Jaachehi Prabh Naaeik Dhaedhae Thott Naahee Bhanddaar ||''” 
“''Thirty three crore [Devas] beg of God the Master; even as He gives, His treasures are never exhausted.''” “''Thith Naam Laag Thaethees Dhhiaavehi Jathee Thapeesur Man Vasiaa ||''” “''The thirty three [Devas] meditate, attached to the Naam; it is enshrined within the minds of the celibates and [[ascetics]].''” “''Kott Kott Thaethees Dhhiaaeiou Har Japathiaa Anth N Paaeiaa ||''” “''Crores and crores of the thirty three [Devas] meditate on Him; there is no end to those who meditate on the Lord.''”</ref>, [[Yungdrung Bon]], and [[Zoroastrianism and Hinduism#Divine Council of 33 Persons|Zoroastrianism]] mention one consisting of 33 Devas (gods); 12 Adityas, 11 Rudras, and 10 Vasus. These were humans of the mentioned 3 [[gotra]] (tribes) who had sociopolitical authority over the matters of governance and spiritual ethics. These persons were worshiped as Parmatma Itself so that worshipers can attain Moksh as the Devas on the council did. The council continued and consisted of representatives from the same gotras. Their assembly was called the Sudharma Devasabha and it was at [[Amaravati]] city on Mt. [[Meru]] (modern Mt. K2.)

This divine council is called in [[Overview Of Scriptures|Hindu scriptures]] ''Trayastrimsati Koti'', in Bauddh shastras ''Trayastrimsa Deva'', in Jain shastras ''Trayastrimsa Dogundak'', in Sikh shastras ''Thaethees'', in Bonpo shastras as ''Sumchu Tsasumpai Liu''<ref> Sum-cu-rtsa-gsum-pa’i le’u, which transliterates in [[Sanskrit]] to Trayastrimshat-parivarta; P. 475 ''Mahamudra: The Moonlight -- Quintessence of [[Mind]] and Meditation'' By Dakpo Tashi Namgyal, Bkra-śis-rnam-rgyal (Dwags-po Paṇ-chen) </ref>, and in Zoroastrian scriptures ''Ratavô Thrayasca Thrisãsca''.

This council, according to the Bauddh ''Digha Nikaya'' II, ''Majjhima'' II, ''Samyutta'' I, and ''Jataka'' VI, would normally convene on the 8th of each month, to hear sermons, and in festival days.<ref> P. 152 ''Śūraṃgamasamādhisūtra The Concentration of Heroic Progress : an Early Mahāyāna Buddhist Scripture'' By Etienne Lamotte and Sara Boin-Webb </ref>

===Succeeding Generation to Generation===
This council existed throughout different generations to promote spiritual guidance and political harmony. The successor councils had 33 members who held the same titles in scriptures. This can be seen when Ravan [who postdated the 33 Devas mentioned in the [[Vedas]], as well as earlier generations of avatars] is written in some [[Ramayana]] versions to have attained a boon from [[Shiva]]. Other examples of [[Asuras]] attaining boons from Devas are also of persons who lived later than the original 33 Devas of the Vedas. If there were avatars of [[Vishnu]] before Ravana and other Asuras, then logically Vishnu [like the rest of the 33 Devas’ council] would’ve had to come behind.

===Achieving authority or godhood===
To be a God among men or a Devta, one had to be pious in mind, speech, and action.

{{Cquote|Thus, Devās have stablished me in many places with many homes to enter and abide in... I, verily, Myself announce and utter the word that Devās and men alike shall welcome.|4=Rig Veda 10.125.3-5 <ref> [https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10125.htm ''Rig Veda'' Hymn 10.125 (Vak Sukta)] </ref>}}

It is God Itself (Brahm) who bestows authority for humans to receive the name of God (Devānām.)

====Devānām====
;Vishwakarman Sukta
{{Cquote|He who is our Father and Creator, who is the Disposer (Vidhatā), who knows all the worlds of the universe. He is the Devānām's Name-giver (Nāmadhā); all other beings come to Him to inquire.|4=Rig Veda 10.82.3 <ref> [https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10082.htm ''Rig Veda'' Hymn 10.82.3 (Vishwakarman Sukta)] </ref>}}
This makes it clear that, God, the one who created everything, is the name-giver of the Devānām (those who have received the name of God), and that he is superior to them.
;Hiranyagarbha Sukta
{{Cquote|Āpo, truly all-enveloping-abode, womb possessing-generating-fire,
Those of the Devānām same-return [to] Āsur Ek, to Whom should we offer oblation?|4=Rig Veda 10.121.7 <ref> [https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rvsan/rv10121.htm ''Rig Veda'' Hymn 10.121.7 (Hiranyagarbhā Sukta)] </ref>}}
In this classic sholk, Apo is Āsur Ek or God and it states that the people who have received the name of God (Devānām) return to It. It asks rhetorically, "''To Whom shall we offer oblation?''" It's emphasizing that God is more important than the demigods.
;Devāgāna Sukta
{{Cquote|Of the Devānām, we have knowledge, we say joyfully,
While the hymns are being recited/praised here so that someone may see in the future yuga(s). 
These Brahmaṇaspati produced with blast and smelting, like a Smith, 
Existence, in an earlier age of Gods, from Non-existence sprang. 
Existence, in the earliest age of Gods, from Non-existence sprang. 
Thereafter were the regions born. This sprang from the Productive Power.|4=Rig Veda 10.72.1-3 <ref> [https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10072.htm ''Rig Veda'' Hymn 10.72.1-3 (Devāgāna Sukta)] </ref>}}
This shlok emphasizes that God, who is called Brahmaṇaspati here, is the maker of all, even the Devtas.

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Supreme Being]]
[[Category:Worship]]
[[Category:Core concepts]]

Devatā

2026-07-06T07:09:29Z

Himanshu Bhatt: /* Devānām */

By [[User:Shankara Bharadwaj Khandavalli|Shankara Bharadwaj Khandavalli]] and [[User:Himanshu Bhatt|Himanshu Bhatt]]

Devatā or deity is [[a]] multifaceted concept in Sanātana [[Dharma]]. There are very many different aspects of devatā. Apart from object of [[worship]], devatā is [[a]] symbol representing different things in different forms of knowledge. Commonly we see that [[devatās]] are described as having consorts, weapons and vehicles. And they have number of heads, hands and feet. They are also associated with different sets of numbers. All these have different meanings in different senses, when we [[talk]] of different aspects of the devatā. Some of the [[symbols]] become more important or less important based on the aspect we are talking of.

Then there are different likes and dislikes for each devatā. Not having a form and qualities in the human sense, likes and dislikes do not apply to devatā the way they apply to humans. They represent methods that make the devatā easily reachable or in other words, they are the means to realize the devatā.

Broadly, the different aspects of devatā are:

<blockquote>Belonging to a level of [[consciousness]] - transcendental : Devatā represents a faculty of higher [[consciousness]]. Consorts represent the associate [[consciousness]] powers of devatā that are inseparable from devatā. Weapons and vehicles represent powers, instruments and methods that enables one to reach the devatā. Kapāli epithet of [[Śiva]]<ref>It includes the Kapālini aspect of [[Śakti]] too.</ref> is a good example of this, which means that He wears kapālas or in other words resides in the kapālas of the devotees.</blockquote>

Different forms of devatā are said to reside in or rule different worlds. Though devatās pervade all the worlds, we usually apply the word devatā in the seven urdhva lokas, especially from swarga [[loka]] and above.

What is symbolically narrated in general by allegories of gods killing demons is the story of transcendence. There are demons and gods. Demons do evil acts, hurt noble people; gods slay them and protect the noble. In Sanātana [[dharma]], there is nothing that is noble or evil. Everything, good or bad, is seen as a part of evolution of man. Only evil is ignorance of man or nescience that will be transcended by gnosis. Devatā killing an [[Asura]], is also a psychological suggestion. It symbolizes the growth of man over his inner enemies such as hatred and lust that emanate from ignorance and his march towards truth. Gods are the nobler facets of human nature that are manifestations of knowledge and realization. They help man elevate himself to higher states of consciousness by slaying demons. Man himself, by his will power, reaches to those states is another version of the same statement. [[Arjuna]] fighting gods and later knowing that gods were testing him, then taking astras from them, pleading [[Lord Śiva]] to get the Pashupāta, [[Bhima]] defeating the Airāwata of [[Indra]] are accounts of their divine romance and their quest for truth. Their consequent physical victory is an account of how [[dharma]] was established. These stories narrate a moral action followed and inspired by a spiritual realization. In fact the great [[Mahābhārata]] war followed a great discourse on cosmic mechanism and its spiritual principle, [[Bhagavad Gitā]].

;'''Part of Virāt Purusha, a cosmic conception''' 
Devatā is infinite and universal. Devatā is depicted as a part of the Unviersal Being or Virāt [[Puruṣa]]. Also, in the [[worship]] of each devatā the devatā is equated to the Virāt Puruṣa Himself. It is said that the word "[[deva]]" applies up to Paramātma, that is each devatā is not only a part of but also represents the whole of the Eternal. This is to say, the absolute/eternal could be realized through [[worship]] of any devatā.

Devatā is both universal and personal. Devatā is said to grow when man worships. This is the personal aspect. The growth of devatā in man is the development and fulfillment of man's being, material, emotional, intellectual and spiritual.

[[Śri Kṛṣṇa]] says:
<blockquote>
devan bhavayatanena te [[deva]] bhavayantu vah parasparam bhavayantah sreyah param avapsyatha <ref> ''Bhagavad Gita'' 3.11</ref>
</blockquote>

Gods grow when men [[worship]] and please them. They in turn bring about man's well-being. Thus they mutually help each other. Representative of a power of nature: The [[sound]]-form of each devatā's energy is represented by [[Mantra]]. Mantras are of many types like [[stri]] and puruṣa mantras. They have waking and sleeping times. Each [[mantra]] devatā represents a "[[nādi]]" and the active and inactive times of those are represented by this. There are also different ragas in Sangita, which are said to please different devatas.<ref>For e.g. Śivaranjani, Śanmukha priya.</ref>

Yogic : Devatā is a yogic symbol too. The various weapons and associate [[symbols]] of devatā represent methods, clues and instruments to awaken higher levels of consciousness hidden in man. The heads, hands, legs of devatā that are in different numbers, are also such suggestions. Vajrayudha of Indra, Bowl and [[Gadā]] in the hands of [[Gāyatri]], the great Serpant that [[Viṣṇu]] sleeps on and Śiva wears as adornment, [[Garuda]] and Mayura the vehicles of [[Viṣṇu]] and Kumaraswamy that are enemies of snakes, Vṛṣ[[abha]] the vehicle of Union of Śiva and Śakti, Kumaraswamy having Six heads, are all examples. They are all clues to [[yoga]], that the suśumna marga in the spine could be used to awaken the hidden consciousness and union with the divine.

Astronomical : Alternately, Devatā is an astronomical suggestion. Each devatā represents a star or a constellation.

The consorts, vehicles, [[symbols]] on flag, can also be seen in this light. The star closest to another star is depicted as an adornment or consort. A star while rising is followed by another, the latter is said to be the vehicle. While setting the direction changes and the latter gets ahead of the former - in this case the latter becomes symbol on the former's flagstaff. For instance, Mithuna<ref>It means Gemini.</ref> is Parvati-Parameswara Mithuna. When Gemini rises after sunset, Vrshabha<ref>It means Taurus.</ref> rises just ahead of it. Then Parvati-Parameswara become Vrshabha [[Dhvaja]], with Taurus as the symbol on their flag. Before sunrise when Gemini sets, the positions are reversed and it appears above Taurus. Then Śiva-Parvati are Vrshabha [[vāhana]], Taurus becomes their vehicle. [[Durga]] as Siṅha vāhana<ref>It refers to Virgo over Leo.</ref> Kumara Swamy as Mayura vāhana, [[Ganesha]] as Muṣika Vāhana, Manmatha as [[Makara]] Dhwaja are examples.

A devatā killing an [[asura]] is an astronomical symbolism too. If a character A is said to kill a character B, it means that the star symbolized by B sets at the time at which the star symbolized by A rises. If it is an indirect killing then it means that these stars are not diametrically opposite but there is a small time difference between the rise of A and set of B. In general, enmity is to be seen as diametrically opposite. At the time of the set of B, the star nearest to A is said to have helped A in killing B. Indra killing Vritra, [[Rāma]] killing [[Rāvaṇa]], [[Arjuna]] hitting [[Bhiṣma]] with the help of Śikhandi, enmity between Garuda and Sarpa, are examples.

==Divine Council==
Many religions have a divine council of some sort, mentioned even in the early Semitic religions of the Canaanites (headed by El) and Hebrews (headed by Yahweh El Shaddai.)

The [[Arya Samuday]] dharms of Hinduism, [[Bauddh Dharm|Buddhism]], [[Jain Dharm|Jainism]]<ref> P. 31 ''The [[Kalpa]] Sutra, and Nava Tatva :: Two Works Illustrative of the Jain Religion and Philosophy'' By [[Bhadrabāhu]] </ref>, [[Sikh Dharm|Sikhism]]<ref>''Sri [[Guru]] Granth Sahib:'' “''Teen Dev Ar Korr Thaetheesa Tin Kee Hairat Kachh Na Rahee ||''” 
“''The three Devas, and the thirty three crore [Devas], were astonished.''” “''Kott Thaethees Jaachehi Prabh Naaeik Dhaedhae Thott Naahee Bhanddaar ||''” 
“''Thirty three crore [Devas] beg of God the Master; even as He gives, His treasures are never exhausted.''” “''Thith Naam Laag Thaethees Dhhiaavehi Jathee Thapeesur Man Vasiaa ||''” “''The thirty three [Devas] meditate, attached to the Naam; it is enshrined within the minds of the celibates and [[ascetics]].''” “''Kott Kott Thaethees Dhhiaaeiou Har Japathiaa Anth N Paaeiaa ||''” “''Crores and crores of the thirty three [Devas] meditate on Him; there is no end to those who meditate on the Lord.''”</ref>, [[Yungdrung Bon]], and [[Zoroastrianism and Hinduism#Divine Council of 33 Persons|Zoroastrianism]] mention one consisting of 33 Devas (gods); 12 Adityas, 11 Rudras, and 10 Vasus. These were humans of the mentioned 3 [[gotra]] (tribes) who had sociopolitical authority over the matters of governance and spiritual ethics. These persons were worshiped as Parmatma Itself so that worshipers can attain Moksh as the Devas on the council did. The council continued and consisted of representatives from the same gotras. Their assembly was called the Sudharma Devasabha and it was at [[Amaravati]] city on Mt. [[Meru]] (modern Mt. K2.)

This divine council is called in [[Overview Of Scriptures|Hindu scriptures]] ''Trayastrimsati Koti'', in Bauddh shastras ''Trayastrimsa Deva'', in Jain shastras ''Trayastrimsa Dogundak'', in Sikh shastras ''Thaethees'', in Bonpo shastras as ''Sumchu Tsasumpai Liu''<ref> Sum-cu-rtsa-gsum-pa’i le’u, which transliterates in [[Sanskrit]] to Trayastrimshat-parivarta; P. 475 ''Mahamudra: The Moonlight -- Quintessence of [[Mind]] and Meditation'' By Dakpo Tashi Namgyal, Bkra-śis-rnam-rgyal (Dwags-po Paṇ-chen) </ref>, and in Zoroastrian scriptures ''Ratavô Thrayasca Thrisãsca''.

This council, according to the Bauddh ''Digha Nikaya'' II, ''Majjhima'' II, ''Samyutta'' I, and ''Jataka'' VI, would normally convene on the 8th of each month, to hear sermons, and in festival days.<ref> P. 152 ''Śūraṃgamasamādhisūtra The Concentration of Heroic Progress : an Early Mahāyāna Buddhist Scripture'' By Etienne Lamotte and Sara Boin-Webb </ref>

===Succeeding Generation to Generation===
This council existed throughout different generations to promote spiritual guidance and political harmony. The successor councils had 33 members who held the same titles in scriptures. This can be seen when Ravan [who postdated the 33 Devas mentioned in the [[Vedas]], as well as earlier generations of avatars] is written in some [[Ramayana]] versions to have attained a boon from [[Shiva]]. Other examples of [[Asuras]] attaining boons from Devas are also of persons who lived later than the original 33 Devas of the Vedas. If there were avatars of [[Vishnu]] before Ravana and other Asuras, then logically Vishnu [like the rest of the 33 Devas’ council] would’ve had to come behind.

===Achieving authority or godhood===
To be a God among men or a Devta, one had to be pious in mind, speech, and action.

{{Cquote|Thus, Devās have stablished me in many places with many homes to enter and abide in... I, verily, Myself announce and utter the word that Devās and men alike shall welcome.|4=Rig Veda 10.125.3-5 <ref> [https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10125.htm ''Rig Veda'' Hymn 10.125 (Vak Sukta)] </ref>}}

It is God Itself (Brahm) who bestows authority for humans to receive the name of God (Devānām.)

====Devānām====
{{Cquote|He who is our Father and Creator, who is the Disposer (Vidhatā), who knows all the worlds of the universe. He is the Devānām's Name-giver (Nāmadhā); all other beings come to Him to inquire.|4=Rig Veda 10.121.7 <ref> [https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rvsan/rv10121.htm ''Rig Veda'' Hymn 10.121.7 (Hiranyagarbhā Sukta)] </ref>}}
This makes it clear that, God, the one who created everything, is the name-giver of the Devānām (those who have received the name of God), and that he is superior to them.
;Hiranyagarbha Sukta
{{Cquote|Āpo, truly all-enveloping-abode, womb possessing-generating-fire,
Those of the Devānām same-return [to] Āsur Ek, to Whom should we offer oblation?|4=Rig Veda 10.121.7 <ref> [https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rvsan/rv10121.htm ''Rig Veda'' Hymn 10.121.7 (Hiranyagarbhā Sukta)] </ref>}}
In this classic sholk, Apo is Āsur Ek or God and it states that the people who have received the name of God (Devānām) return to It. It asks rhetorically, "''To Whom shall we offer oblation?''" It's emphasizing that God is more important than the demigods.
;Devāgāna Sukta
{{Cquote|Of the Devānām, we have knowledge, we say joyfully,
While the hymns are being recited/praised here so that someone may see in the future yuga(s). 
These Brahmaṇaspati produced with blast and smelting, like a Smith, 
Existence, in an earlier age of Gods, from Non-existence sprang. 
Existence, in the earliest age of Gods, from Non-existence sprang. 
Thereafter were the regions born. This sprang from the Productive Power.|4=Rig Veda 10.72.1-3 <ref> [https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10072.htm ''Rig Veda'' Hymn 10.72.1-3 (Devāgāna Sukta)] </ref>}}
This shlok emphasizes that God, who is called Brahmaṇaspati here, is the maker of all, even the Devtas.

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Supreme Being]]
[[Category:Worship]]
[[Category:Core concepts]]

Devatā

2026-07-06T06:47:40Z

Himanshu Bhatt: /* Devānām */ added section and shloks with contexts/explanations

By [[User:Shankara Bharadwaj Khandavalli|Shankara Bharadwaj Khandavalli]] and [[User:Himanshu Bhatt|Himanshu Bhatt]]

Devatā or deity is [[a]] multifaceted concept in Sanātana [[Dharma]]. There are very many different aspects of devatā. Apart from object of [[worship]], devatā is [[a]] symbol representing different things in different forms of knowledge. Commonly we see that [[devatās]] are described as having consorts, weapons and vehicles. And they have number of heads, hands and feet. They are also associated with different sets of numbers. All these have different meanings in different senses, when we [[talk]] of different aspects of the devatā. Some of the [[symbols]] become more important or less important based on the aspect we are talking of.

Then there are different likes and dislikes for each devatā. Not having a form and qualities in the human sense, likes and dislikes do not apply to devatā the way they apply to humans. They represent methods that make the devatā easily reachable or in other words, they are the means to realize the devatā.

Broadly, the different aspects of devatā are:

<blockquote>Belonging to a level of [[consciousness]] - transcendental : Devatā represents a faculty of higher [[consciousness]]. Consorts represent the associate [[consciousness]] powers of devatā that are inseparable from devatā. Weapons and vehicles represent powers, instruments and methods that enables one to reach the devatā. Kapāli epithet of [[Śiva]]<ref>It includes the Kapālini aspect of [[Śakti]] too.</ref> is a good example of this, which means that He wears kapālas or in other words resides in the kapālas of the devotees.</blockquote>

Different forms of devatā are said to reside in or rule different worlds. Though devatās pervade all the worlds, we usually apply the word devatā in the seven urdhva lokas, especially from swarga [[loka]] and above.

What is symbolically narrated in general by allegories of gods killing demons is the story of transcendence. There are demons and gods. Demons do evil acts, hurt noble people; gods slay them and protect the noble. In Sanātana [[dharma]], there is nothing that is noble or evil. Everything, good or bad, is seen as a part of evolution of man. Only evil is ignorance of man or nescience that will be transcended by gnosis. Devatā killing an [[Asura]], is also a psychological suggestion. It symbolizes the growth of man over his inner enemies such as hatred and lust that emanate from ignorance and his march towards truth. Gods are the nobler facets of human nature that are manifestations of knowledge and realization. They help man elevate himself to higher states of consciousness by slaying demons. Man himself, by his will power, reaches to those states is another version of the same statement. [[Arjuna]] fighting gods and later knowing that gods were testing him, then taking astras from them, pleading [[Lord Śiva]] to get the Pashupāta, [[Bhima]] defeating the Airāwata of [[Indra]] are accounts of their divine romance and their quest for truth. Their consequent physical victory is an account of how [[dharma]] was established. These stories narrate a moral action followed and inspired by a spiritual realization. In fact the great [[Mahābhārata]] war followed a great discourse on cosmic mechanism and its spiritual principle, [[Bhagavad Gitā]].

;'''Part of Virāt Purusha, a cosmic conception''' 
Devatā is infinite and universal. Devatā is depicted as a part of the Unviersal Being or Virāt [[Puruṣa]]. Also, in the [[worship]] of each devatā the devatā is equated to the Virāt Puruṣa Himself. It is said that the word "[[deva]]" applies up to Paramātma, that is each devatā is not only a part of but also represents the whole of the Eternal. This is to say, the absolute/eternal could be realized through [[worship]] of any devatā.

Devatā is both universal and personal. Devatā is said to grow when man worships. This is the personal aspect. The growth of devatā in man is the development and fulfillment of man's being, material, emotional, intellectual and spiritual.

[[Śri Kṛṣṇa]] says:
<blockquote>
devan bhavayatanena te [[deva]] bhavayantu vah parasparam bhavayantah sreyah param avapsyatha <ref> ''Bhagavad Gita'' 3.11</ref>
</blockquote>

Gods grow when men [[worship]] and please them. They in turn bring about man's well-being. Thus they mutually help each other. Representative of a power of nature: The [[sound]]-form of each devatā's energy is represented by [[Mantra]]. Mantras are of many types like [[stri]] and puruṣa mantras. They have waking and sleeping times. Each [[mantra]] devatā represents a "[[nādi]]" and the active and inactive times of those are represented by this. There are also different ragas in Sangita, which are said to please different devatas.<ref>For e.g. Śivaranjani, Śanmukha priya.</ref>

Yogic : Devatā is a yogic symbol too. The various weapons and associate [[symbols]] of devatā represent methods, clues and instruments to awaken higher levels of consciousness hidden in man. The heads, hands, legs of devatā that are in different numbers, are also such suggestions. Vajrayudha of Indra, Bowl and [[Gadā]] in the hands of [[Gāyatri]], the great Serpant that [[Viṣṇu]] sleeps on and Śiva wears as adornment, [[Garuda]] and Mayura the vehicles of [[Viṣṇu]] and Kumaraswamy that are enemies of snakes, Vṛṣ[[abha]] the vehicle of Union of Śiva and Śakti, Kumaraswamy having Six heads, are all examples. They are all clues to [[yoga]], that the suśumna marga in the spine could be used to awaken the hidden consciousness and union with the divine.

Astronomical : Alternately, Devatā is an astronomical suggestion. Each devatā represents a star or a constellation.

The consorts, vehicles, [[symbols]] on flag, can also be seen in this light. The star closest to another star is depicted as an adornment or consort. A star while rising is followed by another, the latter is said to be the vehicle. While setting the direction changes and the latter gets ahead of the former - in this case the latter becomes symbol on the former's flagstaff. For instance, Mithuna<ref>It means Gemini.</ref> is Parvati-Parameswara Mithuna. When Gemini rises after sunset, Vrshabha<ref>It means Taurus.</ref> rises just ahead of it. Then Parvati-Parameswara become Vrshabha [[Dhvaja]], with Taurus as the symbol on their flag. Before sunrise when Gemini sets, the positions are reversed and it appears above Taurus. Then Śiva-Parvati are Vrshabha [[vāhana]], Taurus becomes their vehicle. [[Durga]] as Siṅha vāhana<ref>It refers to Virgo over Leo.</ref> Kumara Swamy as Mayura vāhana, [[Ganesha]] as Muṣika Vāhana, Manmatha as [[Makara]] Dhwaja are examples.

A devatā killing an [[asura]] is an astronomical symbolism too. If a character A is said to kill a character B, it means that the star symbolized by B sets at the time at which the star symbolized by A rises. If it is an indirect killing then it means that these stars are not diametrically opposite but there is a small time difference between the rise of A and set of B. In general, enmity is to be seen as diametrically opposite. At the time of the set of B, the star nearest to A is said to have helped A in killing B. Indra killing Vritra, [[Rāma]] killing [[Rāvaṇa]], [[Arjuna]] hitting [[Bhiṣma]] with the help of Śikhandi, enmity between Garuda and Sarpa, are examples.

==Divine Council==
Many religions have a divine council of some sort, mentioned even in the early Semitic religions of the Canaanites (headed by El) and Hebrews (headed by Yahweh El Shaddai.)

The [[Arya Samuday]] dharms of Hinduism, [[Bauddh Dharm|Buddhism]], [[Jain Dharm|Jainism]]<ref> P. 31 ''The [[Kalpa]] Sutra, and Nava Tatva :: Two Works Illustrative of the Jain Religion and Philosophy'' By [[Bhadrabāhu]] </ref>, [[Sikh Dharm|Sikhism]]<ref>''Sri [[Guru]] Granth Sahib:'' “''Teen Dev Ar Korr Thaetheesa Tin Kee Hairat Kachh Na Rahee ||''” 
“''The three Devas, and the thirty three crore [Devas], were astonished.''” “''Kott Thaethees Jaachehi Prabh Naaeik Dhaedhae Thott Naahee Bhanddaar ||''” 
“''Thirty three crore [Devas] beg of God the Master; even as He gives, His treasures are never exhausted.''” “''Thith Naam Laag Thaethees Dhhiaavehi Jathee Thapeesur Man Vasiaa ||''” “''The thirty three [Devas] meditate, attached to the Naam; it is enshrined within the minds of the celibates and [[ascetics]].''” “''Kott Kott Thaethees Dhhiaaeiou Har Japathiaa Anth N Paaeiaa ||''” “''Crores and crores of the thirty three [Devas] meditate on Him; there is no end to those who meditate on the Lord.''”</ref>, [[Yungdrung Bon]], and [[Zoroastrianism and Hinduism#Divine Council of 33 Persons|Zoroastrianism]] mention one consisting of 33 Devas (gods); 12 Adityas, 11 Rudras, and 10 Vasus. These were humans of the mentioned 3 [[gotra]] (tribes) who had sociopolitical authority over the matters of governance and spiritual ethics. These persons were worshiped as Parmatma Itself so that worshipers can attain Moksh as the Devas on the council did. The council continued and consisted of representatives from the same gotras. Their assembly was called the Sudharma Devasabha and it was at [[Amaravati]] city on Mt. [[Meru]] (modern Mt. K2.)

This divine council is called in [[Overview Of Scriptures|Hindu scriptures]] ''Trayastrimsati Koti'', in Bauddh shastras ''Trayastrimsa Deva'', in Jain shastras ''Trayastrimsa Dogundak'', in Sikh shastras ''Thaethees'', in Bonpo shastras as ''Sumchu Tsasumpai Liu''<ref> Sum-cu-rtsa-gsum-pa’i le’u, which transliterates in [[Sanskrit]] to Trayastrimshat-parivarta; P. 475 ''Mahamudra: The Moonlight -- Quintessence of [[Mind]] and Meditation'' By Dakpo Tashi Namgyal, Bkra-śis-rnam-rgyal (Dwags-po Paṇ-chen) </ref>, and in Zoroastrian scriptures ''Ratavô Thrayasca Thrisãsca''.

This council, according to the Bauddh ''Digha Nikaya'' II, ''Majjhima'' II, ''Samyutta'' I, and ''Jataka'' VI, would normally convene on the 8th of each month, to hear sermons, and in festival days.<ref> P. 152 ''Śūraṃgamasamādhisūtra The Concentration of Heroic Progress : an Early Mahāyāna Buddhist Scripture'' By Etienne Lamotte and Sara Boin-Webb </ref>

===Succeeding Generation to Generation===
This council existed throughout different generations to promote spiritual guidance and political harmony. The successor councils had 33 members who held the same titles in scriptures. This can be seen when Ravan [who postdated the 33 Devas mentioned in the [[Vedas]], as well as earlier generations of avatars] is written in some [[Ramayana]] versions to have attained a boon from [[Shiva]]. Other examples of [[Asuras]] attaining boons from Devas are also of persons who lived later than the original 33 Devas of the Vedas. If there were avatars of [[Vishnu]] before Ravana and other Asuras, then logically Vishnu [like the rest of the 33 Devas’ council] would’ve had to come behind.

===Achieving authority or godhood===
To be a God among men or a Devta, one had to be pious in mind, speech, and action.

{{Cquote|Thus, Devās have stablished me in many places with many homes to enter and abide in... I, verily, Myself announce and utter the word that Devās and men alike shall welcome.|4=Rig Veda 10.125.3-5 <ref> [https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10125.htm ''Rig Veda'' Hymn 10.125 (Vak Sukta)] </ref>}}

It is God Itself (Brahm) who bestows authority for humans to receive the name of God (Devānām.)

====Devānām====
{{Cquote|Āpo, truly all-enveloping-abode, womb possessing-generating-fire,
Those of the Devānām same-return [to] Āsur Ek, to Whom should we offer oblation?|4=Rig Veda 10.121.7 <ref> [https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rvsan/rv10121.htm ''Rig Veda'' Hymn 10.121.7 (Hiranyagarbhā Sukta)] </ref>}}
In this classic sholk, Apo is Āsur Ek or God and it states that the people who have received the name of God (Devānām) return to It. It asks rhetorically, "''To Whom shall we offer oblation?''" It's emphasizing that God is more important than the demigods.

{{Cquote|Of the Devānām, we have knowledge, we say joyfully,
While the hymns are being recited/praised here so that someone may see in the future yuga(s). 
These Brahmaṇaspati produced with blast and smelting, like a Smith, 
Existence, in an earlier age of Gods, from Non-existence sprang. 
Existence, in the earliest age of Gods, from Non-existence sprang. 
Thereafter were the regions born. This sprang from the Productive Power.|4=Rig Veda 10.72.1-3 <ref> [https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10072.htm ''Rig Veda'' Hymn 10.72.1-3 (Devāgāna Sukta)] </ref>}}
This shlok emphasizes that God, who is called Brahmaṇaspati here, is the maker of all, even the Devtas.

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Supreme Being]]
[[Category:Worship]]
[[Category:Core concepts]]

Devatā

2026-07-06T06:34:41Z

Himanshu Bhatt: /* Divine Council */

By [[User:Shankara Bharadwaj Khandavalli|Shankara Bharadwaj Khandavalli]] and [[User:Himanshu Bhatt|Himanshu Bhatt]]

Devatā or deity is [[a]] multifaceted concept in Sanātana [[Dharma]]. There are very many different aspects of devatā. Apart from object of [[worship]], devatā is [[a]] symbol representing different things in different forms of knowledge. Commonly we see that [[devatās]] are described as having consorts, weapons and vehicles. And they have number of heads, hands and feet. They are also associated with different sets of numbers. All these have different meanings in different senses, when we [[talk]] of different aspects of the devatā. Some of the [[symbols]] become more important or less important based on the aspect we are talking of.

Then there are different likes and dislikes for each devatā. Not having a form and qualities in the human sense, likes and dislikes do not apply to devatā the way they apply to humans. They represent methods that make the devatā easily reachable or in other words, they are the means to realize the devatā.

Broadly, the different aspects of devatā are:

<blockquote>Belonging to a level of [[consciousness]] - transcendental : Devatā represents a faculty of higher [[consciousness]]. Consorts represent the associate [[consciousness]] powers of devatā that are inseparable from devatā. Weapons and vehicles represent powers, instruments and methods that enables one to reach the devatā. Kapāli epithet of [[Śiva]]<ref>It includes the Kapālini aspect of [[Śakti]] too.</ref> is a good example of this, which means that He wears kapālas or in other words resides in the kapālas of the devotees.</blockquote>

Different forms of devatā are said to reside in or rule different worlds. Though devatās pervade all the worlds, we usually apply the word devatā in the seven urdhva lokas, especially from swarga [[loka]] and above.

What is symbolically narrated in general by allegories of gods killing demons is the story of transcendence. There are demons and gods. Demons do evil acts, hurt noble people; gods slay them and protect the noble. In Sanātana [[dharma]], there is nothing that is noble or evil. Everything, good or bad, is seen as a part of evolution of man. Only evil is ignorance of man or nescience that will be transcended by gnosis. Devatā killing an [[Asura]], is also a psychological suggestion. It symbolizes the growth of man over his inner enemies such as hatred and lust that emanate from ignorance and his march towards truth. Gods are the nobler facets of human nature that are manifestations of knowledge and realization. They help man elevate himself to higher states of consciousness by slaying demons. Man himself, by his will power, reaches to those states is another version of the same statement. [[Arjuna]] fighting gods and later knowing that gods were testing him, then taking astras from them, pleading [[Lord Śiva]] to get the Pashupāta, [[Bhima]] defeating the Airāwata of [[Indra]] are accounts of their divine romance and their quest for truth. Their consequent physical victory is an account of how [[dharma]] was established. These stories narrate a moral action followed and inspired by a spiritual realization. In fact the great [[Mahābhārata]] war followed a great discourse on cosmic mechanism and its spiritual principle, [[Bhagavad Gitā]].

;'''Part of Virāt Purusha, a cosmic conception''' 
Devatā is infinite and universal. Devatā is depicted as a part of the Unviersal Being or Virāt [[Puruṣa]]. Also, in the [[worship]] of each devatā the devatā is equated to the Virāt Puruṣa Himself. It is said that the word "[[deva]]" applies up to Paramātma, that is each devatā is not only a part of but also represents the whole of the Eternal. This is to say, the absolute/eternal could be realized through [[worship]] of any devatā.

Devatā is both universal and personal. Devatā is said to grow when man worships. This is the personal aspect. The growth of devatā in man is the development and fulfillment of man's being, material, emotional, intellectual and spiritual.

[[Śri Kṛṣṇa]] says:
<blockquote>
devan bhavayatanena te [[deva]] bhavayantu vah parasparam bhavayantah sreyah param avapsyatha <ref> ''Bhagavad Gita'' 3.11</ref>
</blockquote>

Gods grow when men [[worship]] and please them. They in turn bring about man's well-being. Thus they mutually help each other. Representative of a power of nature: The [[sound]]-form of each devatā's energy is represented by [[Mantra]]. Mantras are of many types like [[stri]] and puruṣa mantras. They have waking and sleeping times. Each [[mantra]] devatā represents a "[[nādi]]" and the active and inactive times of those are represented by this. There are also different ragas in Sangita, which are said to please different devatas.<ref>For e.g. Śivaranjani, Śanmukha priya.</ref>

Yogic : Devatā is a yogic symbol too. The various weapons and associate [[symbols]] of devatā represent methods, clues and instruments to awaken higher levels of consciousness hidden in man. The heads, hands, legs of devatā that are in different numbers, are also such suggestions. Vajrayudha of Indra, Bowl and [[Gadā]] in the hands of [[Gāyatri]], the great Serpant that [[Viṣṇu]] sleeps on and Śiva wears as adornment, [[Garuda]] and Mayura the vehicles of [[Viṣṇu]] and Kumaraswamy that are enemies of snakes, Vṛṣ[[abha]] the vehicle of Union of Śiva and Śakti, Kumaraswamy having Six heads, are all examples. They are all clues to [[yoga]], that the suśumna marga in the spine could be used to awaken the hidden consciousness and union with the divine.

Astronomical : Alternately, Devatā is an astronomical suggestion. Each devatā represents a star or a constellation.

The consorts, vehicles, [[symbols]] on flag, can also be seen in this light. The star closest to another star is depicted as an adornment or consort. A star while rising is followed by another, the latter is said to be the vehicle. While setting the direction changes and the latter gets ahead of the former - in this case the latter becomes symbol on the former's flagstaff. For instance, Mithuna<ref>It means Gemini.</ref> is Parvati-Parameswara Mithuna. When Gemini rises after sunset, Vrshabha<ref>It means Taurus.</ref> rises just ahead of it. Then Parvati-Parameswara become Vrshabha [[Dhvaja]], with Taurus as the symbol on their flag. Before sunrise when Gemini sets, the positions are reversed and it appears above Taurus. Then Śiva-Parvati are Vrshabha [[vāhana]], Taurus becomes their vehicle. [[Durga]] as Siṅha vāhana<ref>It refers to Virgo over Leo.</ref> Kumara Swamy as Mayura vāhana, [[Ganesha]] as Muṣika Vāhana, Manmatha as [[Makara]] Dhwaja are examples.

A devatā killing an [[asura]] is an astronomical symbolism too. If a character A is said to kill a character B, it means that the star symbolized by B sets at the time at which the star symbolized by A rises. If it is an indirect killing then it means that these stars are not diametrically opposite but there is a small time difference between the rise of A and set of B. In general, enmity is to be seen as diametrically opposite. At the time of the set of B, the star nearest to A is said to have helped A in killing B. Indra killing Vritra, [[Rāma]] killing [[Rāvaṇa]], [[Arjuna]] hitting [[Bhiṣma]] with the help of Śikhandi, enmity between Garuda and Sarpa, are examples.

==Divine Council==
Many religions have a divine council of some sort, mentioned even in the early Semitic religions of the Canaanites (headed by El) and Hebrews (headed by Yahweh El Shaddai.)

The [[Arya Samuday]] dharms of Hinduism, [[Bauddh Dharm|Buddhism]], [[Jain Dharm|Jainism]]<ref> P. 31 ''The [[Kalpa]] Sutra, and Nava Tatva :: Two Works Illustrative of the Jain Religion and Philosophy'' By [[Bhadrabāhu]] </ref>, [[Sikh Dharm|Sikhism]]<ref>''Sri [[Guru]] Granth Sahib:'' “''Teen Dev Ar Korr Thaetheesa Tin Kee Hairat Kachh Na Rahee ||''” 
“''The three Devas, and the thirty three crore [Devas], were astonished.''” “''Kott Thaethees Jaachehi Prabh Naaeik Dhaedhae Thott Naahee Bhanddaar ||''” 
“''Thirty three crore [Devas] beg of God the Master; even as He gives, His treasures are never exhausted.''” “''Thith Naam Laag Thaethees Dhhiaavehi Jathee Thapeesur Man Vasiaa ||''” “''The thirty three [Devas] meditate, attached to the Naam; it is enshrined within the minds of the celibates and [[ascetics]].''” “''Kott Kott Thaethees Dhhiaaeiou Har Japathiaa Anth N Paaeiaa ||''” “''Crores and crores of the thirty three [Devas] meditate on Him; there is no end to those who meditate on the Lord.''”</ref>, [[Yungdrung Bon]], and [[Zoroastrianism and Hinduism#Divine Council of 33 Persons|Zoroastrianism]] mention one consisting of 33 Devas (gods); 12 Adityas, 11 Rudras, and 10 Vasus. These were humans of the mentioned 3 [[gotra]] (tribes) who had sociopolitical authority over the matters of governance and spiritual ethics. These persons were worshiped as Parmatma Itself so that worshipers can attain Moksh as the Devas on the council did. The council continued and consisted of representatives from the same gotras. Their assembly was called the Sudharma Devasabha and it was at [[Amaravati]] city on Mt. [[Meru]] (modern Mt. K2.)

This divine council is called in [[Overview Of Scriptures|Hindu scriptures]] ''Trayastrimsati Koti'', in Bauddh shastras ''Trayastrimsa Deva'', in Jain shastras ''Trayastrimsa Dogundak'', in Sikh shastras ''Thaethees'', in Bonpo shastras as ''Sumchu Tsasumpai Liu''<ref> Sum-cu-rtsa-gsum-pa’i le’u, which transliterates in [[Sanskrit]] to Trayastrimshat-parivarta; P. 475 ''Mahamudra: The Moonlight -- Quintessence of [[Mind]] and Meditation'' By Dakpo Tashi Namgyal, Bkra-śis-rnam-rgyal (Dwags-po Paṇ-chen) </ref>, and in Zoroastrian scriptures ''Ratavô Thrayasca Thrisãsca''.

This council, according to the Bauddh ''Digha Nikaya'' II, ''Majjhima'' II, ''Samyutta'' I, and ''Jataka'' VI, would normally convene on the 8th of each month, to hear sermons, and in festival days.<ref> P. 152 ''Śūraṃgamasamādhisūtra The Concentration of Heroic Progress : an Early Mahāyāna Buddhist Scripture'' By Etienne Lamotte and Sara Boin-Webb </ref>

===Succeeding Generation to Generation===
This council existed throughout different generations to promote spiritual guidance and political harmony. The successor councils had 33 members who held the same titles in scriptures. This can be seen when Ravan [who postdated the 33 Devas mentioned in the [[Vedas]], as well as earlier generations of avatars] is written in some [[Ramayana]] versions to have attained a boon from [[Shiva]]. Other examples of [[Asuras]] attaining boons from Devas are also of persons who lived later than the original 33 Devas of the Vedas. If there were avatars of [[Vishnu]] before Ravana and other Asuras, then logically Vishnu [like the rest of the 33 Devas’ council] would’ve had to come behind.

===Achieving authority or godhood===
To be a God among men or a Devta, one had to be pious in mind, speech, and action.

{{Cquote|Thus, Devās have stablished me in many places with many homes to enter and abide in... I, verily, Myself announce and utter the word that Devās and men alike shall welcome.|4=Rig Veda 10.125.3-5 <ref> [https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10125.htm ''Rig Veda'' Hymn 10.125 (Vak Sukta)] </ref>}}

It is God Itself (Brahm) who bestows authority for humans to receive the name of God (Devānām.)

====Devānām====
{{Cquote|Āpo, truly all-enveloping-abode, womb possessing-generating-fire,
those of the Devānām same-return [to] Āsur Ek, to Whom should we offer oblation?|4=Rig Veda 10.121.7 <ref> [https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rvsan/rv10121.htm ''Rig Veda'' Hymn 10.121.7 (Hiranyagarbhā Sukta)] </ref>}}
In this classic sholk, Apo is Āsur Ek or God and it states that the people who have received the name of God (Devānām) return to It. It asks rhetorically, "''To Whom shall we offer oblation?''" It's emphasizing that God is more important than the demigods.

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Supreme Being]]
[[Category:Worship]]
[[Category:Core concepts]]

Shatata-Unnati

2026-07-06T05:19:04Z

Himanshu Bhatt: /* Hindu influence internationally */

{{Author|Himanshu Bhatt}}
'Shatata-Unnati' is ''continual change'', 'abhyas' means improvement, 'kram-parivartanam' is ''incremental reformation'', while 'shodhanam' is ''refinement''. All of these terms are descriptive of Hindu society throughout the ages.

Continual social betterment has been one of the defining characteristics of Hindu society. All major cultures have had evils in their histories, including Hindu societies, but the shining examples to enforce positive changes and adaptability to a changing world are the Hinduism, Christianity, and Judaism.

In an era wherein colonial norms meant imprisonment or executions for speaking out against imperial rule, Mahatma Gandhi challenged the ideas of forcing nations to be subservient, fighting oppression by violence, and purging one's own nation of evils (i.e., inequality and superstition.) Today, much of the world still looks to Gandhi's perseverance to bring positive change into society.

Transformation of India's political systems made India into the world's largest democracy, and for accomplishing that, [[Indian Freedom Fighters#INC's Hindu activist roots|Hindu doctrines were rationalize to promote democracy]]. Even in India's political spectrum, Hindu principles were used to make liberalism and communism resonate with people, like Ram Rajya being a communist utopia. Some of the Communist Party of India's [[Indian Freedom Fighters#CPI's Hindu activist roots|founders were idealogues for both communism and Hinduism]], such as Swami Kumaranand, Swami Satyabhakt, and Swami Sahajanand Saraswati, as well as Keezhedathu Damodaran, Radhamohan Gokulji, and Rahul Sankrityayan.

==Comparison in societal reformation (India and Europe)==
:''See also: [[Contribution of Hindu Diaspora]]''
Whereas even in modern times, in most European Christian societies, witch-hunts and slavery were the norm, in Indian Hindu societies, widow-burning was the norm among certain communities (usually northwestern) and caste prejudice was prevalent. Both the Christian and Hindu communities worked to extinguish these and other evils.

Historical societal injustices have been acknowledged and reconciled. Even today, the lasting legacy of important Hindu reformers is visible wherein quotas employment and educational quotas are implemented for social upward mobility to ensure poorer castes and women do not fall behind.

During the colonial era, as human rights improved in Western societies as results from agricultural/economic advancements, Western writers of non-Christian societies took a chauvinistic, parochialist, and Eurocentric approach towards Hindu societies, claiming that they:
#Would never improve in human rights, morality, or rationality
#Are permanently stagnant
#Cannot produce modern or political economic institutions

Critics of the colonial era were proven wrong in these concrete ways:
#Large-scale societal reforms led by Hindu activists themselves improved Hindu societies — i.e., promoting window remarriage and caste integration while also creating quotas for females and historically-disadvantaged castes
#Rapid expansion of education and intellectual mobility — i.e., growth of global Hindu academic presence
#Global economic and corporate leadership — i.e., entrepreneurship and CEOs of major multinational companies like Adobe, Google, and Microsoft
#Democratic political evolution — i.e., maintaining electoral democracies like Hindu-majority nations, providing peaceful transfers of power, and granting significant autonomy to judiciary, press, and civil societies
#Religious and philosophical continuity + adaptation
#Ritual practice has diversified massively by religion and class — i.e., clerics ([[Rta and Spiritual Authority|priests]] and [[ascetics|monks]]) are from many backgrounds
#Reinterpretation of scriptures became internationally influential — i.e., Aldous Huxley loved the perennialism of Upanishads, Erwin Schrödinger the idea of aikatmyam, and Henry David Thoreau that of Ishavasyam
#Non-Hindus from outside of the Indian Subcontinent have converted to Sanatan Dharm and have promoted the religion — James Donald Walters who founded Ananda Sangha, Richard Alpert who founded Hanuman Foundation, John Edwin Favors who founded iFast[https://ifastdc.com/][https://ifastglobal.com/], and Robert Hansen who founded Saiva Siddhanta Church[https://www.himalayanacademy.com/]
#Hindu-based intellectual practices have popularized globally — i.e., [[Ayurveda|Ayurvedic medicine]], divination, political activism, [[Animal rights#Influence upon Westerners|animal rights]], [[Animal_rights#Vegetarianism|vegetarianism]], and [[yoga]]

==Hindu-led social betterment==
What is extraordinary in the case of India is that it was the religious institutions ([[Organizations|Hindu organizations]] and [[Hindu Post-Secondary Institutes|schools]]) that made revolutionary changes, not normally secular or non-Hindu ones. Practicing Hindus saw that superstitious and chauvinistic practices had become institutionalized (caste system and misogyny) within Hindu society, so they formed associations to help, uplift, educate the destitute. They would even go steps further to privilege the marginalized through reservations.

Even women who were more exploratory and not members of specific religions engaged with Hinduism positively. The best example might be Annette Beveridge, an Englishwoman who was the daughter of a Unitarian Christian herself became affiliated with Keshub Chandra Sen in England. She was drawn to his lectures and this fascination with his philosophy inspired her to begin life in India, where she even established<ref>Its expenses were financed by Ananda Mohan Bose and Durga Mohan Das, Dwarkanath Ganguly was its headmaster, and others Brahmos involved with the school were Sibnath Sastri and Monomohun Ghose.</ref> the Hindu Mahila Vidyalaya (''Hindu Women's School''.) Her husband Henry Beveridge was an orientalist (westerners intrigued with Asian cultures) working in India, meaning they were not Westerners critical of Hindu identity. Mrs. Emily Phear was an honorary teacher, and she too was involved in Brahmo Samaji circles for societal development. (Her husband Sir John Budd Phear helped Brahmo Samaj legally.) A non-Hindu that likewise began a girls school (Hindu Female School[https://www.bethunecollegiateschool.com/]) with Brahmos and other Hindus was John Bethune, whose accomplices were Dakshinaranjan Mukherjee, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Ramgopal Ghosh, and Madanmohan Tarkalanka (the last even taught at the school without pay.) Others foreign women in India that engaged positively with Hindu activist organizations were Mary Carpenter[https://southasianbritain.org/people/mary-carpenter/] and Sophia Dobson Collet with Brahmo Samaj, Alma B.R.A. with Arya Samaj, and Mary Hobson with Prarthana Samaj[https://puneprarthanasamaj.org/].

Hindu women that set women's rights activism into motion were Arya Samaj's Lajwanti Sood and Satyavati Devi, and Brahmo Samaj's Kadambini Ganguly and Sarala Devi Chaudhurani. Swarnakumari Devi was both an Arya Samaji and a Brahmo Samaji.
[[image:Dr. Anandi Gopal Joshi.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Dr. Anandi Gopal Joshi in 1886 marking a milestone with 2 other Asian women.]]
What is also worth mentioning is that there were women not members of sociopolitical organizations who pursued and achieved new societal achievements, showing that many Hindu women thought for themselves. Dr. Anandibai Joshi was India's first female doctor to trained in Western medicine. Her education and trip to U.S. was funded by [[Shatata-Unnati#Shahu's royal authority to implement reforms|Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj]]. Upon return, he even funded her return journey and offer her supervisory role at Kolhapur's largest hospital[https://old.rcsmgmc.ac.in/]. Foundations[https://anandibai.org/resources/], institutions (i.e., Dr. Anandi Gopal Higher Education & Medical Facilities), awards (i.e., IRDS's[https://ngosindia.org/uttar-pradesh-ngos/irds-institute-for-research-documentation-in-social-sciences-lucknow/] Anandibai Joshi Award for Medicine), and scholarships (i.e., Dr. Anandi Gopal Scholarship Scheme) are named after her in commemoration. (Dr. Anandi Gopal Higher Education & Medical Facilities itself is a collaboration between the U.S. university she graduated in (DUCM[https://drexel.edu/medicine/news-events/publications/pulse/spring-2018/]) and SMCW. She let people know that she was not ashamed of being a Hindu. She was often pressured by Christian missionaries to convert[https://knowledge.lancashire.ac.uk/id/eprint/48487/1/bharadwaj-et-al-2023-journey-across-the-world-to-study-medicine-the-anandi-joshi-story.pdf]. Dr. Anandi had written her thesis, "Obstetrics among the Aryan Hindus", containing references from both the traditional Ayurvedic (''Susruta Samhita'' and ''Charaka Samhita'') and modern American medical literatures. (Mentionable is that although her husband Gopalrao Joshi's relentless, public letter-writing campaigns and essays targeted Lokmanya Tilak for being not liberal enough and Justice Ranade for being too liberal Tilak's ''Kesari'' and ''Mahratta'' newspapers glorified Dr. Joshi as a rolemodel for women.)

===Female upliftment===
:''See also: [[Indian Freedom Fighters]] 
;Theosophical Society wing
[[image:Paris Women's Congress.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Dr. Reddy and 3 Indian women at the Paris Women's Congress (1926.)]]
The top 3 champions who politically improved Indian women's rights in the modern era were foreigners — Dr. Annie Besant, Dorothy Jinarajadasa, and Margaret Cousins. They did not tell Indian women to leave Hinduism but rather they themselves became Hindu in practice and Indian in habit. They then sought to restore the Vedic-era of womanhood wherein women had authority (i.e., to become clerics, scholars, and leaders.) Emma Mitchell (American) and Francesca Arundale (English) greatly contributed to building of Hindu educational institutions (i.e., Central Hindu College.)

Dr. Muthulakshmi Reddy is a big name in female rights, and she was influenced by Dr. Besant in her college years (1907-1912) and was guided by Dr. Besant in both her social reform and political work. She worked with Dr. Besant and others to establish the Women's Indian Association (1917.) After Dr. Besant's death, she took over the presidency of the WIA. Gandhi was another major mentor but Reddy never formally joined the INC but sometimes protested colonial injustices (i.e., Gandhi's arrest.)

;Ramakrishna Mission wing
[[image:Nivedita & Vivekanand.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Nivedita with Vivekanand.]]
[[Niveditā, Sister|Sister Nivedita (Margaret Noble)]], a convert from Ireland became a disciple of [[Swami Vivekananda|Swami Vivekanand]] and joined Aurobindo's Dawn Society and had also founded and ran girls' schools in Kolkata (i.e., Ramakrishna Sarada Mission Sister Nivedita Girls' School[https://www.sisterniveditagirlsschool.org/home.html] in Baghbazar) to educate girls who had little to no access to education (i.e., poorest of the poor.) She advocated for women's intellectual and moral development, influenced by Vivekanand's vision of strong Indian womanhood. Her work included lectures, fundraising (India, England, and U.S.), and writings that promoted gender equality in access to knowledge and opportunities. She had worked with Dr. Annie Besant at times. Likewise, Sister Christine, disciple of Vivekanand, is another example of a Westerner who utilized the Ramakrishna Mission and Vivekanand's circles as vehicles for improving female rights in India.

;INC wing
:''See also: [[Indian Freedom Fighters#INC's Hindu activist roots|INC's Hindu activist roots]] 
[[image:Nellie Sen Gupta.jpg|right|thumb|100px|N.S. Gupta.]]
Nellie Sen Gupta[https://www.thedailystar.net/in-focus/news/deshpriya-jatindra-mohan-nellie-sengupta-2036981] (nee Edith Ellen Gray) had married freedom fighter Jatindra Mohan Sen Gupta, and both joined the INC — she also founded Deepali Sangha, a women's organization aimed at promoting social and political awareness, leadership, training, and empowerment among women. Her husband passed away but she was advised to stay in the-then East Pakistan to take care of Hindu rights, which she did. Umadevi (born Wanda Dynowska), a Polish convert to Sanatan Dharm too championed women's rights in India and translated ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'', ''[[Mahabharata]]'', ''[[Ramayana]]'', and other [[Hindu Scriptures|Hindu and Bauddh literature]] into Polish. Mira Behn (born Madeleine Slade), the daughter of a British Royal Navy admiral, gave up her affluent lifestyle to become Gandhi's servant in India.
[[image:Sarla Behn Chipko Movement.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Sarla Behn's Chipko act[https://www.adda247.com/school/chipko-movement/].]]
Sarla Behn[https://growbilliontrees.com/blogs/knowledge/sarla-behn-tree-nurturing-nature-and-empowering-communities-for-a-sustainable-future?srsltid=AfmBOoq4h0d0skQBNr4w4zOvISuhYz02_EXtPvD3pUoQYjTlcvNHEbQ-#fullcontent] (born Catherine Mary Heilman) from England setup the Lakshmi Ashram Kausani in 1946 within Uttarakhand to uplift women, after having lived in the Sevagram Ashram[https://gandhiashramsevagram.org/] in Maharashtra. The organization educated rural hill girls academically, trained women of self-reliance and industrial skills (i.e., khadi weaving), taught personal care (i.e., literacy, hygiene, anti-liquor campaigns), and promoted [[Environmentalism|ecological awareness]] (Chipko Movement.) It also worked with the INC to encourage nationalist fervour. Lakshmi Ashram individual units were known as Mahila Mandals. This ashram attracted foreign residents intrigued with Sanatan Dharm even after independence, like David Hopkins, who relocated to there in the 1990's.
[[image:Durgabai Deshmukh.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Dr. D.D.]]
Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh, pupil of Gandhi and freedom fighter in the colonial era, established the Central Social Welfare Board (1953.) She later became president of the All India Women's Conference (1931.) Taraben Premchand is an important mention, as she was an important member of this organization, as well as the Jain Mahila Parishad[https://www.dbjainsabha.com], Jyoti Sangh[https://jyotisangh.org/about-us/] (local women's advancement group in Gujarat), and Shraddhanand Ashram[https://shraddhanandmahilashram.org/].

Madeleine Rolland was Women's International League for Peace and Freedom's[https://www.wilpf.org/] French section and never settled in India. However, upon engaging with Hindu culture in the 1920's, she translated Ananda Coomaraswamy's ''[[Nataraja Dasakam|The Dance of Shiva]]'' into French, introducing Hinduism to the-then residents of France. She also translated Rabindranath Tagore's writings of Sanatan themes and universal humanism, helping popularize them in Europe. She welcomed Gandhi on his visit to Marseille, France. [[image:Kanuparti Varalakshmamma.jpg|right|thumb|100px|'Sarada'.]]
Kanuparti Varalakshmamma (alias 'Sarada'), a devout Gandhian, used Hindu themes like providing ethical refences (i.e., Savitri, Sita) to depict women's morality, dignity, and conduct. She often engaged with the idea of a grihalakshmi (idea woman of the household.) She also founded the Stree Hitaishini Mandali for uplifting women. She used ''Andhra Patrika'', a newspaper created by a promoter of the ''Bhagavad Gita'', Kasinathuni Nageswara Rao, to preach her ideas.
[[image:Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit.jpg|right|thumb|100px|'Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit'.]]
It is also noteworthy that the 1st female head of government in the world was a [[Bauddh Dharm|Bauddh]] (Sirimavo Bandaranaike of Sri Lanka, non-INC member), and 2nd was a Hindu (Indira Gandhi, INC member.) Also Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit[https://news.un.org/en/story/2024/03/1147327] (born Swaroop Rani Nehru) played a significant role in global representation of women, particularly in the United Nations. She was the first woman to serve as the President of the UN General Assembly (1953-1954), a position she held to advocate for decolonization and the independence of countries in Asia and Africa. She was also the first Indian woman to hold a cabinet rank in a provincial government. Hansa Mehta[https://india.un.org/en/311450-hansa-mehta%E2%80%99s-life-story-continues-inspire] had an impact on the UN's constitution wording wherein "''all human beings''" instead of "all men" in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. (She was also one of only 2 women delegates working alongside Eleanor Roosevelt in the UN Human Rights Commission 1946-48.)
[[image:Nilla Cram Cook.jpg|right|thumb|100px|'Nilla Nagini Devi'.]]
Nilla Cram Cook, an American who settled at Gandhi's ashrams, had [[Conversion|converted to Hinduism]] in the 1930's but identified with the '[[Samyag Darshan#Samadarshan|sarva dharma sambhava]]' ideal, so considered herself a [[Bhakta|devotee]] of not only [[Krishna]] but of Jesus too, and so she later also translated the Quran and engaged with Islamic practices in a syncretic way with her Hindu and Christian customs. Her final literary work was ''The Way of the Swam: Poems of Kashmir'' (1958), which was mostly focused around the [[Saiva|Shaiv]] mystic poetess Lal Ded[https://hindupost.in/society-culture/lal-ded-her-life-and-works/#][https://homegrown.co.in/homegrown-voices/the-poetry-of-lal-ded-mysticism-resistance-the-female-voice-in-14th-century-kashmir] and others from Kashmir syncretic Sanatan-[[Bauddh Dharm|Bauddh]]-[[Sufism with Vaishnavism|Sufi]] tradition. She dedicated the book to Pandit. She didn't work on women's upliftment directly but did participate with Gandhi's Harijan Sevak Sangh. She had also written about Sarojini Naidu (1st Indian woman-president of the INC.)

;Other associations
[[image:Maharani Chimnabai Gaekwad II.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Maharani Chimnabai.]]
[[image:Sethu Parvathi Bayi.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Junior Queen Bayi.]]
The National Council of Women in India[https://www.ncwi.in/], founded 1925, was also a monumental organization to make progress for women — it mainly focused on female literacy, vocational training, public participation, and legal reform. It was primarily the initiative of Lady Meherbai Tata, a Mazdaean icon, and its first president was Maharani Chimnabai Gaekwad II, born Gajrabai Ghatge, a princess of Dewas (M.P.) She supported societal progress of women that did not compromise on Hindu identity (i.e., traditional customs like wearing sari and sindhoor or like celebrating Raksha Bandhan), which is how she framed her ''The Position of Women in Indian Life'' book. She financed schools for girls, as well as Hindu charities and temples. The Gaekwad family also funded libraries and women's institutions and social reform initiatives. She discussed the eradication or the purdah, child marriage, women's restrictions (i.e., obtaining education and employment), and other obstacles towards advancement. Following her presidentship, Sethu Parvathi Bayi took over. She was from the royal family of Travancore (Kerala), and her family was deeply connected to the Padmanabhaswamy Temple[https://spst.in/][https://www.padmanabhaswamytemple.com/]. She financed Hindu institutions as well. It is notable that Sucharu Deo, daughter of Brahmo leader K.C. Sen was a prominent member and she had also helped build the Maharani Girls' High School[https://school.banglarshiksha.gov.in/ws/website/index/19013701705] in Darjeeling (W.B.) together with her sister (Suniti) and Hemlata Sarkar, daughter of Brahmo leader Sibnath Sastri.

From Hindu-based institutions like sociopolitical organizations and schools came a number of philanthropic associations.
;Most influential persons for women's upliftment
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Area of Contribution
! Meaning
! Steps Taken
! Activists
! Organizations
! Founder's Affiliation(s)
|-
|Political rights and visibility
|1. Women appearing in public political spaces 2. Women being recognized as leaders (not just participants) 3. Changing social norms about women's public roles 4. Symbolic representation
|Helped institutionalize women's leadership through bodies like Women's Indian Association
|Dr. Annie Besant (women's political rights + organizational leadership), Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay (political participation, economic empowerment, cooperatives), Margaret Cousins[https://www.womensmuseumofireland.ie/exhibits/margaret-elizabeth-cousins] (Suffarage, WIA), Sarojini Naidu (mass mobilization of women in politics)
|
|
|-
|Modern institutional equality
|
|Helped institutionalize institutional equality through contributing policy influence (Hansa Mehta) and constitutional rights (Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh)
|Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh (welfare systems), Hansa Mehta
|
|
|-
|Foundational legal reform
|
|
|Raja Ram Mohan Roy (abolition of sati), Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar (widow remarriage)
|
|
|-
|Education
|
|
|Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar
|
|
|-
|}

====Hindu influence internationally====
Even outside of India during the 20th century, women's rights were not perfect, and so many women incorporated Hindu symbolism (i.e., worship) and concepts towards promoting societies where women would have equal rights.
[[image:M.J. Gage.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Matilda Joslyn Gage.]]
[[image: Charlotte Despard.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Charlotte Despard, an Anglo-Irish suffragist who supported Indian independence.]]
As [[Worship of God as Mother|worship of God as a female or mother]] has been common in Sanatan Dharm since its foundation, that made validating female upliftment in India quicker. Even in Western nations, prominent women's rights organizations implemented imagery of goddesses from pertinent ancient cultures, like U.K.'s Women's Freedom League and National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies, and the global International Woman Suffrage Alliance, to legitimize female equality and women being in positions of power. Some American and European feminists and women's rights activists, like Matilda Joslyn Gage<ref>"''While the sale of daughters was practiced in England for seven hundred years after the introduction of Christianity, we note that by the ancient law of India, a father was forbidden to sell his daughter in marriage, or receive the smallest present therefor.''" - P. 79-82 ''Woman, Church and State'' (1893) By Matilda Joslyn Gage</ref> (U.S. suffragist) and Helena Petrovna Blavatsky<ref>"''The pre- and post-Vedic woman was as free as man; and no impure terrestrial thought was ever mixed with the religious symbology of the early Aryans.''" 
"''This is proven by the fact that in the Vedic period their women were not placed apart from men in penetralia, or ‘Zenanas.’ Their seclusion began when the Mahomedans … had conquered the land and gradually enforced their ways and customs upon the Hindus.''" 
- P. 379-380 ''The Secret Doctrine: Volume I'' By Helena Blavatsky </ref> (European feminist), even used the examples of [[Worship of God as Mother|Hindu goddess-worship]] and Hindu queens to support their examples. And though Blavatsky did not officially align with any single religion to encourage recruitment for her Theosophical Society, she referenced Sanatan and Bauddh scriptures (Upanishads, and then Gita, then Bauddh shastras) more than others. (M.J. Gage[https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/the-feminist-inspired-witches-of-oz-180985334/] in her ''Woman, Church, and State'' even highlighted Hindu texts to counter the male-centric theology of the West and referenced ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'' to validate the concept of a female [[divinity]].) Even feminists of the colonial era like Victoria Woodhull that was skeptical of organized religion, respected "''Christna and Buddha''" (Krishna and Gautama.) Mary Lowe Dickinson at the World's Parliament Circles (1893) was so impressed by [[Swami Vivekananda|Swami Vivekanand]]'s speech, that she developed a fascination with female divinity of Hinduism, and in her editorials and public circles, argued that Hinduism's recognition of a feminine aspect within the divine was spiritually superior to the rigidly patriarchal, all-male Trinity of mainstream American Christianity. Emily Pitts Stevens and Charlotte LeMoyne Wills (wrote about the genderless [[Brahm]]) became disciples of Vivekanand. Laura de Force Gordon wrote about the immortal soul and continuous cycle of life. Alice Moore McComas wrote about the [[Environmentalism#Aikatmyam|interconnectedness (aikatmyam) of all things]]. In U.K., Charlotte Despard's specific pamphlets linked [[karma]] to political activism. Margaret Louise Sanger was influenced by Vivekanand and Rabindranath Tagore. Sarah Bull<ref> P. 483 ''Western Admirers of Ramakrishna and His Disciples'' By Gopal Stavig, Swami Shuddhidananda </ref>, who particularly focused on women's education and reform was connected to both Vivekanand and Sister Nivedita. Josephine MacLeod was a major promoter of Vivekanand in the West and was involved in transatlantic reform-intellectual networks. Viktoria Ocampo of Argentina was deeply influenced by Tagore, even hosting him in Argentina and promoting his ideas widely. Gabriela Mistral of Chile was too, and she applied Tagore's ideas to women's education, child welfare, and cultural reform. Mabel Dodge Luhan was fascinated with Sanatan philosophy and influenced by Vivekanand. Mentionable is Emma Calve of France, who wasn't a political feminist leader but influential in women's intellectual-cultural circles, and she was deeply influenced by Vivekanand.
[[image:Carol Patrice Christ.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Carol Patrice Christ.]]
After suffragists had attained complete institutional equality, they them progressed to the next stage of female liberation by ensuring that their own spiritual faith wasn't male-chauvinistic or making them subordinates of males. Feminists were inspired by goddess deity of Hinduism to then promote it within generic spirituality. Valerie Saiving, Isaac Bonewits and Naomi Goldenberg founded in the 1970's, Thealogy, a feminine-specific theology. Carol Patrice Christ launched the Goddess Movement, which provided 4 aspects of Goddess symbolism as reasons to needing a goddess in women's lives; 1) the Goddess as affirmation of female power, 2) the female body, 3) the female will, and 4) women's bond and heritage. She specifically used the Shakti concept to prove that a major global religion (Hinduism) explicitly defined the [[Brahmanda|material universe]]/nature/change ([[Darshana#Sankhya|Prakriti]]) as an inherently active, female, and sacred force. She was an ecofeminist, as were Charlene Spretnak and Miriam Simos were ecofeminists too. Merlin Stone wrote ''Ancient Mirrors of Womanhood: Our Goddess and Heroine Heritage'' (1979) and in a chapter analyzes goddesses like [[Durga]], [[Kali]], [[Lakshmi Puja|Lakshmi]], Parvati, and Saraswati. Devout Christian women feminists too drew on Hindu practices and ideas to support women's advocacy, and they include Ivone Gebara, Pearl Sydenstricker Buck, and Sally McFague.

'Matriarchal religion' is a philosophy stating that societies were Goddess worshippers with females having the same status and rights as men before male gods began being worshipped, and the latter led to patriarchy. Goddesses being worshipped contiguously in Hindu societies for thousands of years was the backing this thought utilized, in addition to feminist archaeology (i.e., ancient idols and temples of goddesses uncovered.)

==Start of modern reforms==
In modern India, most positive social changes within Indian Hindu societies came not first as enforcement or pressure from European rulers but from advocacy of forward-thinking Hindus. Raja Ram Mohan Roy had led the campaign to purge Hindu societies of Sati and caste prejudices. Roy worked with British imperial authority, specifically Lord William Bentinck to have sati outlawed. Roy himself was a religious leader that reiterated Upanishads for their principles.

Other institutions of positive social changes were mainly Hindu ones or were governed by Hindu religious leaders, not secular ones.

The Indian National Social Conference of 1887 was organized by Justice Ranade, Rai Raghunath Rao, Narendra Nath Sen Gupta, and Janki Nath Ghoshal. Ranade was founder of the Prarthana Samaj, a religious group.

Arya Samajis, Brahmo Samajis, and Prarthana Samajis were the most vocal and active forces advocating: 
#Widow Remarriage (i.e., Widow Remarriage Act 1856—initiative of Brahmo Samaj)
#Women's right to divorce (i.e., Native Marriage Act 1872—initiative of Brahmo Samaj) 
#Property rights for women 
#Opposition to child marriages (i.e., Age of Consent Act 1891—initiative of Brahmo Samaj and Prarthana Samaj, Child Marriage Restraint Act 1929—initiative of Arya Samaj) 
#Universal accessible education (built schools, including colleges and gurukuls) 
#Caste-based reservations (i.e., 50% quota of 1902—initiative of Shahu Maharaj, who later became an Arya Samaji)
[[image:Justice Ranade.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Mahadev Govind Ranade (alias 'Justice Ranade'.)]]
[[image:Jagannath Shankarshet.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Jagannath Shankarshet (alias 'Architect of Modern Mumbai'.)]]
The Indian Factories Act 1881's ratification was a landmark in workers' rights and the credit goes mainly to Sorabjee Shapoorjee Bengalee, and then Prarthana Samaj. He did work alongside the Prarthana Samaj to lobby the British authority through the First Factory Commission in 1875 (made to investigate the brutal conditions of Indian labour.) Prarthana Samaj's ''Subodh Patrika'' newspaper specifically critiqued mill owners. Rahnumai Mazdayasnan Sabha, its newspaper ''Rast Goftar'', and Bengalee himself referenced labour reformers Sasipada Banerji and Protap Chunder Mozumdar, and used the former's methods of worker upliftment as a blueprint for their own legislative arguments. Collaboration between the Sabha and Prarthana Samaj began with the latter's creation of the Theistic Association, on which the Parsi Naoroji Furdonji was its 1st Chairman. Ranade and Bhandarkar drove the Association from discussing only theism to improving society through finding solutions of work hardships. The Night School Initiative was launched, helping workers receive adequate training, particularly in labourer-heavy neighborhoods Byculla, Dongri, Khetwadi, and Thakurdwar. (From 1886-1890 alone, over 2,750 industrial workers successfully studied through this initiative.) Protap Chunder Mozoomdar, a Brahmo, began eight night schools in 1872 within Mumbai when he relocated to the city.<ref> P. 47 ''Peaceful Industrial Relations, Their Science and Technique'' (1957) By R. J. Soman </ref> Brahmos then established night schools within Kolkata by 1878.

Brahmo Samaj's K.C. Sen’s first visit to Mumbai in March-April 1864 engaged him with Bengalee, Furdonji, Ranade, and Bhandarkar (all then members of Young India.) They all discussed ways to develop India. They also shared strategies on how to bypass orthodox religious resistance—Furdonji within Zoroastrianism and Sen within Sanatan Dharm. Bengalee's First Labor Bill (1878) laid the groundwork for the later Indian Factories Act.

Prior to all of this, Jagannath Shankarshet[https://www.vishwakonkani.org/hall-of-fame/hon-jagannath-shankar-sheth/] spent the 1850s petitioning the British Parliament for local governance. As a result, it codified the Indian Councils Act of 1861, thus creating the Bombay Legislative Council as a political body to better govern the-then Bombay Presidency. Shankarshet was the main founder of Bombay Association. In its first leadership were also Dr. Ramachandra Vitthal Lad (alias 'Dr. Bhau Daji'), a Hindu intellectual who used his Sanskrit knowledge to decipher inscriptions, preserve manuscripts, and help reconstruct the forgotten timelines of ancient Guptas and Western Kshatrapa dynasties. Mentionable is the Parsi Sir Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy of the group. Shankarshet was a wealthy philanthropist that constructed and financed Sanatan and secular infrastructure, most notably the Bhavani Shankar Mandir[https://www.mcgm.gov.in/irj/go/km/docs/documents/D%20Ward/Heritage-Sites/73_Legacy%20of%20D%20Ward_Article_Bhavani%20Shankar%20Temple.pdf] (Mumbai), Sanskrit Seminary and Sanskrit Library (both in Mumbai too.) Elphinstone Educational Institution[https://elphinstone.ac.in/index.php] and Grant Medical College[https://gmcjjh.edu.in/] were his creations too. (Jeejeebhoy contributed to constructing the Grant Medical College.)

===Shahu's royal authority to implement reforms===
[[image:Shahu adoption.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Prince Yeshwantrao Ghatge being adopted by the royal family of Kohlapur.]]
[[image:Rajarshi.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Rajarshi Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj IV.]]
[[image:School foundation.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Foundation of Shri Shahu Chhatrapati Shikshan Sanstha.]]
The greatest champion on all of these sections for reforms was Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj[https://aissms.org/breaking-barriers-chhatrapati-shahu-maharaj-and-his-enduring-impact-on-progress-and-modernity/] (born Yeshwantrao Ghatge), '[[Rta and Spiritual Authority#Rishis|Rajarshi]]', the ruler of Kohlapur Kingdom who affiliated with organizations but probably the Arya Samaj[https://thearyasamaj.org] more than any other. Shahu definitely was not shy to publicly perform prayers, as he famously attended temples of goddesses Ambabai[https://www.mahalaxmikolhapur.com/home] and Bhavani[https://shrituljabhavani.org/] when having returned from his Europe trip in 1902. Also in 1902, Pratap Singh Maharaj of Idhar (Gujarat) introduced and educated him about the Arya Samaj. He provided patronage to the Arya Samaj.[https://navjyot.net/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/10.pdf]

The king passed many policies for for the upliftment of untouchable, nomadic, non-Brahmin communities and for females.<ref>Act of Free and Compulsory Primary Education (1917), Widow remarriage Act (1917), End of Balutedari (1918), Repeal of Kulkarni Watan (1918), Intercaste and Interreligious Marriages and Sanctioning of Registered Marriage Act (1919), Act relating to protection of Harassment of Women (1919), Divorce act (1919), Order on prohibition of Untouchability practice (1919), Illegitimate Children's Rights and Devadasi Prohibition Act (1920); 
[https://www.indiejournal.in/article/rajarshi-shahu-maharaj-and-his-tryst-with-the-arya-samaj "Rajarshi Shahu Maharaj & his tryst with the Arya Samaj Lessons for our times"] By Devkumar Ahire (Jun 26, 2023 6:42 PM)</ref>

;Prejudiced disgruntled castists promoting anti-Brahman hate, not universalism
While Shahu was affiliated with the Satyashodhak Samaj (SS) because it wanted to uplift the non-dwija castes, he did not feel they had any religious foundations, whereas the Arya Samaj was encompassed both a spiritual and social movement.<ref>"Beyond Reformism: Chhatrapati Shahu and Hinduism Reimagined" By Surajkumar Thube P. 124-144 ''Nidān: International Journal for Indian Studies, Volume 8'', Issue 1 (July 2023)</ref> Also, the SS of Pune was antithetical to social cohesion because it targeted the Brahman caste as an enemy, and while its main founder (Jyotirao Phule) made absurd claims like 'Shiv-Dharma'<ref>"''The real Shiv-Dharma that is ours, we are re-establishing it as Sarvajanik Satya Dharma.''" Chapter 4, ''Sarvajanik Satya Pustak''</ref> or 'Mahadev-Dharma' (worship of [[Shiva|Shiv]] as God and some local gods like Khandoba as avatars) being the true religion of Indians whereas every other Hindu belief and practice was an imposition by 'non-Indian Brahman invaders'. Being a chauvinist, he also criticized freedom fighter martyrs Lakshmi Bai, Nana Sahib, Tantia Tope for being Brahmans. He also wrote positively that freedom fighters lost the 1857 War of Independence against the British colonialists. He was also openly criticized by his own relative Baburao Phule, who accused the former of being a Christian convert who destroyed the Hindu religion.<ref>P. 58-59 ''The Caste Question: Dalits and the Politics of Modern India'' (2009) By Anupama Rao </ref>

Phule though anti-Brahman, was influenced by some Brahmans, such as Balshastri Jambhekar (a Hindu activist) who pushed scientific knowledge and history through Marathi, criticized caste segregation, and attacked other or kinds or orthodoxy like widowhood. He was also influenced by some Hindu activists who were not anti-Brahman (i.e., Karsandas Mulji.)

The organization would receive the most aid from Shahu (financial and social work), Karmvir (social work), and Padval (intellectual) but they themselves always kept a distance from the SS because of its explicitly castist vitriol. People would choose to align or become members of other associations for their inclusivity and harmonious vision for the future.

;Satyashodhak Samaj becoming less anti-Brahman
"''All Hindus are equal. No one is superior, no one is inferior. Let all flesh and blood be one. Four varnas are a real deceit. It's a tool to keep the non-Brahmins in slavery. There is no difference among the Hindus. Hindu is the only varna. If a Hindu eats or marries with another Hindu that's not ''[[adharma]].'' In contrast, what divide Hindus in the name of religion is not a dharma, but a trick by Brahmins. One who calls themselves a Hindu, whether they are Europeans or Africans, they are our coreligionists.''" - P. 39 ''Deshache Dushman'' (1925) By Dinkarrao Javalkar
[[image:Sasipada Banerji.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Sasipada Banerji (alias 'Sevabrata'.)]]
Notable is that Phule's friend Narayan Meghaji Lokhande, a labour organization leader, was close friends with Phule and used Khandoba-worship and the reverence of Sundays for Khandoba in his petition to British authority to achieve Sunday as a holiday for factory labourers (S.S. Bengalee's idea that he campaigned for over a decade.) (In some Satyashodhak branches, incoming members took an initialization oath in the name of "Khanderao".) Phule and Lokhande emulated Brahmans, like forming the political lobby group Deenbandhu Sarvajanik Sabha after Ranade's Poona Sarvajanik Sabha and forming the Bombay Mill Hands Association based and its mouthpiece ''Deenbandhu'' on the Working Men's Club (India's 1st labour welfare platform) and its mouthpiece ''Bharat Sramajibi'' (India's 1st labour journal) of Sasipada Banerji (Brahmo Samaji.) Mentionable is that Lokhande used phrases "''Hindu Bhau''", "''Hindu Dharma''" and "''Hindu Samaj''" in his writings.

Though Dinkarrao Javalkar portrayed himself as pan-Hindu when discussing the specific topic of Hindu unity, he still prejudicially criticized the Brahman caste in general<ref>"''This day will be counted among the most important days in the history of Hindus. There is no reason for you to fear jail. The Brahmans who eat ghee and roti should have that fear. To make the touchable people behave is in your hands. You are the sons of Hindus. You capture the tank saying 'har har Mahadev' and follow the advice of your leader Dr. Ambedkar Saheb. This is my own position.''" -Dinkarrao Javalkar at satyagraha with Keshavrao Jedhe and Dr. Ambedkar among a Mahar crowd</ref> and targeted some prominent Brahmans like Lokmanya Tilak. (Javalkar and Keshavrao Jedhe also portrayed themselves as pro-woman but derogatory remarks about women from the Brahman and certain other castes<ref>P. 44 ''19th Century Maharashtra: A Reassessment'' (2020) By Shraddha Kumbhojkar </ref> and both appealed to Dr. B.R. Ambedkar in 1927 to exclude Brahmans from the Mahad Satyagraha<ref> P. 27 ''Social Reform Movements in India: A Historical Perspective'' (1991) By V.D. Divekar</ref>.) Jedhe did protest with other activists (including Brahmans like Narhar Vishnu Gadgil, Seshdas Ranade, Shreedhar Mahadev Joshi, and members of Arya Samaj) for the right of Dalits to worship at Pune's Devdeveshwar Mandir[https://devdeveshwarsanthan.org/home.html]. Javalkar did write favourably about some like Ranade, Gopal Ganesh Agarkar, and Krishna Gopal Gokhale but even they were rarely mentioned. He rightfully partook in the Kalaram Mandir[https://www.shrikalaramsansthannasik.org/] Satyagraha in Nasik that protested for Dalits to be able to enter the temple. He was a communist and 10 years after his death, the Peasants and Workers Party (PWP) was formed.

SS branches outside of Pune were less hateful of Brahmans. It is also noteworthy, however, is that Nana Patil, a founder of the PWP, was affiliated with both the Satyashodhak and Prarthana associations [meaning that he, like most other Satyashodhaks didn't believe in Phule's religious ideology.] Some other PWP founders like Jedhe and Madhavrao Bagal were Satyashodhaks, they popularized Shiv Jayanti and Ganesh Chathuri. The latter and his son Vasantrao even wrote devotional pieces inspired from Bhakti Era saints (i.e., [[Tukaram]], [[Eknath]]) and valourizing pieces about Shahu. Tulshidas Jadhav, a Gandian within the PWP, championed the Bhakti Era's Warkari Movement, which was still popular in his time, because it was based on social equality and public seva. Also noteworthy is, that even some prominent members supported the Arya Samaj, like Krishnarao Bhalekar<ref>"''Bhalekar said that while Hinduism needed to be reformed , this reform should be brought about from within . He said he would defend Hinduism if it was under attack from Islam or Christianity.''" - P. 35 ''Non-Brahman Movement in Maharashtra'' (1989) By M.S. Gore </ref> (1 of the founders of SS with Phule) defended Dayanand Saraswati (Arya Samaj’s founder), when the latter’s procession was opposed by some orthodox Hindus in Pune, and Bhalekar organized a speech to be delivered by Saraswati at a dharmshal near a Rokdoba Temple in Pune. SS' Moro Vitthal Walvekar was directly affiliated with the Prarthana Samaj and played a crucial role in its associated media landscape (frequently serving as an editor of ''Subodha Patrika''.)

Bhalekar himself made the claim that the SS is the true follower of Sant Tukaram's [[Bhāgavata-dharma|Bhagwat Dharma]] ([[Krishna|Krishnaite]] [[Vaishnava|Vaishnavism]].) His son was Mukundrao Patil, who made the claim, "''The Satyasodhak Samaj is the true heir of the Hindu religion. Brahmanism is not Hinduism.''"<ref>''Dinmitra'' newspaper (1920s)</ref> Javalkar claimed SS is the true representative of the Hindu religion and that SS members are liberating Hinduism from the supremacy of the Brahmins. Shivram Janma Kamble (a Dalit) stated the SS is a revival movement of the true Hinduism. Kisan Faguji Bansode (a Dalit) argued "Shivdharma" was the true Hindu religion and that the SS advocates that version. Dr. Ramayya Venkayya Ayyavaru in ''Khristi Bandhujanans Vinanti'' or ''A Request to Our Christian Brothers'' (1887) wrote to missionaries that Indians did not need to be baptized and that monotheism has been embedded in Indian culture and that Indians. Previously, he, backed firmly by Lokhande and the urban Mumbai executive committee of the SS, aggressively fought against changing the name of the SS to 'Satya Dharma Samaj'.

There were those in his organization that promoted about how in ancient Sanatan society, there were no caste distinctions and that people were recognized by their merits. Their view was promoted by Tukaram Tatya Padval, who wrote ''Jatibhed Vivekshar'' (1861) after being inspired by Ashwaghosha's ''Vajrasuchi''. Phule republished copies of Padval's books, and the 2 developed a friendship. He did write at that in ancient India, certain sages were had Sudra or Avarna status but rose to the rank of a Brahman through their intellect, and used examples of Valmiki (wrote a ''Ramayan''), Sankhya, and Kabilar rishis. He also published copies of the ''Bhagavad Gita'', ''Yogasutra'', and compilations of the ''Rajayoga'' and ''Sankhya Karika.'' He further compiled the ''Tukarambaba ani Tyanche Shisya Yanchi Abhanga Gatha'' (1889) and ''Eknath Maharajancha Abhangachi Gatha'' (1903.) Padval, however, never became a member of Phule's organization and instead became a member of the Theosophical Society.

Krishnarao Arjun Keluskar, who was a member of the Mumbai SS had written positively of Krishna and the latter's ethics of the ''Bhagavad Gita'', as well as of Shivaji, Sant Tukaram, Gautam Buddha, and Govind Janardan Borkar (alias Shri Gajananaswami.) It was he who first influenced Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar with [[Bauddh Dharm]]. (Ambedkar had later converted to the dharm, but that's an Arya dharma, so is not damaging to Sanatan society or Indian society like converting to Islam would be.)

;Shahu forming his own Satyashodhak Samaj focused on upliftment (free of anti-Brahman distractions)
As a result of the Satyashodhak Samaj of Pune being too antagonistic of Brahmans, Shahu had instead founded his own branch in 1911 — Shri Shahu Satyashodhak Samaj. By an order, Shahu replaced the Brahman priests in the Patgaon Sansthan (Mauni Maharaj Math[https://durgbharari.in/maunibaba-patgaon/]) and Jyotiba Devasthan[https://shreejyotiba.com/?lang=E][https://maharashtratourism.gov.in/temple/jyotiba/] with Maratha priests. Bhaskarrao Jadhav and Anna Babaji Latthe were leaders of Shahu's Kolhapur Satyashodhak Samaj. Whereas Phule mostly only wrote positively of Shiva and local-born gods, Jadhav in his ''Marathas and their Religion'' wrote positively about Krishna and the ''Bhagavad Gita''. He further worked with Shahu to aid Arya Samaj in its activities and goals (i.e., train non-Brahmans to become priests too.) Noteworthy is that Latthe, who worked personally with Shahu Maharaj, was its first VP and that he worked to dismantle priestly ([[Jain Dharm|Jain priests]], not usually Brahmans) intermediation within the Jain clergy. (He was a big-time activist for general upliftment and for reform within the Jain community (i.e., wrote ''Jain Dharmacha Parichay''.)

Latthe founded the Dakshin Bharat Jain Sabha[https://dbjainsabha.com/], of which Dr. Bhaurao Patil (from a Jain family) became a member and through he wasn't a member of any SS branch, he did sometimes participate in its activities and himself founded the Rayat Shikshan Sansthan[https://rayatshikshan.edu/], which educated students in a multitude of topics, including Sanskrit. Patil (alias 'Karmvir Anna') was deeply influenced by Mahatma Gandhi and Vitthal Ramji Shinde.

;Shahu distancing himself formally from Satyashodhak Samaj
The SS had earned a bad reputation in Maharashtra with the general public, particularly for the outright anti-Brahman vitriol spewed in the SS's publications and events. Because the goal of Shahu and true reformers was to achieve a harmonious society with all people cooperating, it would not make sense to support an organization that's known for abusing persons (i.e., Brahmans) specifically over their caste identity.

In 1921, Shahu made a public statement in a Baroda newspaper that even though he granted significant support to the non-Brahman movement and introduced measures to eliminate Brahman dominance, he had never been affiliated with Phule's SS, and that he always accepted [[Rta and Spiritual Authority#Rishis|Vedic ritual authority]].

;Granting, accommodating, and expanding Arya Samaj
Shahu attended Arya Samaj sessions like the one at Navsari in 1918 and another at Bhavnagar in 1920<ref>P. 6. ''People's Raj Volume 30'' (1974) By Directorate-General of Information and Public Relations </ref>. He provided funding for Gurukul Boarding House to be built at Kerle, wherein large buildings and well-irrigated lands were granted to the Arya Samaj. Later, the Rajaram Anathalaya orphanage was added to this grant. He also brought educational institutions in his domain under the leadership of Arya Pratinidhi Sabha. Rajaram College's administration was also granted to the Arya Samaj.

;Spiritual Authority as Rajarshi
Shahu Maharaj, being a devout Sanatan wanted to proclaim the rights that warriors of history had and so participated in important ceremonies and worked with priests (i.e., Brahmans) to achieve the rights to learn and perform Vedic ceremonies. He established the Vedokta Committee for Marathas to be able to perform Vedic rites without requiring priests. In 1905, the Karveer Peeth's (or Kolhapur Math's) Shankaracharya declared full rights of Vedokta to Chhatrapati Shahu.

Tatyarao Joshirao was appointed by Shahu Maharaj as new royal purohit, replacing the Rajopadhye (creator of the infamous 'Vedokta Controversy'), who denied the Maharaj to perform Vedic rites. Joshirao was from a family that had traditional ownership of the historic Binkhambi Ganapati Mandir in Kolhapur.

Rajaram Shastri (alias 'Bhagavata'), a Brahman scholar, linguist, and researcher, openly challenged the religious orthodoxy, arguing from scripture that Shahu Maharaj had full rights to the Vedas. Vishnu Topkhane was another Brahman who greatly helped the Chhatrapati with his progressive reforms. Topkhane the educationalist helped the latter establish the Vidyapeeth High School near the Shri Karveer Niwasini Ambabai Mahalakshmi Temple. Freedom fighter Gokhale was someone who worked with Shahu. When the Vedokta Controversy broke out and the conservative press attacked the Maharaja, Gokhale privately and publicly validated Shahu Maharaj's stance, recognizing that social reform was a prerequisite for true political freedom. Ranade, though passed away before much Shahu's reforms began, was admired by the latter for his progressive ideals and actions.

Chhatrapati Shahu founded the Satyashodhak School for spiritual training in 1913, in which seminarians (predominantly from castes such as Marathas, Mahars, and Chambhars) were taught to recite and preach the poems (i.e., abhangs of Tukaram) of sants. He also created the Shivaji Vedic School (aliases 'Shahu Vedic School', 'Shahu Vedic Pathshala', 'Shri Shahu Vaidik Vidyalay') in 1920 and had invited scholars from Varanasi (spiritual capital of Sanatan Dharm) to ensure the highest standard of scriptural and linguistic training. The school trained seminarians (of all castes) to learn Sanskrit and become priests and conduct ceremonies. He further established and financed the office of the Kshatra Jagadguru (''Warrior Universal Teacher''), a pontiff seat open to anyone of any caste. The first Kshatra Jagadguru was Sadashivrao Lakshmanrao Sankpal Patil Benadikar, was an accomplished Sanskrit scholar who received his formal higher education at Rajaram College in Kolhapur. The Kshatra Jagadguru Peeth was the pontiff's seat at Patgaon (in the Bhudargad region of Kolhapur.) Patgaon was chosen because it was the historic site of the Mauni Maharaj Math, a highly respected spiritual center that had historically blessed Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj[https://pilgrimdata.in/temple/mouni-maharaj-math-temple-patgaon-bhudargarh-dist-kolhapur/]. The Kshatra Jagadguru had the Shri Sadashivrao Patil Shikshan Sanstha educationalist association named after him, and it runs schools[https://www.mwssm.org/][https://sspiop.com/] in Maharashtra still. Other organizations too use his name for schools like Sadashivrao Mandlik Mahavidyalaya (Kolhapur) of the ⁠Jay Shivray Education Society.

===Successive associations===
From Hindu-based institutions like sociopolitical organizations and schools came a number of philanthropic associations. Even other humanitarian associations that were not established by Hindu activists, were established by their influence. For example, Krishna Gopal Gokhale had participated in many sessions of the Prarthana Samaj as he was Ranade's pupil, and he later joined the Deccan Education Society, which he left to establish the Servants of India Society. Narayan Malhar Joshi was a member of Gokhale's group and later formed his own Social Service League[https://socialserviceleague.org.in/]. Hriday Nath Kunzru too was part of Gokhale's group and left to establish the Seva Samiti.

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Organization
! Demographic of Focus
! Region(s)
! Founder
! Founder's Affiliation(s)
! Achievement
|-
|Anath Balikashram Society
|Widows
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Andhra Mahila Sabha
|Females
|Andhra Pradesh
|Durgabai Deshmukh
|
|
|-
|Bharat Stree Mahamandal
|Females
|Bengal, Bihar, Punjab, Sindh, U.P.
|Sarala Devi Chaudhurani
|Arya Samaji, Brahmo Samaji, accepted Bijoy Krishna Chattopadhyaya as her guru
|
|-
|Buddhi Vardhak Sabha
|General public
|Gujarat
|Narmadashankar Labheshankar Dave
|
|Exposed people in positions of power that abused their privileges, build schools for girls
|-
|Central Social Welfare Board
|Females and children
|
|Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh
|
|
|-
|Hindu Widow Marriage Association
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Hindustani Seva Dal
|Females
|Every province
|Dr. Narayan Subbarao Hardikar
|
|Established the Hindustani Seva Mandal (later became Rashtriya Seva Dal) in 1923, established the Arya Bala Sabha, taught the Gita during his student days in Kolkata, was a fan of Lokmanya Tilak, and had enthusiastically worked with Lala Rai
|-
|Indian Reform Association
|Females
|West Bengal
|Keshub Chandra Sen
|
|Brahmo Samaji, founded ''Sulabh Samachar'' as weekly newspaper of group
|-
|Kasthurbha Gandhi Kanya Gurukulam[http://www.kgkgurukulam.org/]
|Girls
|Tamil Nadu (Vedaranyam)
|Vedaratnam Pillai
|
|Involved in temple-based philanthropy and donated to Sri Ramakrishna Mission too
|-
|Lakshmi Ashram
|Females
|Uttarakhand
|Sarla Behn
|
|Established individual Mahila Mandals throughout Uttarakhand and promoted important skills as well as ecological awareness
|-
|Lokahitawadi Mandal
|General public
|Maharashtra
|Vishnu Vaman Shirwadkar
|
|Wrote about Hindu themes, including persons from scriptures and about Shivaji poetically, philosophically, and nationally
|-
|Maharshi Karve Stree Shikshan Samstha
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Mahila Vidyalaya (Pune)
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Nishkam Karma Math
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Poona Seva Sadan
|Females
|Maharashtra (at its peak, included M.P. and T.N.)
|Ramabai Ranade
|
|
|-
|Samata Sangh
|General public
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Self Employed Women's Association (SEWA)
|Females
|18 states
|Ela Bhatt
|Gandhian Textile Labour Association
|Established: own bank (Shri Mahila Sewa Sahakari Bank, or 'SEWA Cooperative Bank'), SEWA Mahila Housing Trust
|-
|Servants of the People Society
|Females
|Kerala, Maharashtra, M.P., Odisha T.N., Uttarakhand U.P.
|
|
|
|-
|Shraddhanand Ashram[https://shraddhanandmahilashram.org] (alias Hindu Women's Welfare Society)
|Females and boys
|Maharashtra (Mumbai)
|Swami Shraddhanand
|
|Has cared for thousands of destitute women and orphans, and educated them and provided skills development, as well as fostered personal development
|-
|Stree Hitaishini Mandali
|Females
|Andhra Pradesh
|Kanuparti Varalakshmamma
|
|Educated many females
|-
|Veda Samaj
|General public
|Tamil Nadu
|Chembeti Sridharalu Naidu
|
|It advanced female literacy through local activism, campaigned against child marriages, promoted widow remarriage and windows' rehabilitation into being societal contributing members
|-
|Widow Marriage Association
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|}

==Inspiration to Madras Presidency==
[[image:M.C. Rajah.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Mylai Chinna Thambi Pillai Rajah (the real 'Periyar'.)]]
While the Arya Samaj, Brahmo Samaj, Prarthana Samaj, and a host of other Hindu-based humanitarian and sociopolitical institutions existed in the-then Madras Presidency of southern India, they inspired local organizations as well. Shahu Maharaj had friends in the-then Justice Party (JP, est. 1916), like Arcot Ramasamy Mudaliar and Panaganti Ramarayaningar. While some ethnic groups, like certain castes even falsely supported the idea of an 'Aryan Invasion Theory' and themselves (Dravidian-languages speakers) as indigenous, they still appreciated Hinduism and did not consider it alien.

The biggest uplifter of the party was M.C. Rajah, who had the highest influence upon the policies that improved the lives of the Dalits in Madras Presidency. The party itself was founded primarily by 3 individuals — Sir Pitti Theagaraya Chetty (political founder who built the political machine), Dr. Taravath Madhavan Nair (ideological co-founder), and Dr. Chintadripet Natesa Mudaliar (cultural/grassroots mobilizer who helped shape cultural legitimacy.) Dr. Nair had said that Hindu society had originally possessed broader equality before caste dominance hardened it. Chetty occasionally used dharm-based ethical framing. He is consistently described as arguing that governance must align with "''dharma and justice''". The Dr. Mudaliar was a devout Shaiva that infused into the party Shaivism as a cultural identity for southerners.
[[image:P.T. Rajan.jpg|right|thumb|200px|P.T. Rajan (centre-right, wearing glasses next to priest), touring with the idol of [[Ayyappan|Ayyappa]] he had made at Swamimalai Temple[https://swamimalaiswaminathar.hrce.tn.gov.in/] and it was placed in the Sabarimala Temple[https://www.sabarimalauptodate.in/].]]
An ideologue of influence to the JP and Self-Respect Movement was Maraimalai Adigal, a Shaiv preacher and writer, who claimed that both the JP and Self-Respect Movement were from his teachings and that militant atheist Erode Venkatappa Ramasami Naicker had hijacked them. JP founder Dr. Nair died in 1919 and Chetty in 1925, so had no interaction Naicker. Ponnambala Thiaga Rajan was an active party member and disagreed with Naicker's ideology, so joined Congress-aligned politics. Mudaliar died in 1935 around the time Naicker entered the JP. Naicker was also a prejudiced castist that criticized but did not contribute to build schools and shelters for women and children, as Rajah[https://www.news18.com/opinion/opinion-m-c-rajah-the-forgotten-hindu-mahasabha-dalit-8937192.html][https://vskbharat.com/m-c-rajah-a-staunch-hindu-leader/?lang=en][https://thecommunemag.com/m-c-rajah-the-hindu-mahasabha-dalit/], a practicing Hindu of the party did. Rajah even once formed a political alliance with the Hindu Mahasabha, was the contributor. Before Rajah, the party's caste disparity was mainly about civil service occupations and education access for underprivileged castes. Rajah was recommended by Ambedkar to convert but Rajah replied there's no religion better than Hinduism.<ref>P. 92 ''The Political Evolution of Muslims in Tamilnadu and Madras, 1930-1947'' By J.B. Prashant More (1997) </ref><ref> In a public meeting of the All India Adi Dravida Mahajana Sabha in Nungambakkam, Chennai he said, "''The president (of this meeting) mentioned that no other community other than us has more right to be called Hindus. Conversion will not bring about any good. By saying so, I am not undermining or wishing away the oppression and ills we have faced. We need to fight for our rights. The speed at which reforms are happening might be slow. But think about our current situation and how much it has improved. I beseech you to please abandon any move that will weaken us. I request the government to bring about the Untouchability Abolition Bill and pass it quickly. The Harijans are proud Hindus. That is the only reason why even after years of oppression by higher castes and a barrage of proselytization efforts by other religions hasn't changed their resolve being Hindus.''" P. 123 ''Evolution of Hindu Nationalism - Icons of HMS, RSS & BJS'' By Sankara Narayanan T (2025)</ref> Adigal's writings had a profound impact on Subramania Ramanathan, the founder of the Self-Respect Movement, and on the Naicker but the latter only wanted pro-Tamil and castist societal changes, not promotion of Shaivism. Naicker would later break away from the party and form his own Dravidar Kazhagam, a title he copied from Adigal's Shaiv association (Podhunilak Kazhagam.) (His own pupil, Conjeevaram Natarajan Annadurai, would eventually disown him after he married his own adopted daughter, and Annadurai would leave his group.)
[[image:Alamelu.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Alamelu Mangai Thayarammal, a Brahmo Samaji, was co-founder of the party among 29 others (all men.)]]
The Hindu sentiment was definitely present in the JP. Many left after Naicker's hijacking. Important members bothered by Naicker's rhetoric apart from Rajan were Ananda Prasad Patro, Arunachalam Thamaraiselvam Panneerselvam, Muthiah Annamalai Chettiar, Ramasamy Kandasamy Shanmukham Chetty, and Subbarayalu Kumaraswami Reddiar. Chettiar even personally regularly donated to temple renovations, endowing temple lands or festivals, supporting pilgrimage facilities, and Hindu-managed schools. Rajan, the last leader of the JP, was the head-of-government of the Presidency, and was a big devotee a [[Ayyappan|Swami Ayyappa]]. Rajan even solemnized a marriage of a German couple converted to Hinduism in Coimbatore (Oct 31, 1962.) He further discouraged conversion of Dalits from Hinduism to another religion<ref>"''If by mass conversion you expect to achieve your object, you will be disappointed, because of a mere change of religion it will not give you all that you want.''" 
P. 147 ''Sir P. T. Rajan's Eighty Second Birthday Souvenir, 1973'' By P.T. Rajan and K. Paramasivam</ref> while encouraging caste-Hindus to better treat Dalits. His family had deep ties to the Meenakshi Amman Temple[https://maduraimeenakshi.hrce.tn.gov.in/] in Madurai, with his son (Palanivel Rajan), serving as a minister, and his daughter-in-law (Rukmani), serving as the first female chairperson of the temple's board of trustees. His predecessor Ramakrishna Ranga Rao denied that the JP was anti-Hindu and declared that it aimed to purify Hindu society from "''absurdities''" and return "''Hinduism greater and more glorious than it was in the past...''"<ref>"''As I understand it, the Self-Respect movement stands for certain great ideals to make Hinduism greater and more glorious than it was in the past, to rid it of all those absurdities which are the accretions of an unfortunate era of the past, and unite us in a solid federation so that all those who profess to follow the Hindu faith may feel that they are brethren following one of the most ancient and glorious religions of the world. No longer should the foreigner point his finger of scorn at this or that particular phase of Hinduism which belies its cosmopolitan tendency by inflicting personal hardship on classes or communities. If a few youths in their exuberant enthusiasm have been carried away beyond the bounds of Hinduism it will not do to fight shy of the new movements, but political wisdom and sagacity lie in taking them into our fold and guiding them aright along the paths of duty and rectitude.''" 
P. 289 ''The Indian Annual Register An Annual Digest of Public Affairs of India Recording the Nation's Activities Each Year in Matters Political, Economic, Industrial, Educational, Social, Etc · Volume 2'' By Nipendra Nath Mitra (1934)</ref> Alamelu Mangai Thayarammal, conferred 'Pandithai' title by Saiva Sabha in Palamcottah, was a JP co-founder [with 29 co-founders being men] who was a Brahmo Samaji, meaning the influence of the Hindu-based organizations wasn't insignificant. Paramasivan Subbarayan Gounder, while not technically a JP member, worked with it closely, and both he and his women's rights activist wife Kailash Radhabai Kulmud were Brahmos. It is also noteworthy that [[Ascetics|ascetic]] Swamiyar Kaivalyar who supported the party without being a member wrote pro-Shaiv material. Cattamanchi Ramalinga Reddy, an ex-member who formed his own party in 1923 was a close friend of Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, and he himself engaged with Hindu texts on a literary artistic level. As Hinduism isn't a scripture-dependent religion, some JP members like A.R. Mudaliar heavily criticized certain scriptures but were devout Hindus ([[Vaiśnava|Vaishnav]] in his case.) And while orthodox opposition was present, the majority of Indians, including religious leaders, supported reforms, like when Shankaracharya of Kanchi[https://www.kamakoti.org/] supported the "Hindu Religious Endowments Bill" (1921) even while voicing some concerns in within. Mentionable is that [[Shatata-Unnati#Female upliftment|Dr. Muthulakshmi Reddy]] wasn't part of the JP but it still nominated her in 1926 for the Madras Legislative Council to bring about positive changes.

==Impactful legacy==
The currents resulting from electrifying the establishments in the colonial era by activists, especially Bhave, Gandhi, Ramakrishna, Tagore, and Vivekanand, are still being felt. Humanitarians worldwide in the colonial era recognized those individuals in particular. Albert Schweitzer of France praised Tagore, Howard Thurman and Thomas Merton spoke positively about Sanatan spirituality in general, and Romain Rolland commended Ramakrishna and Vivekanand. Even international figures who changed the world scientifically and social scientifically recognized, like Albert Einstein revering Tagore and his Upanishadic-style monism, and Ernst Friedrich Schumacher exalting both Bhave and Tagore. (Schumacher was influenced by Buddhism as well, upon visiting Burma, and he founded 'Buddhist Economics'.)

And because [[Ārya Samudāy|Arya dharmas]], focus on the rights of all creatures, including animals, activists struggling to improve [[Animal rights#Influence upon Westerners|animals' lives too were impacted]] by Sanatan, Jain, and Bauddh thoughts on the topic.

One thing that Arya dharmas, particularly Sanatan Dharm, has been able to do is accommodate many viewpoints [provided that they converge at its foundation.] For example, even atheists like M.N. Roy have praised philosophical systems, such as Sankhya, Nyaya, and Vaishesik darshans believe they appreciate that their cosmologies delve into the natural world and don't treat it as maya. Likewise, Nobel Prize-winning physicist Erwin Schrödinger[https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1933/schrodinger/biographical/] used Hindu metaphysics to make sense of the bizarre subatomic behaviors discovered in quantum mechanics. Norwegian philosopher Arne Næss, heavily influenced by Gandhi, who founded the "Deep Ecology" movement in the 1970s, pointed directly to Sanatan ethics (mainly ahimsa) to argue against human destruction of the Earth. Leo Tolstoy, who refused to accept the Nobel[https://www.nobelprize.org/ceremonies/proclamation-sent-to-leo-tolstoy-after-the-1901-years-presentation-of-nobel-prizes/], had based much of his humanistic philosophies of anarcho-pacifism and anti-colonialism on the ''[[Thirukkural]]'' and Gandhism.

==Related articles==
*[[Women]]
*[[Women as Rishikas in the Vedas]]
*[[Worship of God as Mother]]

==External resources==
*[https://www.ijhsss.com/files/08.-ABHISEK-KARMAKAR_6813z4a4.pdf "Changing status of women in Indian politics (1917-1947): the role of civil society"], P. 42-45 ''International Journal of Humanities & Social Science Studies'' Volume-I, Issue-II (September 2014) By Abhisek Karmakar
*[https://www.besanthill.org/about/history-heritage/annie-besant/ Besant Hill School of Happy Valley in Ojai, California]
*[https://www.anniebesant.org Annie Besant Women's College in Hyderabad, Telangana]
*[https://www.aryasabha.mu/cultural-programme-arya-mahila-mandal-in-the-context-of-the-200th-birth-anniversary-of-swami-dayananda-saraswati/ Arya Mahila Mandal (Mauritius)]
*[https://www.thearyasamaj.org/ammkarolbagh Arya Mahila Mandal Karol Bagh]
*[https://vatikashaktipeeth.com/seven-agitations/women-awakening.html Vatika Shakti Peeth]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category: History]]
[[Category: Economics]]
[[Category: Societal altruism]]

Samyag Darshan

2026-07-06T05:17:51Z

Himanshu Bhatt:

{{Author|Himanshu Bhatt}}
<blockquote>
“Hinduism’s basic tenet is that many roads exist by which men have pursued and still pursue their quest for the truth and that none has universal validity.” – Kenneth Scott Latourette
</blockquote>
Samyag darshan ("''Right worldview''", "''Proper viewpoint''", "''Correct insight''", or "''Rationality of perception''") as opposed to mithya darshan ("''improper viewpoint''")<ref> P. 715 ''Encyclopedia of Hinduism'' By Catherine Robinson, Denise Cush, Michael York </ref> is required for attaining [[Moksha]]. It is recommended for Hindus to think objectively when it comes to the their outlook circumstances. Samyag darshan is the [[Objective Worldview|objective worldview]]. Objectivity is bias-free whereas subjectively is biased. Hence Objectivity, allows for an all-inclusive resolution. This is important because of the principle of vasudhaiva kutumbakam<ref> ''Maha-[[Upanishad]]'' </ref>, which means "''the whole world is one family.''" As such, in order for a family to function, it requires everyone play a part in its success for the present and future generations. Sathya [[Sai Baba]] proclaimed, "''All is divine, all is God, and unity is [[divinity]].''" Following this line of thought, [[Environmentalism#Aikatmyam|''aikatmyam'']] is the principle of identifying with the entire universe, and it helps the self in thinking [and hence, living out] the vasudhaiva kutumbakam ideal.
{{Cquote|As is the individual, so is the universe 
As is the universe, so is the individual|4=Yajur Veda}}

==Samadarshan==
[[image:Sahaja Yoga International.jpg|thumb|200px|Sahaja Yoga International poster encouraging unity of religions.]]
[[image:BKSWU.jpg|thumb|200px|Brahma Kumari poster encouraging unity of religions.]]
[[image:ISKCON.jpg|thumb|200px|ISKCON poster encouraging unity of religions.]]
[[image:Worship frame.jpg|thumb|200px|A frame from India encouraging unity of religions.]]
[[image:SSO.jpg|thumb|200px|Sathya Sai Organization poster encouraging unity of religions.]]
[[image:Swarg Foundation.jpg|thumb|200px|Swarg Foundation poster encouraging unity of religions.]]
{{Cquote|May noble and auspicious thoughts come to us from all over the Universe|4=Rig Veda 1.89.1}} 

{{Cquote|The truth is one - the sages express it variously|4=Rig Veda 1.164.46}} 

{{Cquote|That which is one has multiplied unto all|4=Rig Veda 8.59.2}} 

''Samadarshan'' means "''Equal viewpoint''" or "''Equal worldview''." This idea is important in life so individuals can avoid bias and come to a mutually beneficial solution. It compares to the [[Jain Dharm|Jain]] [[Anekantavada]] ("''non-one-sidedness''.") The term appears in the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'' wherein [[Krishna]] advises humans to see all with a equal vision.<ref>”The truly learned, with the eyes of divine knowledge, see with equal vision a Brahmin, a cow, an elephant, a dog, and a dog-eater.” (B.G. 5.18) </ref>

<blockquote>
"This sarvatra samadarsana is the supreme ideal of Hinduism. This is the state of liberation or Moksha." - ''The Astrological Magazine''<ref> P. 291 ''The Astrological Magazine, Volume 91'' By Raman Publications </ref>
</blockquote>

Someone who thinks with this principle is a ''Samadarshi''. The right worldview is required in order to obtain Moksha.<ref> "''Samyag-darshana-kalam eva tat phalam sarvatmatvam darsayati''" - [[Adi Shankara]]'s ''[[Brahma]] Sutra Bhasya'' 3.3.32 "''Precisely at the time that right knowledge arises, its result - being the Self of all - is realized.''"</ref><ref> "''Jnana-samana-kalaiva [[mukti]]''" - ''Anandagirivyakhya'' "''Liberation is exactly simultaneous with the rise of knowledge.''"</ref>

The verse below is what ties the Samadarshan principle in with Loksangraha:

{{Cquote|Where the mind is without fear, and the head is held high; Where Knowledge is free; Where the world has not been broken up into fragments by narrow domestic walls;...Where the clear stream of reason has not lost its way into the dreary desert sand of dead habit;...Into that heaven of freedom, my Father, let my country awake.|4=Geetanjali}}

Further, the ''Jnana Sankalini [[Tantra]]'' gives 6 virtues for humans, and 1 of them includes [[uparati]] (indifferent outlook for worldly endeavours), which is along the lines of samadarshan.<ref> P. 91 ''Jnana Sankalini Tantra'' By Paramhamsa Prajnanananda </ref>

==Loksangraha==
{{Cquote|Dharma exists for the welfare of all beings. Hence, that by which the welfare of all living beings is sustained, that for sure is dharma.|4=Mahabharata 109.10}}
 
If Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam is true and must become a reality, then working towards it is a must. ''Loksangraha'' means “''well-being of the world''.”
 
{{Cquote|On who sees all creatures as if they were his own selves and himself in others - his mind rests in peace|4=Yajur Veda 40-46}} 
''Sarvabhutahita'' also means "''working for the welfare of all humanity''" and ''samya'' means "''becoming one''". 'Inclusivism' is a term invented by Paul Hacker in 1957 in his article titled "Tolerance and Intolerance in Hinduism," in which he portrays Hinduism as doctrinally tolerant and does not superimpose.<ref> ''[[Swami Vivekananda]] and Non-[[Hindu]] Traditions: A Universal [[Advaita]]'' By Stephen E. Gregg </ref> ''Sadharana Dharma'' is the term for a universal set of principles that would apply to all people equally. ''[[Antahkarana]]-shuddhi'' is the purity by being compassionate to all.<ref> P. 220 ''Tat Tvam Asi: The Universal Massage in the [[Bhagavadgītā]] · Volume 1'' By Pathikonda Viswambara Nath</ref>
 
<blockquote>
“I am proud to belong to a religion which has taught the world both tolerance and universal acceptance. We believe not only in universal tolerance, but we accept all religions as true." - Swami Vivekanand<ref> P. 360 ''Religious Tolerance in World Religions'' By Jacob Neusner and Bruce Chilton </ref>
</blockquote>
As a result, Hindus tend to be very tolerant and Hindu societies have allowed other religions to develop in terms to building their [[institutions]] (i.e., [[worship]] halls, post-secondary [[institutes]], political parties.) ''Sarva [[Dharma]]'' means, "''All Religions'' and this concept has been preached by Hindus for social harmony. For example, Sarwa Dharma Mahavidyalaya and Sarwa Dharma [[Vidhi]] Mahavidhyalaya are post-secondaries while Sarva Dharma Sthal Temple is a worship hall for all religions, and Sarva Dharma Sammelan is a yearly summit of all religions in India. Swami Vivekā[[nanda]] called the idea that "''all religions are equal''," ''Sarva Dharma Samabhava.'' Swami Shantatmanand called it ''Dharma Samanvaya,'' and the [[Ramakrishna Mission]] organization calls it ''Dharma Siwan Waya.''
{{Cquote|Shunning all differences, we should speak together, our minds should work together, and our thoughts should be in harmony.|4=Yajur Veda<ref> Samgachhadhvam samvadadhvam sam vo manansi janatam </ref>}}
 

==Trikarana shuddhi==
{{Cquote|Purity of speech, of body, and of mind, forgiveness, truth, firmness and intelligence, these good qualities are shown by pious persons who observe both kinds of dharm.|4=Mahabharata 12.214.6[https://sacred-texts.com/hin/m12/m12b041.htm]}}
This process of 'purification' helps cleanse the [[mind]], speech, and deeds. ''Sarvabhutatma-bhutatma'' also means ''antahkarana-shuddhi'' ("''purity by being compassionate to all.''") The ''[[Mahabharata]]'' elaborates this concept by stating, "''Manasyekam vachasyekam karmanyekam mahatmanam''" or "''All are one; there is no disparity in ideas, expression and deeds, and he is a Mahatma who applies this concept.''" Another term for trikarana shuddhi is sattva-samshuddhi, which appears in the ''Bhagavad Gita''. The Gita says Ahimsa is committing no harm to any living creature in thought, speech, or deed.<ref>"Chapter 13" (Verses 7–11), ''Bhagavad Gita''</ref> In "Chapter 17", Krishna redefines true tapas (austerities) by splitting it into 3 balanced, non-extreme types—Austerity of the Body<ref>Śārīraṁ Tapa: Cleanliness, straightforwardness, celibacy, non-violence, and honoring teachers.</ref>, Austerity of Speech<ref>Vāṅ-mayaṁ Tapa: Speaking words that are truthful, pleasant, beneficial, and do not cause distress.</ref>, and Austerity of the Mind<ref>Mānasaṁ Tapa: Serenity, mental gentleness, silence, self-control, and purity of purpose.</ref>. The monastic order of the Vaishnav Tri-Dandin (Triple-Staffed) had its emblem of 3 staffs represent 'restraint in speech<ref> Vāg-danda </ref>, restraint in bodily senses <ref> Kāya-danda </ref>, and restraint in mind<ref> Mano-danda </ref>.

Mahatma Gandhi would say, "''See no evil. Hear no evil. Speak no evil.''" This statement ties into the principle of trikarana shuddhi.
 
The ''[[Yajur Veda]]'' says:
:"We are prostrating you ([[Rudra]]) with trikarana shuddhi."
 
The three words also appear at ''Mahabharata''<ref>[http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/mbs/mbs13008.htm ''Mahabharata'' 13.8.16]</ref>:
:"In consequence of what I have done to the Brahmanas in thought, word, and deed, I do not feel any pain now [even though I am lying on a bed of arrows]."<ref>[http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/mbs/mbs13008.htm Sanskrit text] and [http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m13/m13a008.htm#fn_11 English translation]</ref>
 
They appear in at least one version of the ''[[Guru Gita]]''<ref> ''[[Guru]] Gita 1.51'' </ref>:
:"With actions, speech, and thought, constantly strive to satisfy the guru. With sincerity, prostate before the guru and offer hull honor."
 
The ''[[Padma Purana]]'' says on Prahlada:
:"He, of a delighted mind, never knew anyone else except the lord of gods in all conditions and deeds (done) with his mind, speech and body. The humble and very intelligent one stayed in his preceptor's [[house]] at a (proper) time."
 
In contrast, one who seeks to cause harm to others in mind, speech, and deed is a ''purvalodra''.<ref> ''Culture and International Law: Proceedings of the International Conference of the Centre for International Law Studies (CILS 2018), October 2-3, 2018, Malang, Indonesia'' By Hikmahanto Juwana, ‎Jeffrey Thomas, ‎Mohd Hazmi Mohd Rusli </ref>

'''Quotes regarding self-restrain from Sanatan and other [[Ārya Samudāy|Arya teachers]]:'''
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Krishna
! [[Narada]]
! Patanjali
! Gautam [[Buddha]]
! Mahavir
! Guru Nanak
! Mahatma Gandhi
|-
|
:”For one who has conquered the mind, the mind is the best of friends. But for one who has failed to do so, his very mind will be his greatest enemy.”<ref> [http://www.prabhupadaconnect.com/One-Who-Has-Conquered-the-Mind.html ''Bhagavad-Gītā'' 6.5-7] </ref>
|
:”Some think themselves the conqueror of the ten directions, yet have not even conquered the six enemies within, which are their own five senses and mind.”<ref> ''Bhagavad [[Purana]]'' 7.8.11[107] </ref>
|
:”Conquer callous, cruel, and insensitive feelings toward all beings.”
|
:”To conquer oneself is a greater victory than to conquer thousands in a battle.”
|
:”Fight with yourself. Why fight with external foes. He who conquers himself will obtain happiness.”<ref> ''Uttaradhyayana Sutra'' 9.34-36 </ref>
|
:”By conquering oneself, one conquers the world.”<ref> Japu 26, ''Guru Granth'' 6</ref>
|
:”The only devils in this world are those running around in our own hearts, and that is where all our battles should be fought.”
|-
|}

==Related articles==
*[[Darshana]]
*[[Sadachara|Right Conduct]]
*[[Ethics of Hinduism]]
*[[Animal rights]]
*[[Environmentalism]]
*[[Karma Marga]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Ethical ideals]]
[[Category:Core concepts]]

Theology

2026-07-05T06:03:12Z

Himanshu Bhatt: /* References to 3 aspects of God */

{{Author|Himanshu Bhatt}}
[[Image:Vishnu making universes.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Vishnu]] depicted as God (in [[Vaiśnava|Vaiśnava]] sectarian context) as making and ending universes while being within them, demonstrating panentheism.]]
[[Image:Gayatri Ma.jpg|thumb|250px|The monotheistic prayer Gayatri Mantra personified as God, demonstrating [[monotheism]] in itself.
 
The [[mantra]] demonstrates henotheism when it is called Sarva-[[devata]] Svarupini ("''Universal Form of All Deities''.")]]
<blockquote>
“The Hindu religion is the only one of the world’s great faiths dedicated to the idea that the Cosmos itself undergoes an immense, indeed an infinite, number of deaths and rebirths. It is the only religion in which the time scales correspond to those of modern scientific [[cosmology]]. Its cycles run from our ordinary day and night to a day and night of Brahma, 8.64 billion years long. Longer than the age of the Earth or the Sun and about half the time since the Big Bang.” - Carl Sagan, ''Cosmos''
</blockquote>
Panentheism is the first and foremost theology of the Sanatan Dharm while henotheism and monotheism are secondary but they are all in conformity with each other. This is because while recognizing there is only One Supreme Being above all ([[Brahm]] or [[God]]), the immanence and transcendence of It is a doctrine that goes beyond the generic monotheism preached by other religions. While accepting there is One God above all, it does not enforce worshiping only The One. So it is monotheistic because it believes there is God, but also henotheistic because others worshipping It in another form is accepted as still worshiping the One God. Worship as polytheism (i.e., praying to ancestors) is acceptable being it does not reject The One but venerates others as well. Once a human attains Moksh, it is united with Brahm or Parmatma. Brahm is not confined to space and so is everywhere, including within ourselves. This principle is Ishavasyam. Individuals on the other hand are also connected to all that exists, and this is the [[Environmentalism#Aikatmyam|principle of aikatmyam]]. Because of this omnipresence, the central Hindu theology is panentheism. It is monotheist too because there is just one God above all other spirits. It is henotheist because, while Brahm is The Supreme, other beings worthy of worship exist, which may be pious humans or angels ([[Devatā|demi-gods]].) Hindu theology is often aptly termed monistic theism and even open monotheism by some scholars, but is not purely polytheistic as outsiders perceive it to be. [[Bhakti Marga|Worship (Bhakti Yoga]]) is one of the three yogas to attain Moksh.<ref>The other two are [[Gyāna Mārga|Gyāna Yoga]] and [[Karma Mārga|Karma Yoga]].</ref> Monotheism is known in [[Overview Of Scriptures|Hindu scriptures]] as ekantikvad, and some sects practice it strictly, such as the [[Arya]] Samaj, Mahima, and certain [[Śaiva]] (i.e., Viraśaiva, Alakhgir) and the Vaiśnava (i.e., Pushtimarga, Ekasarana) sampradays.

Hinduism has often been considered to be polytheistic because of one leading denomination, Smartism, which follows the [[Advaita]] philosophy of absolute monism, and includes worship of all kinds of personal forms of God. Absolute monists see one unity with all personal forms of God as different aspects of one Supreme Spirit, like a single beam of light separated into colors by a prism. Thus Smartas consider all personal forms of God as equal including Devi, Vishnu, Śiva, Ganesh and Skanda but generally limit the recognized forms to be six. Other denominations of Hinduism don't adhere to the Smarta viewpoint, but are quite unlike Western perceptions of monotheism. Additionally, like Judeo-Christian traditions which believe in angels, Hindus also believe in other less powerful entities, such as [[deva]]s.<ref name = hop1>{{cite book |title=THE RELIGIONS OF INDIA|author=Edward Washburn Hopkins|url=http://books.google.com/?id=Dj33XvXqJO8C |publisher= Jr. Ginn & Co |pages=204 |year= 1896 |editor=Morris Jastrow, |isbn=978-1-60303-143-1}}</ref>

Sometimes the orthodox members of religions interpret religions with a puritan mindset. An example is that many Christians believe any form of worship not including Jesus as being 'idol worship', while Muslims consider idol worship specifically practicing worship through statues but revering the black stone at the Kaaba and circumambulating Kaaba as not idolatry. [Within the Hindu community too prejudices exist among certain people but the general belief is that 'all religions lead to God'.] This leads to religions discrediting other religions. It is resulted in Hinduism being classified as 'pagan cults' and/or a 'polytheistic religion with no heaven'. The underlying principle of the divine is that it has a Supreme Soul (literally 'Parmatma'), making Hinduism monotheistic in belief. Because Hindus believe that Parmatma possesses the universe, which It also transcends, Hinduism believes in panentheism. And because of the principles 'all religions lead to God' and 'All God is One', and that God can be worshiped in those various ways in various forms, Hinduism believes in henotheism.

Contemporary Hinduism can be categorized into four major sects:
# [[Vaiśnava|Vaiśnavism]]
# [[Śaiva|Śaivism]]
# [[Śākta|Śaktism]]
# Smartism
Vaiśnavism, Śaivism, and Śaktism [[worship]] [[Narayan]], [[Śiva]] and [[Devi]] - the Divine Mother as the Supreme Being respectively or considering all [[Hindu]] [[deities]] as aspects of the Supreme Being or Brahm.<ref>See [[Advaita]], or impersonalism.</ref> Other minor sects such as [[Ganapatya]] and [[Surya|Saura]] focus on [[Ganesha|Ganesh]] and [[Surya]] as the Supreme.

==Nature of God==
:''See also: [[God#Nature of God|Nature of God]]'' [[Image:Durga Ma.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Durga|Durga Ma]] as depicted as God (in [[Shakta]] sectarian context), the God of gods, demonstrating henotheism.]]
[[Image:God in all beings.jpg|thumb|250px|God is considered [[Antaryamin]] (Inner Dweller) or [[Caitya-purusa|Chaitya Purush]] (Inner Being.) While God is omnipresent in inanimate objects too, it is Its presence within living beings that enables a relationship between humans and It, and for humans to attain [[Moksha|Moksh]]. (This is an image of God in [[Vaiśnava]] context.)]]
The One Above All is called Brahm and Parmatma in Sanatan Dharm. This [[acintya|Supreme Being is beyond imagination]] and experience, and as such, transcends the universe. The [[Darshana|darshanas (metaphysical worldviews)]] discuss this universe being prakriti which releases from either Brahm Itself or from human under the influence of ignorance (i.e., [[Maya Panchakam|Maya]].) Brahm is also believed by most Hindus to incarnate in various avataras, which may be to answer a prayer of a devotee, [[test]] a human, or promote spirituality (i.e., Krishna.)

Brahm or God Almighty is spoken of as being ''alaukika'' ("''beyond this world''.") This world is seen as prakriti (nature) which God created. This nature of this world is such that karmas cause beings to be possessed with defilements. God is tri-guṇatit, meaning It is transcendental to the modes of material nature.

God is:
#Sarvavyapin (omnipresent)
#Sarvajna (omniscient)
#Sarvaśaktiman (omnipotent)
#Akal (without beginning, and forever)
#Tri-gunatit (transcendent of the 3 modes of material nature)
The sarvavyapin aspect of God is such that it pervades everything, both material and spiritual, and is also called ''Ishavasyam'' ("''God present in all.''") Sarvajna means to know all, and this is an aspect often highlighted when speaking of Moksh, because salvation means Brahmgyana ("''to know Brahm''") or to acquire Brahmvidya. Sarvaśaktiman means the power of Brahm is such that there is nothing it cannot do, and no other power is greater. ''Akal'' means "''timeless''" and refers to the self-existent state (''swayambhu'') of God, and that it will exist forever. Tri-gunatit means to be transcendent of this material universe which is imperfect.

===Dualistic Energies of God===
This is an understanding of Brahm based on its energies in this universe. While Brahm is the Supreme above all, the God Almighty, it is said to apply two forms of energies in this world. This means that the energy which surrounds us in this material realm is different from that of the spiritual world (Moksh), as is the energy which is with our souls. This is spoken of in different sects and [[Darshana|darshans]]. For example, in the Śaiva sect, Śiva is said to be Brahm while his other half is Prakriti (the divine energy possessing this world.) In the [[Samkhya Yoga]] darshan too, Brahm (Purusha) has a counterpart referred to as Prakriti, which is the nature that surrounds us in this reality. In the ''Bhagvad Gita'' too, Krishna says that Brahm is the total energy while the energy here in this reality he calls ''Parmatma''. In Vaiśnavism, this is notion of the Gita is elaborated wherein the energy of Brahm present in this universe is Mahamaya (or hiraṇmaya-[[mahat]]-[[tattva]]), whereas in the spiritual one it is Yogamaya (or jivan śakti.) The material energy is impacted by the three modes of material nature whereas spiritual energy is not, which is why prakriti is eternal and mutable (parimaminitya), whereas Yogamaya is eternal and immutable (parinamnitya.) The total energy of Brahm is called swarup śakti.

Personification of God's two energies has been presented in some instances as well. In Śaiva context, Śiva represents the spiritual energy and Śakti Ma represents the material energy. In Vaiśnavism too, Brahm is Krishna or Narayan and his energy (both spiritual and material) is a female, usually portrayed as Vishnu's wife, Śri (''Mantramayi Kriya Śakti''.)

====References to 3 aspects of God====
[[Image:Trimurti.jpg|thumb|250px|God represented in a syncretist context as [[Trimurti]] ("''Triune God''"), showing [[Brahmā]], [[Vishnu]], and [[Mahesh]] as God in Its 3 aspects.]]
Because the energies in the universe have normally been considered to be dualistic, they, together with God's total energy in the spiritual real, would be 3 aspects of God. From this logic, many Hindu thinkers have believed there are 3 aspects of God we can come to the conclusion of. Various scriptures have written on the One Supreme Lord being characterized of 3 aspects, in Hinduism and in the [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]]. In a conversation mentioned in the ''Brihadaranyaka [[Upanishad|Upaniṣad]]''<Ref> Chapter 3, Part 9 of ''Brihadaranyaka Upaniṣad'' </ref> between [[Yajnavalkya]] and Vidaghdha, the latter asks how many Devas (gods) there are, to which the former replies 33, but Vidaghdha keeps asking, and before coming to the answer of a single 1 God, he had said there are 3 gods [which can be taken to mean that single God has 3 aspects.] No other story legitimizes 3 aspects of Brahm more than the one of the ''[[Rig Veda]]'' wherein Ka (an epithet of the unseen presence or Parabrahm) or Apo (primordial waters) produced the universal womb Hiranyagarbha (Prajapati) with Prajapati within the womb having come into being the "one divine spirit", and Agni (souls)[https://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10121.htm]

Parallel to the 3 aspects of Brahm is the the [[Vaiśnava#Pāñcharātra Āgama|Pāñchrātra]], which consists of 5 venerable forms of Narayan (para, vyuha, vibhava, [[arca]], and antaryamin), the 3 aspects which as para, vyuha, and antaryamin fall within the same categories as the classifications of Brahm do in many other analyses. The vibhava aspect of God is basically formed from one or 2 of the other aspects (i.e., avatara of vyuha and consist of antaryamin.) Arca refers to representative icons of God which are venerated, which are created by matter. In this analysis, the Pāñchrātra holds consistent with the triune characterization of God. Some schools of Śaivism too break down the aspects of God into 3, like Śiva being Parabrahm, Śakti being Aparabrahm, and Yamala being Tapas or Agni. The last is called Tapas or Agni normally, as it is imperishable and is the same energy as the soul (Yogamaya.) That is why it is also called Apām Napāt (''Child of Apo''.)

The "Ka Sukta" (aliases "Hiranyagarbha Sukta", "Prajapati Sukta") of the ''Rig Veda'' is one the most popular cosmogonies in the Arya dharmas. What has been overlooked are the triple aspects detailed within the hymn. In it, Apo (God as 'primordial waters'), which "''possesses generational fire''" (Agni), incubates the Hiranyagarbha (womb containing Prajapati, "''born Only-Lord of all created beings''"). In other words, it ambiguously states Apo is God in the highest form (i.e., Parabrahm), Prajapati this material universe's Aparabrahm, and Agni the life-giving spark within all creatures. (This can be likened to the Pāñchrātrik para, vyuha, and antaryamin.) The hymn goes further to state that [[Devatā#Divine Council|the Devanam or ''people who've taken the title of God'']] (i.e., Devtas on the Divine Council of 33) return to God, meaning that the Devtas are representatives of God on Earth but they are none of the 3 aspects of God and aren't of equal status to God either.

As the material energy is Mahamaya and spiritual (superior) energy is Yogamaya, these energies can also help break down the Vak (cosmic speech.) The ''Rig Veda'' itself declares, "''Vak resides in four quarters (pada). The wise Brahmins who possess insight know them all. Three quarters are hidden in secret and do not stir; human beings speak only the fourth quarter.''"<ref>''Rig Veda'' 1.164.45</ref> The first 3 aspects of Vak itself—para, pashyanti, and madhyama—are spiritual, while the last (Vaikhari) is material energy. Therefore, it can be presumed that this together with synthesizing the commonalities in the creation myths, that the Aparabrahm or Universe is the lowest form of Vak.

Below is a table summarizing and forming the connections between the trinity stated in various texts or beliefs.
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Derivation
! Heavenly Being
! All-Pervasive Being in Universe
! Inner Being
|-
!Vishwakarma Sukta (''Rig Veda'')
|Vishwakarma/Apo (Primordial Waters)/Garbha/Dhātar/Vidhātar/Sacrificial Seer<ref>ṛṣirhotā</ref>/Ascetic Father<ref>nyasīdatpitā</ref>/One Dev<ref>deva ekaḥ</ref>/Lord of Speech<ref>vācas patiṃ</ref>/One, Only One<ref>para ekamāhuḥ</ref>
|Universe
|
|-
!Ka Sukta (''Rig Veda'')
|Apo
|Hiranyagarbha (Prajapati)/Universe
|Agni
|-
!Vak Sukta (''Rig Veda'')
|Apsu (Primordial Waters<ref>Yonirapsvantaḥ</ref>)
|Universe
|Vak
|-
!Nasadiya Sukta (''Rig Veda'')
|Tad Ekam (That One)
|Sat (The Existent/Manifestation)/Universe
|Asat (The Non-Existent/Potentiality)
|-
!Aghamarṣaṇa Sukta (''Rig Veda'')
|Dhātar
|Sat (The Existent/Manifestation)/Ṛta (Cosmic Order) and Satya (Cosmic Truth)
|Tapas (Cosmic Heat)
|-
!Devāgāna Sukta (''Rig Veda'')
|Āsur Ek/Brahmaṇaspati/Dev Ek
|Sat (The Existent/Manifestation)
|Vak
|-
!Purush Sukta (''Rig Veda'')
|Adhi Purush
|Virāj/Universe
|Vak/Purush (other souls)
|-
!''Bhagavad Gita''<ref> “''O best of the embodied souls, the physical manifestation that is constantly changing is called adhibhūta; the universal form of God, which presides over the celestial gods in this creation, is called adhidaiva; I, who dwell in the heart of every living being, am called Adhiyajña, or the Lord of all sacrifices.''” - [https://www.holy-bhagavad-gita.org/chapter/8/verse/4 ''Bhagvad Gita'' 8.4] </ref>
|Parabrahm
|Aparabrahm
|Parmatma<Ref> “''Within the body also resides the Supreme Lord. He is said to be the Witness, the Permitter, the Supporter, Transcendental Enjoyer, the ultimate Controller, and the Paramātmā (Supreme Soul).''” - [https://www.holy-bhagavad-gita.org/chapter/13/verse/23 ''Bhagvad Gita'' 13.23] </ref>
|-
!''Bhagavat Purana''
|Narayan
|Mahamaya
|Yogamaya
|-
!''Isha Upaniṣad'' 6-7
|Uttam [Purush]
|Kshar
|Akshar
|-
!''Katha Upaniṣad'' (1.3.10–11)
|Purush
|Avyaktam
|Mahat (Mahan [[Atma]])
|-
!''Mahānārāyan Upaniṣad'' 24
|Tvashtā
| -
| -
|-
!''Maitrāyaṇīya Upaniṣad''
|Brahmā
|Vishnu
|Mahesh
|-
!''Sams'aya-taducchedavādah''
|Manomaya Purush ([[Avyaya]])
|Vangmaya (Kshar)
|Pranamaya Purush (Akshar)
|-
!''Sasongko Jati''
|Principle of Lord<ref>Suksma Kawekas</ref>
|Director of Life<ref>Suksma Sejati</ref>
|Lord of Life<ref>Roh Suci</ref>
|-
!''Sāttvat Saṃhitā''
|Para
|Vyuha
|Antaryamin
|-
!''Swaminarayan Bhashyam'' / ''Vachanamrut''
|Parabrahm
|Aparabrahm
|Aksharbrahm
|-
!''Vijñāna Bhairava Tantra''
|Śiva
|Śakti
|Yamala
|-
!''[[Vayu]] [[Purana]]'' 1.2
|Purush
|Manifested Prakriti
|Unmanifested Prakriti
|-
!''[[Yoga]] Sutra'' 2.20
|Drashtā
|Pratyaya-anupashya
|Shuddha
|-
|}

===Formlessness===
{{Cquote|Knowing That which is soundless, touchless, formless, undecaying; also tasteless, odorless, and eternal; beginningless, endless and immutable; beyond the Unmanifested: (knowing That) man escapes from the mouth of death.|4=Katha Upaniṣad 3.15}}
 
Brahm has been written of to be either Nirguna (Parabrahm) and Shaguna (Aparabrahm), including being both. Nirguna refers to God without physical and personality attributes (i.e., a body) while Shaguna is the opposite. Worshiping God as either is fine. Brahm is believed to take vyuhas or emanations, especially to communicate with humans in the physical world (i.e., to provide revelations), and has been seen particularly in Vaiṣnavism as both heavenly and earthly incarnations. Avatars of Śiva, Ganesh, [[Durga]], and others have also been documented and worshipped. 
{{Cquote|Brahm has indeed has 2 two modes, formless as well as manifested.|4=Brihad-Aranyaka Upaniṣad 2.3.1}}
 
Nirguna bhakti was a popular method of worshipping in the medieval era in particular when several sects appeared. Worshipping Vishnu in the formless manner was practiced by Ramanand [[Sampraday]] and its succeeding sects, including Kabir Panth, Ravidas Panth, Satnam Panth, and others. Mahima Dharm was a peculiar Vaiśnava sect because it adheres only to the ''Bhagvat Purana'' and normally referred to Vishnu as ''Alakh'' or ''Sunya'' (“''Void''.”) [[Temples]] of this sect never include [[idols]] which are venerated because the heavenly Vishnu, God before the creation of all, is considered unmanifested. Some Śaiva sects too have practiced worship without an idol, denying that God (Śiva) has a form. These sects include Alakhgirs and Nath Panthis, both of whom call Śiva ''Alakh'' (“''Invisible''.”) Manikkavasagar was a well-known saint from the Bhakti era that worshipped Śiva as formless.<ref> ''Shiva in the City of Nectar: Fifty-four divine tales of Shiva in ancient India'' By Preetha Rajah Kannan </ref> Arulnanti was a another Śaiva theologian from southern India at the time.
 
{{Cquote|Although the Supreme Lord is described as having no hands and legs, He nonetheless accepts all sacrificial offerings.|4=Śvetāśvatara Upaniṣad 3.19}}
 
Temples wherein Brahm is worshipped as formless are known as ''Sunya Mandirs''. Most of these are Vaiśnava belonging to the Ekasarana, Mahima, and Satnami sects, but Śaiva sects of Brahmā Kumaris are notable. There are also temples of Vishnu, Śiva and other gods that don’t belong to a particular sect.
 
{{Cquote|The Entity who is one and without a second, and one without any colours; who has created the colourful quinquelemental world for reasons unknown with the help of His many powers; in whom this entire universe dissolves; is no other than Parama Puruśa. Let that Entity guide our intellect along the path of supreme righteousness. |4=Śvetāśvatara Upaniṣad 4.1.12}}

==Both Immanency and Transcendence of God (Panentheism)==
{{Cquote|I take refuge in that self-existent Being in Whom is this Universe, and Who is beyond this (differentiated Nature) as also beyond that (Undifferentiated.)|4=[https://vedabase.io/en/library/sb/8/3/3/ Bhagvata Purana 8.3.3]}}
 
Karl Krause coined the term 'panentheism' inspired by his readings on Hinduism.<ref> P. 170 ''The Oxford Handbook of Natural Theology'' By Russell Re Manning; ''Karl Krause (1781–1832) borrowed Indian ideas in formulating his own panentheist doctrine of God as a non-personal essence (Wesen) with which the world must eventually be reunited.''"</ref> In Sanskrit, this is called ''Ishavasyam'' or ''vibhudyatvad'' (“''doctrine of pervading and surpassing''.”) While pantheism equates the visible universe with God, panentheism declares that God is omnipresent in Its creation and transcends Its creation too. This means God is the visible universe and more. Heaven and hell may not be in this universe, but another wherein God is also omnipresent. It would make sense that if God is all-pervasive that we would be within It. In other words, everything is submerged or within God. Purusha [[Sukta]] states that The Supreme is both immanent and transcendent - "''Sa bhumin vishvato vritva atyatishthat dashangulam.''" Even when Hindus greet each other by saying "''Namaste''," it means "''I bow to God within you''," showing panentheism in the very greeting. The ''Kaṭha Upaniṣad'' 2.2.12-13 states, “''Whatever we see is a manifestation of [[Brahman]].''”<ref> “''sarvaṁ khalv idaṁ brahma taj jalā[[niti]] śānta upāsīta''” </ref> Satguru Sivaya Subramuniyaswami, said that "''Panentheism is the view that the universe is part of the being of God, as distinguished from pantheism (all-is-God doctrine"), which identifies God with the total reality. In contrast, panentheism holds that God pervades the world, but is also beyond it. He is immanent and transcendent, relative and Absolute. This embracing of opposites is called dipolar. For the panentheist, God is in all, and all is in God.''"

{{Cquote|It is you from whom this universe of forms emerges, and it is you within whom it stays. It is you in whom it finally disappears. |4=Vedasara Shivastotram}} 

Professor Charles Hartshorne in his discussion of panentheism discussed Hinduism in 1953. Professor Lorilai Biernacki considers Hinduism to be one of the most panentheistic traditions.[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/panentheism/] Other [[Ārya Samudāy]] dharmas have also been written on by scholars as panentheist - Christopher Key Chapple on Jainism, Geoffrey Samuel on Buddhism, William M. Reynolds on [[Sikhism]]<ref> P. 90 ''Expanding Curriculum Theory: Dis/positions and Lines of Flight'' By William M. Reynolds and ‎Julie A. Webber </ref>, Ernest Lee Tuveson on Hermeticism<ref>P. 255 ''Gnosis and Hermeticism from Antiquity to Modern Times'' By R. van den Broek </ref>, and Dirk Baltzly on Neoplatonism.

<blockquote>
"It is in the [[Vedas]] that we find for the first time not merely traces or indications of Pantheism, but Pantheism itself in its full growth and maturity." - Constance E. Plumptre<ref> ''General Sketch of the History of Pantheism: Volume 1'' By Constance E. Plumptre </ref>
</blockquote>
{{Cquote|This entire cosmic manifestation is pervaded by Me in My unmanifest form. All living beings dwell in Me, but I do not dwell in them.|4=[https://www.holy-bhagavad-gita.org/chapter/9/verse/4 Bhagvad Gita 9.24]}}
 
Ishavasyam is a term which demonstrates the omnipresent nature of Brahm, wherein It is everywhere and is transcendent of the objects it possesses. In a story from Krishna's life, once when Krishna was an infant he was suspected to have placed mud into his mouth. Yashoda then said, “''If you have not taken any mud, then open your mouth. I shall see for myself.''” Upon seeing in his mouth, she saw the universe (i.e., galaxies, starts. ) This one event shows how the universe itself is within God Almighty.
 
{{Cquote|The Supreme Lord walks and does not walk. He is far away, but He is very near as well. He is within everything, and yet He is outside of everything.|4=[https://vedabase.io/en/library/iso/5/ Isha Upaniṣad 5]}}
 
In the below verse, [[Yama]] is saying the Brahm is present in the inanimate and animate objects of the world.
{{Cquote|I am the food. I am the eater of food.|4=Taittiriya Upaniṣad 3.10.6}}
 
{{Cquote|He who, dwelling in all things,
Yet is other than all things, 
Whom all things do not know, 
Whose body all things are, 
Who controls all things from within, 
He is your soul, the Inner Controller, the Immortal.|4=Brihad-Aranyaka Upaniṣad 3.7.15}}
 
The verse below illustrates that God is the Complete Whole, meaning all-pervasive in this universe and yet, transcendent of it:
{{Cquote|God is perfect and complete, and because It is completely perfect, all emanations from It, such as this phenomenal world, are perfectly equipped as complete wholes. Whatever is produced of the Complete Whole is also complete in itself. Because It is the Complete Whole, even through so many complete units emanate from It, It remains the complete balance.|4=Isha Upaniṣad invocation}}
 
Mahatma Gandhi was very fond of quoting from this Upaniṣadic couplet:
{{Cquote|Whatever is ephemeral in this changing universe is Ishavasya (enveloped by Isha.)|4=Isha Upaniṣad}}
 
The omnipresence of Brahm is related to the interconnectedness of the soul (aikatmyam), because it is this relationship which also helps connect the soul to Brahm for achieving Moksh - realizing Aham Brahmasmi and tapping into the [[Antaryamin]] (Brahm within.)

{{Cquote|That microcosm [within you] is That Universe [outside of you], That Universe [outside of you] is that microcosm [within you.]<ref>Yat pinde tatha Brahmānde yatha Brahmande tatha pinde[https://www.yogapedia.com/definition/9326/yat-pinde-tat-brahmande]</ref>|4=Yajur Veda}}

This concept is mentioned as ''Pind Brahmand [[Nyaya]]. ''

==Oneness of God (Monotheism)==
[[Image:Surya with attendents.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Surya]] as God (in [[Saura]] sectarian context) being worshipped by his attendants and crowds of humans, demonstrating monotheism.]]
[[Image:Cosmic Vishnu.jpg|thumb|250px|Krishna too is sometimes depicted as comprising of the whole universe and to have his abodes outside of the universe (as stated in the ''[[Bhagavad Gita|Bhagvad Gita]]''), demonstrating panentheism.]]
[[Image:Cosmic Jina.jpg|thumb|250px|The whole universe in [[Jain Dharm|Jainism]] too is depicted as a person - referred to as 'Lok Purusha', demonstrating panentheism.]]
[[Image:Cosmic Buddha.jpg|thumb|250px|The whole universe in [[Bauddh Dharm|Buddhism]] too is sometimes depicted as a person, demonstrating panentheism.]]
''Brahm'' and ''Parmatma'' are the generic terms for The One Above All. The Sanskrit term for this is
''ekantikvad'' or ''ekamata.'' How Hindus have practiced monotheism is by worshiping Parmatma by worshiping It as an Ishta-Dev. Even the worship of solely Krishna as Parmatma or God Almighty by followers was referred to ''Ekantika [[Dharma]]'' and ''[[Ekayana]]''. The latter term was used also by Vaiśnavas of the [[Rudra]] Sampraday for worshipers of only Vishnu. Śaiva sects too have enforced monotheism, such as the Alakh Panth and Virasaivs. Monotheism in worship is enforced by a few sects but worshiping God Almighty along with others (demi-gods and ancestors) isn’t forbidden by most sects.

==Oneness of Deities (Henotheism)==
:''See also: [[Worship]], [[God#Oneness of God|Oneness of God]]''
<blockquote>
"This concept of God is panentheistic and even the Vedic theism is nothing but panentheism. It is very well expressed in philosophical hymns like ''[[Puruṣa]] sūkta'', ''Hiranyagarbha sūkta'' and even ''Nāsadīya sūkta''." - Sahebrao Genu Nigal<ref> P. 81 ''Vedic Philosophy of Values'' By Sahebrao Genu Nigal </ref>
</blockquote>It is understood that any kind of worship is accepted by The One Above All, regardless of name or form addressed in worship. The Sanskrit term for this is ''sarvekāntatva'' (“''state of all being a part of one''.”) Even a worshiper who is not Hindu and worships God [or a god] at their church or home, is worshiping God (only in a different way.) This particular viewpoint was so profound to modern scholars studying Hinduism that new terms had to be invented in English just to describe it - 'henotheism'. Then from 'henothenism' came another another term - 'kathenotheism' - meaning to worship 1 god at a time (while recognizing there may be more than a single divine being.) Then in 1828 German philosopher Karl Krause coined the term 'panentheism'.

 
{{Cquote|Of the eternals you are The Chief Eternal, of the sentients you are The Chief Sentient 
The One Chief of the many, that assembles and who is desirable 
Dark (unseeable) and present in the soul who is watching and unwavering 
That eternal peace is a guiding force [within]|4=Katha Upaniṣad 2.2.13<ref> Nityo nityanam cetanas cetananam 
eko bahunam yo vidadhati kaman 
tam atma-stham ye ’nupasyanti dhiras 
tesham shantih sasvati netaresam</ref>}}

 
Even the earlier Mandalas of ''[[Rig Veda]]''<ref>Ṛgveda books 1 and 9</ref> which contain hymns dedicated to devas, are thought to have a tendency toward monotheism.<ref>Macdonell, Arthur Anthony. Vedic Mythology. Forgotten Books (May 23, 2012). P. 17. ISBN 1440094365.</ref> Often quoted isolated pada of the ''Ṛig Veda''<ref>Ṛgveda 1.164.46</ref> states (trans. Ralph T.H. Griffith):

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! English
! Sanskrit
|-
|
{{Cquote|
:They call him Indra, Mitra, Varuṇa, Agni, and he is heavenly nobly-winged Garutmān.
:To what is One, sages give many a title they call it Agni, Yama, Mātariśvan.}}
|
{{Cquote|
:Indraṃ mitraṃ varuṇamaghnimāhuratho divyaḥ sa suparṇo gharutmān
:ekaṃ sad viprā bahudhā vadantyaghniṃ yamaṃ mātariśvānamāhuḥ}}
|-
|}

Further, the ''Rig Veda'' states, “There is only one God, [[worship]] Him“<Ref> Ṛg Veda, 6.45.16 </ref> and “Do not worship any one beside Him“<ref> Ṛg Veda 8.1.1 </ref>. Recognizing that there is a Supreme God above any other divinities is seen in the Vaiśnava mantra “Dev devaya namo nama” and Śaiva mantra “Aum nama Shivay sarvaya deva devaya vai namaha,” both of which proclaim their respective Supreme as the “God of gods.”
 
{{Cquote|Patiṁ patīnāṁ paramaṁ parastāt|4=Śvetāśvatara Upaniṣad 6.7}}
 
The ''[[Brahma Samhitā]]''<ref>Brahma Samhitā 5.45</ref> declares, ''Lord Vishnu is milk; Lord Śiva is yogurt''. Other aspects of God are expansions or aspects of Vishnu or Śiva which is detailed in various [[Purānas]]. Vaiṣnavites, like other Hindus, have tolerance for other beliefs because [[Krishna]], an [[avatara]] of Vishnu, said so in the Gitā. Krishna says:
{{Cquote|Whatever deity or form a devotee worships, I make his or her faith steady. However, their wishes are only granted by Me alone."<ref>Gitā 7.21-22</ref>|4=Bhagvad Gita 7.21-22}}
Krishna also says in the Gitā:
{{Cquote|O [[Arjuna]], even those devotees who worship other lesser [[deities]] e.g., devas, with faith, they also worship Me, but in an improper way because I am the Supreme Being. I alone am the enjoyer of all sacrificial services (Seva, [[Yajna]]) and Lord of the universe."<ref>Gitā 9.23</ref>|4=[https://www.holy-bhagavad-gita.org/chapter/9/verse/3 Bhagvad Gita 9.23]}}
 
The theology of henotheism also applies to the treating of ancestors or other beings as venerable. Because divinity is extended to them by many Hindus, it does not mean that there is a violation of the belief in a One God Above All, but that piety is offered to them in respect.
 
{{Cquote|The Lord of lords is Supreme and beyond them (deities.)|4=Śvetāśvatara Upaniṣad 6.7}}

===Smarta view===
The system prevalent in Hinduism is defined by the Smartha philosophy; this theory allows for the veneration of numerous deities, but on the understanding that all of them are but manifestation of the one divine power.<ref>It is a belief sometimes called kathenotheism.</ref> That ultimate [[divinity]] is termed Brahm or Atman and is believed to have no specific form, name or attribute.<ref>{{cite book
| author = Sivaya Subramuniyaswami
| url = http://books.google.com/?id=EWlHPAkjBKUC&pg=PA425
| title = Dancing with Siva: Hinduism's Contemporary Catechism
| publisher = Himalayan Academy Publications
| year = 2004
| isbn = 0-945497-96-2}}</ref> Only a Smartha, or follower of the [[Advaita Vedanta|Advaita]] philosophy, would have no problem worshiping every imaginable deity with equal veneration; as the view is that all names and forms of deities are merely manifestations of the same God. Other Hindu sects such as [[Vaiśnavism]] and Śaivism conform more closely to a Western understanding of what a monotheistic faith is. For instance, a Vaiṣnavite considers Vishnu as being the one and only true God, an attitude that resonates with that of the [[Abrahamic religions]]. However, it is [[Advaita]] philosophy that defines the Smartha sect of mainstream Hinduism, and imparts to Indic spiritual and religious traditions their renowned liberalism.

===Swaminarayan view===
[[Swami Sahajananda]], founder of the Swaminarayan Sampraday, said in verse 115 of its scripture, “''[[Śikśapatri]] said, ‘[[Sri Krishna]] Bhagvan and Sri Krishna Bhagvan's incarnations alone are worthy of meditation. Similarly, Sri Krishna Bhagvan's images are worthy. And men or [[devas]], even if they are devotees of Sri Krishna Bhagvan or Brahmvetta,<ref>It is knower of [[divinity]].</ref> They are still not worthy of meditation and thus one should not meditate upon them.’''"

The ''[[Brahma Samhitā]]''<ref>It means ''Brahma Samhitā'' 5.45</ref> declares, Lord Vishnu is milk; [[Śiva|Lord Śiva]] is yogurt.<ref>http://vedabase.net/bs/5/45/en Sri Bramha Samhita 5.45</ref> Followers of Swaminaryan are [[Vaiṣnavas]], but differ from the viewpoint attested by Gaudiya Vaiṣnavas who emphasize Śiva as a subordinate demigod expansion of Krishna. For example, Swaminaryan states:
<ref>[http://www.swaminarayanwales.org.uk/Shikshapatri/shikshapatridetails.asp?shlockcode=85 Shree Swaminarayan Temple Cardiff - Scriptures - Shikshapatri]</ref>
{{Cquote|And the oneness of Narayan and Śiva should be understood, as the Vedas have described both to be Brahmarupa (or form of Brahm, i.e., Saguna Brahm), thus indicating that Vishnu and Śiva are different forms of the one and same God. And that [[Ishvara]] is Sri Krishna Bhagvan,<ref> (Sri Swaminarayan Bhagvan</ref> who is supreme [[Para Brahman|Parabrahm]], [[Purushottama|Purushottam]], our [[Ishta-deva]]<ref>It means principal deity.</ref> worthy of worship, and the cause of all incarnations.|4=Shikshapatri 47.84.108}}

===Vivekanandian view===
According to the speech of [[Swami Vivekananda]] in Chicago during 1906, the monotheism of Hindu is not only for Hindu. It can effective for every human living on the earth. The verse,

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! English
! Sanskrit
|-
|{{Cquote|
:It means the rain water fallen from the sky go to the ocean, the same worship of every deity goes to only one God." (Here in this verse God is mentioned as Keshav (one of the name of Krishna). It doesn't matter, you are Hindu or not.
:Every worship goes to that God.}}
|{{Cquote|
:akāsāt patitaM toyam yathā gacchati sāgaram
:sarvadeva namaskārān kesavam prati gacchati}}
|-
|}

==Relation Between Brahm and Individuals==
Sanatan Dharm is essentially to understand the relationship between the Self and self, which is why the phrases "''Aham Brahmasmi''" and "''Ayamatma Brahm''", both of which mean, "''I am part of the Supreme''."

==Upaniṣad Era==
In the time period that the [[Upaniṣads]] were written, worship of gods within Hindus is turning into worship of primarily one god. The ''Chāndogya [[Upaniṣad]]'' states,
{{Cquote|God is only one, not a second.“|4=Chāndogya [[Upaniṣad]] Ch. 6.2.1}}
 
The ''Rudra Upaniṣad'' from the ''[[Atharva]] Shiras Upaniṣad'' reads of Rudra declaring himself as Brahm, and describing his attributes. The text also reads:
{{Cquote|O Rudra, O Ishana, O Maheshwara, O Mahadeva, O lord, for thou art Parabrahm, the one and only god!<Ref> P. 443 ''Researches Into the Nature and Affinity of Ancient and Hindu Mythology'' By Vans Kennedy </ref>}}

==Bhakti movement==
:''See also: [[The Hindu Renaissance#Medieval Renaissance|Bhakti movement]], [[Bhakti]], [[Bhakti Marga|Bhakti Yoga]]''
Krishnaism is one notable instance of Vaiṣnava monotheism popularized in the [[Bhakti movement]]. Krishnaism refers to Krishna with the title ''Svayam Bhagvan'', meaning 'Lord Himself' and it is used exclusively to designate Krishna as the Supreme Lord.<ref name=Gupta20071>Gupra, 2007, p.36 note 9.</ref> Certain other [[Sampradaya|traditions]] of Hinduism consider Krishna to be the source of all emanations,<ref name = jsn>''[[Bhagwan Swaminarayan]] bicentenary commemoration volume, 1781-1981.'' p. 154: ...Shri [[Vallabhacharya]] [and] Shri Swaminarayan...Both of them designate the highest reality as Krishna, who is both the highest avatara and also the source of other avataras. To quote R. Kaladhar Bhatt in this context. "In this transcendental devotion (Nirguna [[Bhakti]]), the sole Deity and only" is Krishna. [http://books.google.com/books?id=_Q0YAAAAIAAJ&q=Avatara+Swaminarayan+Krishna+origina%3B&dq=Avatara+Swaminarayan+Krishna+origina%3B New Dimensions in Vedanta Philosophy - Page 154], Sahajā[[nanda]], [http://books.google.com/books?q=+subject:%22Vedanta%22 Vedanta]. 1981</ref> and the source of Vishnu himself or to be the same as [[Narayana|Narayan]].<ref name = "Delmonico2004">{{cite journal
| author = Delmonico, N.
| year = 2004
| title = The History Of Indic Monotheism And Modern Chaitanya Vaishnavism
| journal = The Hare Krishna Movement: the Postcharismatic Fate of a Religious Transplant
| url = http://books.google.com/?id=mBMxPdgrBhoC&pg=PA31&dq=Vaisnava+monotheism
| accessdate = 2008-04-12
| publisher = Columbia University Press
| isbn = 978-0-231-12256-6
}}</ref><ref name = "Elkman1986">{{cite book
| author = Elkman, S.M.
| coauthors = Gosvami, J.
| year = 1986
| title = Jiva Gosvamin's Tattvasandarbha: A Study on the Philosophical and Sectarian Development of the Gaudiya Vaishnava Movement
| publisher = Motilal Banarsidass Pub
| isbn =

}}</ref><ref name = Dimock1989>{{cite book
| author = Dimock Jr, E.C.
| coauthors = Dimock, E.C.
| year = 1989
| title = The Place of the Hidden Moon: Erotic Mysticism in the Vaisnava-Sahajiya Cult of Bengal
| publisher = University Of Chicago Press
| isbn =

}} [http://books.google.com/books?id=EAYa1BtUTm0C&pg=PA132&dq=Svayam+bhagavan&sig=jcyEA-4tyPoddQmWg-FnYKDBgEY page 132]
</ref> The term is seldom used to refer to other forms of Krishna and/or Vishnu within the context of certain religious texts such as the ''[[Bhagvata Purāṇa|Bhagvata Purāṇa]]''.

Though Krishna is recognized as ''Svayam Bhagvan'' by many,<ref name = "RKm">{{cite book
|author=Mepathur Narayana Bhattatiri
|title=Narayaneeyam-Bhagavata, Condensed Edition
|publisher=Sri Ramakrishna Math
|location=
|year=2003
|pages=
|isbn=81-7120-419-8
|oclc=
|doi=
|accessdate=
}}pp.234-239</ref> he is also perceived and understood from an eclectic assortment of perspectives and viewpoints.<ref name=Mahony1987>{{cite journal
| author = Mahony, W.K.
| year = 1987
| title = Perspectives on Krishna's Various Personalities
| journal = History of Religions
| volume = 26
| issue = 3
| pages = 333–335
| accessdate = 2008-04-12
| doi = 10.1086/463085
| jstor=1062381
}}</ref> When Krishna is recognized to be ''Svayam Bhagvan'', it can be understood that this is the belief of Gaudiya Vaiṣnavism,<ref name=Kennedy1925>{{cite book
| author = Kennedy, M.T.
| year = 1925
| title = The Chaitanya Movement: A Study of the Vaiṣnavism of Bengal
| publisher = H. Milford, Oxford university press
| isbn =

}}</ref> the Vallabha Sampradaya,<ref name = "flood">{{cite book
| author = Flood, Gavin D.
| authorlink = Gavin Flood
| title = An introduction to Hinduism
| publisher = Cambridge University Press
| location = Cambridge, UK
| year = 1996
| isbn = 0-521-43878-0
| url = http://books.google.com/?id=KpIWhKnYmF0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=gavin+flood
| accessdate = 2008-04-21
| page = 341
}}"Early [[Vaiṣnava]] worship focuses on three deities who become fused together, namely Vasudeva-Krishna, Krishna-Gopala and Narayana, who in turn all become identified with Vishnu. Put simply, Vasudeva-Krishna and Krishna-Gopala were worshiped by groups generally referred to as Bhagvatas, while Narayana was worshiped by the Pancaratra sect."</ref> and the [[Nimbarka Sampradaya]], where Krishna is accepted to be the source of all other manifestations and the source of Vishnu himself. This belief is drawn primarily from the famous statement of the Bhagvatam<ref name=Gupta2007/>:<ref name = Rosen>''Essential [[Hinduism]]'' S. Rosen, 2006, Greenwood Publishing Group [http://books.google.com/books?id=VlhX1h135DMC&pg=PA124&dq=Krishna+is+the+original+Personality+of+Godhead&client=firefox-a&sig=2Yojs3j3lTcocPQ7RaIqBnpLrq0 p.124] ISBN 0-275-99006-0</ref>
 
{{Cquote|All of the descents and incarnations are either plenary portions or portions of the plenary portions of the Lord, but Lord Śrī Krishna is the original Personality of Godhead.|4=Srimad Bhagvatam<ref>Śrimad Bhagvatam1.3.28</ref>}}
 
Vaiṣnavism is one of the earliest implicit manifestations of monotheism in the traditions of Vedas. ''Svayam Bhagvān'' is a [[Sanskrit]] term for the original deity of the Supreme God worshiped across many traditions of the Vaiṣnavism as the source of all, the monotheistic absolute Deity.<ref name=Delmonico2004>{{cite journal
| author = Delmonico, N.
| year = 2004
| title = The History Of Indic Monotheism And Modern Chaitanya Vaishnavism
| journal = The Hare Krishna Movement: the Postcharismatic Fate of a Religious Transplant
| url = http://books.google.com/?id=mBMxPdgrBhoC&pg=PA31&dq=Vaisnava+monotheism
| accessdate = 2008-04-12
| publisher = Columbia University Press
| isbn = 978-0-231-12256-6
}}</ref><ref name = "Elkman1986">{{cite book
| author = Elkman, S.M.
| coauthors = Gosvami, J.
| year = 1986
| title = Jiva Gosvamin's Tattvasandarbha: A Study on the Philosophical and Sectarian Development of the Gaudiya Vaisnava Movement
| publisher = Motilal Banarsidass Pub
| isbn =
}}</ref>
<ref name = "Klostermaier1974">{{cite journal
| author = Klostermaier, K.
| year = 1974
| title = The Bhaktirasamrtasindhubindu of Visvanatha Cakravartin
| journal = Journal of the American Oriental Society
| volume = 94
| issue = 1
| pages = 96–107
| accessdate = 2008-04-12
| doi = 10.2307/599733
| jstor = 599733
| publisher = American Oriental Society
}}
</ref> Within [[Hinduism]], Krishna is worshiped from a variety of perspectives.<ref name=Mahony1987>{{cite journal
| author = Mahony, W.K.
| year = 1987
| title = Perspectives on Krishna's Various Personalities
| journal = History of Religions
| volume = 26
| issue = 3
| pages = 333–335
| accessdate = 2008-04-12
| jstor=1062381
| doi=10.1086/463085
}}</ref> However, the Svayam Bhagvan concept refers to the Supreme Being of the Orthodox Gaudiya Vaiṣnavism,<ref name=Kennedy1925>{{cite book
| author = Kennedy, M.T.
| year = 1925
| title = The Chaitanya Movement: A Study of the Vaiṣnavism of Bengal
| publisher = H. Milford, Oxford university press
| isbn =
}}</ref> the Vallabha Sampradaya and the [[Nimbarka]] Sampradaya, where Krishna is worshiped as the source of all other avataras (including Vishnu).<ref name=Ojha1978>{{cite book
| author = Ojha, P.N.
| year = 1978
| title = Aspects of Medieval Indian Society and Culture
| publisher = BR Pub. Corp.; New Delhi: DK Publishers' Distributors
| isbn =
}}</ref>
<ref>[http://srimadbhagavatam.com/1/3/28/en1 ''Bhag'' 1.3.28] Chapter 3: Krishna Is the Source of All Incarnations</ref>
<ref name = McDaniel>See McDaniel, June, ''"Folk Vaishnavism and Thākur Pañcāyat: Life and status among village Krishna statues"'' in {{Harvnb|Beck|2005|p=39}}</ref> A distinguishing feature of the Vaisnava teachings is that God, Krishna or Vishnu,<ref name="Elkman1986"/> is a real person and His variegated creation is also real.<ref name="Elkman1986"/><ref name= Thomson>{{cite journal
| author = Richard Thompson, Ph. D.
| year = December 1994
| title = Reflections on the Relation Between Religion and Modern Rationalism
| url = http://www.iskcon.com/icj/1_2/12thompson.html
| accessdate = 2008-04-12
}}</ref>

Krishna worshiped in Vaiṣnava religion as the Supreme came into being as soon as all creatures came into existence. [[Brahma]] was the first Vaiṣnava. In Gaudiya Vaiṣnavism, Śiva Mahadeva is also a Vaiṣnava; in Śaivism, by contrast, Śiva is the supreme God. The ancient Prajapaties are all Vaiṣnavas. [[Narada]] who is the born child of Brahma, is a Vaiṣnava. Thus pure monotheistic Vaiṣnava religion began with the beginning of history.<ref name="Thomson"/> In the recent times man arrived once again at the instinctive monotheism of the Aryans and Vaiṣnavas.<ref name=Dalmia-luderitz1992>{{cite journal
| author = Dalmia-luderitz, V.
| year = 1992
| title = Hariscandra of Banaras and the reassessment of Vaisnava bhakti in the late nineteenth century
| journal = Devotional Literature in South Asia: Current Research, 1985-8
| url = http://books.google.com/?id=BE40dp6SCFUC&pg=PA281&dq=Vaisnava+monotheism
| accessdate = 2008-04-12
| publisher = Cambridge University Press
| isbn = 978-0-521-41311-4
}}</ref>

A different viewpoint, opposing this theological concept, is the concept of Krishna as an ''avatara'' of Narayan or Vishnu. However, although its is usual to speak of Vishnu as the source of the avataras, this is only one of the names of god of Vaiṣnavism, who is also known as Vishnu to some Vaiṣnava, Narayan to some, Vasudeva, or any of the other Vaiśnava persons, and behind each of those names there is a divine figure with attributed supremacy in Vaisnavism.<ref name = Krishna4>
{{Harvnb|Matchett|2000|p=4}}</ref> The theological interpretation of ''Svayam Bhagvān'' differs with each tradition and the translated from the Sanskrit language, the term literary means "[[Bhagvan]] Himself" or "directly Bhagvan".<ref name=Gupta2007/> Gaudiya Vaiṣnava tradition often translates it within its perspective as ''primeval Lord'' or ''original Personality of Godhead'', but also considers the terms such as ''Supreme Personality of Godhead'' and ''Supreme God'' as an equivalent to the term ''Svayam Bhagvan'', and may also choose to apply these terms to Vishnu, Narayan and many of their associated avatars.<ref> name=Knapp2005>{{cite book
| author = Knapp, S.
| year = 2005
| title = The Heart of Hinduism: The Eastern Path to Freedom, Empowerment and Illumination -
| publisher = iUniverse
| isbn =</ref>

"Krishna is the primeval Lord, the original Personality of Godhead, so He can expand Himself into unlimited forms with all potencies."<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=a2KPChj7lTwC&pg=PA161 page 161]</ref><ref name= ICJKnott>{{cite journal
| author = Dr. Kim Knott,
| year = 1993
| title = Contemporary Theological Trends In The Hare Krishna Movement: A Theology of Religions
| url = http://www.iskcon.com/icj/1_1/knott.html
| accessdate = 2008-04-12
}}..."''[[Bhakti]]'', the highest path, was that of surrender to [[Lord Krishna]], the way of pure devotional service to the Supreme Personality of Godhead".</ref>
Others have translated it simply as "the Lord Himself".<ref name="KK">{{cite book |author=K. Klostermaier |title=The Charles Strong Trust Lectures, 1972-1984 |publisher=Brill Academic Pub |location= |year=1997 |isbn=90-04-07863-0 |quote= For his worshippers he is not an avatara in the usual sense, but Svayam Bhagvan, the Lord himself.|url= http://books.google.com/?id=F_0UAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA109&dq=Svayam+bhagavan |accessdate= |page=206 | others = Crotty, Robert B.}} p.109 Klaus Klostermaier translates it simply as "the Lord Himself"</ref> Followers of Vishnu-centered sampradayas of Vaiṣnavism rarely address this term, but believe that it refers to their belief that Krishna is among the highest and fullest of all ''avatars''<ref name = Pal1958>{{cite book
| author = [[Bipin]] Chandra Pal
| year = 1964, 132 pages
| title = Shree Krishna: Letters Written to a Christian Friend
| publisher = Yugayatri/New India Printing
& Publishing Co.
| quote = First edition published in 1938 under the title of 'Europe asks: who is Shree Krishna'.
| isbn =</ref>

Sri Krishna stands at the top of this series. He is therefore called by his votaries as Purna Avatara or the highest and fullest incarnation of the Lord. and is considered to be the "''paripurna avatara''", complete in all respects and the same as the original.<ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://www.tirumala.org/sapthagiri/122002/purana.htm
|title=Sapthagiri
|publisher=www.tirumala.org
|accessdate=2008-05-03
|last=
|first=
}}</ref> Parashara Maharishi, [[Vyāsa]]'s father had devoted the largest [[Aṅṣa]]<ref>It means part.</ref> in ''[[Vishnu Purāṇa]]'' to the description of Sri Krishna Avatara the ''Paripoorna Avatara''. And according to Lord Krishna's own instructions ''upadeṣa'', "he who knows the secrets of His (Krishna's) Janma<ref>It means birth.</ref> and [[Karma]]<ref>It means actions.</ref> will not remain in [[saṅsāra]]<ref>''punar janma naiti-maam eti''.</ref> and attain Him after leaving the mortal coil."<ref>Bhagvad Gita 4.9</ref> [[Parāsara]] Maharishi ends up [[Añṣa]] 5 with a phalashruti in an identical vein (''Vishnu Purāna''<ref>Vishnu Purāna 5.38.94</ref>.)

The prime supporters of the Krishna-centered theology, Gaudiya Vaiṣnavas and followers of the Vallabha [[Sampradāya]] Nimbarka Samprā[[daya]], use the ''[[Gopala Tapani Upaniṣad]]'',<ref>{{cite book |author=B. V. Tripurari |title=Gopala-tapani Upaniṣad |publisher=Audarya Press |location= |year=2004 |pages= |isbn=1-932771-12-3 }}</ref> ''[[Vedanta Sutras]]''<ref name=Gupta2007/> and other Hindu scriptures such as the ''Bhagvata Purāna'' and the ''[[Brahma Vaivarta Purāna]]'', among others, to support their view that Krishna is indeed the ''Svayam Bhagvan''. This belief was summarized by the 16th century author [[Jiva Goswami]] in some of his works, such as ''Krishna-sandarbha''.<ref name=Gupta2007>{{cite book
| author = Gupta, Ravi M.
| coauthors =
| year = 2007
| title = Caitanya Vaisnava Vedanta of Jiva Gosvami
| publisher = Routledge
| isbn = 0-415-40548-3
}}</ref><ref name=Gupta2004>{{cite book
| author = Gupta, Ravi M.
| coauthors =
| year = 2004
| title = Caitanya Vaisnava Vedanta: Acintyabhedabheda in Jiva Gosvami's Catursutri tika
| publisher = University Of Oxford
| isbn =

}}</ref> While Krishna himself if mentioned in one of the earliest texts of Vedic literature - ''Rig Veda''.<ref>
Sunil Kumar Bhattacharya ''Krishna-cult in Indian Art''. 1996
M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd. ISBN 81-7533-001-5 p.126: "According to (D.R.Bhadarkar), the word Krishna referred to in the expression 'Krishna-drapsah' in the Ṛgveda, denotes the very same Krishna".</ref>

In the sixth book of the [[Hindu epic]] ''[[Mahābhārata]]'', the Bhishma Parva<ref>It is better known as the ''[[Bhagavad Gitā|Bhagvad Gitā]]''.</ref> Krishna offers numerous quotations that reaffirm the belief that he himself is the ''Svayam Bhagvan''. Verse [http://www.asitis.com/7/7.html 7.7] of the ''[[Bhagavad Gitā|Bhagvad Gitā]]'', is often used to support the opinion that Krishna himself is the ''Svayam Bhagvan'', and that no impersonal form of Brahm supersedes his existence, as it is a common view that ''Bhagvad Gitā'' was propounding Krishna-theism before first major proponents of [[Advaita Vedanta|monism of the Smarta school]].<ref name = "IST">{{cite book
|author=
|authorlink=
|editor = S. Devadas Pillai
|others=
|title=Indian Sociology Through Ghurye: A Dictionary
|edition=
|language=
|publisher=South Asia Books
|location=Columbia, Mo
|year=1997
|origyear=
|quote=
|isbn=81-7154-807-5
|oclc=
|doi=
|url=http://books.google.com/?id=P3uD22Ghqs4C&pg=PA283
|accessdate=
|page=403
}}</ref>

==Related Articles==
*[[Cosmogony]]
*[[Cosmology]]
*[[Darshana]]
*[[Divinity]]
*[[Brahm]]
*[[God]]
*[[Devatā]]
*[[Deities]]
*[[Worship]]
*[[Murti Puja]]

==External Resources==
*[http://enlightened-spirituality.org/panentheism.html "Panentheism and the Reality of God"] By Timothy Conway, Ph.D. (Published: October 2, 2015)
*[https://www.academia.edu/19511326/Panentheism_and_Hindu_Tantra_Abhinavagupta_s_Grammatical_Cosmology “Panentheism and Hindu Tantra: Abhinavagupta’s Grammatical Cosmology”] By Loriliai Biernacki

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

[[Category:Theology]]
[[Category:Hindu philosophical concepts]]
[[Category:Forms of worship]]

Cosmology

2026-07-05T06:02:02Z

Himanshu Bhatt: /* Mahapurana by Jinasena */

{{Author|Krishna Maheshwari}}

Cosmology is the study of the origin of the universe.

In recent times, physics and astrophysics have come to play [[a]] central role in shaping what is now known as physical cosmology by bringing observations and mathematical tools to analyze the universe as a whole; in other words, in the understanding of the universe through scientific observation and experiment. This discipline, which focuses on the universe as it exists on the largest scale and at the earliest moments, is generally understood to be either

1. Big Bang Theory: begin with the big bang (possibly combined with cosmic inflation) - an expansion of space from which the Universe itself is thought to have emerged ~13.7 ± 0.2 billion (109) years ago.

or

2. modern Cyclic theory: the universe explodes into existence and collapses into almost a point singularity not just once, but repeatedly over time.

Systems of thought other than modern physics and astrophysics have described the [[origins]] of the universe in varying levels of detail with varying levels of accuracy.

The theory of the origin of the universe described in scripture matches the modern Cyclic theory of the universe propounded by modern-day scientists. Scriptures state that the universe undergoes an infinite number of deaths and rebirths.

Hinduism, according to Carl Sagan, "... is the only religion in which the time scales correspond... to those of modern scientific cosmology. Its cycles run from our ordinary day and night to [[a]] day and night of the [[Brahma]], 8.64 billion years long, longer than the age of the Earth or the Sun and about half the time since the Big Bang" <ref>C. Sagan. Cosmos. Ballantine Books, New York, 1980</ref>

==Physical laws of the universe==
This universe, the physical manifestation of Brahm, subject to creation and destruction (pralaya), follows the laws of physics. However, like humans, it also follows Rita and Satya, which are relating to both the laws of physics and spirituality.

==Mahapurana by Jinasena==
The ''Mahapurana'' by Jinasena (composed in the 9th century) states the following:
<blockquote>
Some foolish men declare that a Creator made the world. The doctrine that the world was created is ill-advised, and should be rejected. If God created the world, where was he before creation?... How could God have made the world without any raw material? If you say He made this first, and then the world, you are faced with an endless regression... Know that the world is uncreated, as time itself is, without beginning and end. And it is based on principles.<ref>C. Sagan. Cosmos. Ballantine Books, New York, 1980</ref>
</blockquote>

While Jinasena doesn’t deny the Supreme (Parmatma), he denies that Parmatma is Shaguna or a personal God, which we call Ishvara.

==[[Bhagavad Gita]]==

The [[Bhagavad Gita]] states,

<blockquote>
All the planets of the universe, from the most evolved to the most base, are places of suffering, where birth and death takes place. But for the soul that reaches my Kingdom, O son of [[Kunti]], there is no more reincarnation. One day of [[Brahma]] is worth a thousand [[yuga]], known to humankind; as is each night.<ref>[[Bhagavad Gita]] VIII.16-17</ref>
</blockquote>

Thus each [[kalpa]] is worth one day in the life of Brahma, the God of creation. In other words, the four ages of the mahayuga must be repeated a thousand times to make a "day of Brahma", a unit of time that is the equivalent of 4.32 billion human years, doubling which one gets 8.64 billion years for a Brahma day and night.

This was also theorized by [[Aryabhata]] in the 6th century. The cyclic nature of this analysis suggests a universe that is expanding to be followed by contraction... a cosmos without end.

==Similarity with modern scientific theory==
Scientists currently propose two competing theories for the origin of the universe. One is the big bang theory that theorizes that the universe started from a [[zero]]-dimensional point and the other is that of the Cyclic Model developed by Princeton University's Paul Steinhardt and Cambridge University's Neil Turok<ref>Science Express, April 2002</ref>. But past incarnations of the idea have been hotly debated within the cosmological community from 2001. This theory matches the theory in scripture that the Universe has no beginning or end, but follows a cosmic creation and dissolution cycle.

==Related Articles==
* [[Overview of Cosmology in the Scriptures]]
*[[Cosmogony]]
*[[Darshana|Metaphysical Worldviews]]

==External Resources==
*[https://revisionworld.com/gcse-revision/rs-religious-studies-gcse/hinduism/hindu-beliefs/hymn-creation-hindu-cosmology "The Hymn of Creation in Hindu Cosmology"]
*[https://hinduwisdom.info/Hindu_Cosmology.htm "Hindu Cosmology"]
*[https://hindu.mythologyworldwide.com/the-cycle-of-creation-understanding-hindu-cosmology/ "The Cycle of Creation: Understanding Hindu Cosmology"] (September 25, 2024)
*[https://hinduculturehub.com/cosmology/ "The Vast Tapestry of Hindu Cosmology: Time, Space, and the Divine Dance"]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category: Cosmology]]

Cosmogony

2026-07-04T22:50:09Z

Himanshu Bhatt: added external links

{{Author|Himanshu Bhatt}}
Whereas [[cosmology]] focuses on the properties/laws of the universe, cosmogony explores the mythic origins. Within the same Sanatan scripture—''[[Rig Veda]]''—exist multiple stories of how the universe came into being. The scripture itself declares<ref>Rig Veda 1.164.46</ref> that there the truth is 1 but people describe it in various ways.

There are many stories of the universe's creation across Sanatan texts and [[Folk & Tribal|oral folk traditions]] but the fundamental 7 chronicles are found in the RV:
#Hiranyagarbha Sukta
#[[Vak Suktham|Vak Sukta]]
#Nasadiya Sukta
#[[Aghamarsanasukta|Aghamarshaṇa Sukta]]
#[[Devagana]] Sukta
#Vishwakarma Suktas
#[[Purusha Suktham|Purush Suktha]]
;Table elaborating creation hymns
:''See also: [[Theology#Oneness of Deities (Henotheism)|Universe as Aparabrahm]]''
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Hymn
! Alias(es)
! Origin
! Principle
! Corresponding Upanishadic reference
! Upanishadic principle
|-
|Hiranyagarbha Sukta[https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rvsan/rv10121.htm][https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10121.htm]
|Ka Sukta, Parmātma Sukta, Prajapati Sukta
|Golden egg-womb
|[[Brahmānda]], the universal 'egg' we are all within
|
|
|-
|Vāk Sukta[https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rvsan/rv10125.htm][https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10125.htm]
|Devi Sukta
|Creation through sound (mantra)
|
|
|
|-
|Nāsadiya Sukta[https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rvsan/rv10129.htm][https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10129.htm]
|Parmātma Sukta
|
|That One
|Nārāyan Sukta
|Cosmic consciousness
|-
|Aghamarshana Sukta[https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rvsan/rv10190.htm][https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10190.htm]
|Bhavavṛtta Sukta
|Creation through cosmic sound (mantra) and order
|Cosmic order & desire
|Śri Devi
|Radiant spark of abundance
|-
|Devāgāna Sukta[https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rvsan/rv10072.htm][https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10072.htm]
|Aditi-Daksha Sukta, Devā Sukta, Devānām Jānā Sukta
|Mantra (forged by Brahmaṇaspati)
|Material emergence
|Bhu Devi
|Concrete physical Earth matrix, Aditi-Daksha paradox
|-
|Vishvakarma Suktas[https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rvsan/rv10081.htm][https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10081.htm][https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rvsan/rv10082.htm][https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10082.htm]
|Dhātar Suktas
|Blacksmith's forge
|Architectural support
|Nila Devi
|Spatial scaffold of cosmic stability
|-
|[[Purusha Suktham|Purush Sukta]][https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rvsan/rv10090.htm][https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10090.htm]
|Yajna Sukta
|Purusha self-sacrifice
|
|
|-
|}

==Related articles==
*[[Darshana|Metaphysical Worldviews]]
*[[Cosmology]]
*[[Overview of Cosmology in the Scriptures]]
*[[Theology]]
*[[Brahmānda]]

==External resources==
*[https://www.ssssahitya.org/discourses/1991/the-three-forms-of-god-viraat-hiranyagarbha-and-avyakrita "The Three Forms of God – Viraat, Hiranyagarbha and Avyakrita"] (May 31, 1991), Summer Course in Indian Culture and Spirituality in Brindavan, Karnataka
*[https://mahavidya.ca/2008/06/23/cosmogonies-in-the-vedic-samhitas/ "Cosmogonies in the Vedic Samhitas"] (June 23, 2008)
*[https://www.hindu-blog.com/2025/10/universally-accepted-concept-of-creation-hinduism.html "Universally Accepted Concept of Creation in Hinduism: Rig Veda and Upanishads"] By Abhilash Rajendran
*[https://hindutone.com/festivals/purusha-suktam-complete-guide-rig-veda-cosmic-hymn-16-verses/ "Purusha Suktam: Complete Guide to the Cosmic Hymn from Rig Veda 10.90"] (May 28, 2026)
*[https://www.sanskritimagazine.com/the-hymn-of-creation-nasadiya-sukta/ "The Hymn of Creation: Nasadiya Sukta"]
*[https://sanatanweb.com/en/rigveda-nasadiya-sukta/ "Rigveda Nasadiya Sukta (The Hymn Of Creation)"]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category: Cosmology]]
[[Category: Universal origins and properties]]

Shatata-Unnati

2026-07-04T22:47:45Z

Himanshu Bhatt: /* Start of modern reforms */

{{Author|Himanshu Bhatt}}
'Shatata-Unnati' is ''continual change'', 'abhyas' means improvement, 'kram-parivartanam' is ''incremental reformation'', while 'shodhanam' is ''refinement''. All of these terms are descriptive of Hindu society throughout the ages.

Continual social betterment has been one of the defining characteristics of Hindu society. All major cultures have had evils in their histories, including Hindu societies, but the shining examples to enforce positive changes and adaptability to a changing world are the Hinduism, Christianity, and Judaism.

In an era wherein colonial norms meant imprisonment or executions for speaking out against imperial rule, Mahatma Gandhi challenged the ideas of forcing nations to be subservient, fighting oppression by violence, and purging one's own nation of evils (i.e., inequality and superstition.) Today, much of the world still looks to Gandhi's perseverance to bring positive change into society.

Transformation of India's political systems made India into the world's largest democracy, and for accomplishing that, [[Indian Freedom Fighters#INC's Hindu activist roots|Hindu doctrines were rationalize to promote democracy]]. Even in India's political spectrum, Hindu principles were used to make liberalism and communism resonate with people, like Ram Rajya being a communist utopia. Some of the Communist Party of India's [[Indian Freedom Fighters#CPI's Hindu activist roots|founders were idealogues for both communism and Hinduism]], such as Swami Kumaranand, Swami Satyabhakt, and Swami Sahajanand Saraswati, as well as Keezhedathu Damodaran, Radhamohan Gokulji, and Rahul Sankrityayan.

==Comparison in societal reformation (India and Europe)==
:''See also: [[Contribution of Hindu Diaspora]]''
Whereas even in modern times, in most European Christian societies, witch-hunts and slavery were the norm, in Indian Hindu societies, widow-burning was the norm among certain communities (usually northwestern) and caste prejudice was prevalent. Both the Christian and Hindu communities worked to extinguish these and other evils.

Historical societal injustices have been acknowledged and reconciled. Even today, the lasting legacy of important Hindu reformers is visible wherein quotas employment and educational quotas are implemented for social upward mobility to ensure poorer castes and women do not fall behind.

During the colonial era, as human rights improved in Western societies as results from agricultural/economic advancements, Western writers of non-Christian societies took a chauvinistic, parochialist, and Eurocentric approach towards Hindu societies, claiming that they:
#Would never improve in human rights, morality, or rationality
#Are permanently stagnant
#Cannot produce modern or political economic institutions

Critics of the colonial era were proven wrong in these concrete ways:
#Large-scale societal reforms led by Hindu activists themselves improved Hindu societies — i.e., promoting window remarriage and caste integration while also creating quotas for females and historically-disadvantaged castes
#Rapid expansion of education and intellectual mobility — i.e., growth of global Hindu academic presence
#Global economic and corporate leadership — i.e., entrepreneurship and CEOs of major multinational companies like Adobe, Google, and Microsoft
#Democratic political evolution — i.e., maintaining electoral democracies like Hindu-majority nations, providing peaceful transfers of power, and granting significant autonomy to judiciary, press, and civil societies
#Religious and philosophical continuity + adaptation
#Ritual practice has diversified massively by religion and class — i.e., clerics ([[Rta and Spiritual Authority|priests]] and [[ascetics|monks]]) are from many backgrounds
#Reinterpretation of scriptures became internationally influential — i.e., Aldous Huxley loved the perennialism of Upanishads, Erwin Schrödinger the idea of aikatmyam, and Henry David Thoreau that of Ishavasyam
#Non-Hindus from outside of the Indian Subcontinent have converted to Sanatan Dharm and have promoted the religion — James Donald Walters who founded Ananda Sangha, Richard Alpert who founded Hanuman Foundation, John Edwin Favors who founded iFast[https://ifastdc.com/][https://ifastglobal.com/], and Robert Hansen who founded Saiva Siddhanta Church[https://www.himalayanacademy.com/]
#Hindu-based intellectual practices have popularized globally — i.e., [[Ayurveda|Ayurvedic medicine]], divination, political activism, [[Animal rights#Influence upon Westerners|animal rights]], [[Animal_rights#Vegetarianism|vegetarianism]], and [[yoga]]

==Hindu-led social betterment==
What is extraordinary in the case of India is that it was the religious institutions ([[Organizations|Hindu organizations]] and [[Hindu Post-Secondary Institutes|schools]]) that made revolutionary changes, not normally secular or non-Hindu ones. Practicing Hindus saw that superstitious and chauvinistic practices had become institutionalized (caste system and misogyny) within Hindu society, so they formed associations to help, uplift, educate the destitute. They would even go steps further to privilege the marginalized through reservations.

Even women who were more exploratory and not members of specific religions engaged with Hinduism positively. The best example might be Annette Beveridge, an Englishwoman who was the daughter of a Unitarian Christian herself became affiliated with Keshub Chandra Sen in England. She was drawn to his lectures and this fascination with his philosophy inspired her to begin life in India, where she even established<ref>Its expenses were financed by Ananda Mohan Bose and Durga Mohan Das, Dwarkanath Ganguly was its headmaster, and others Brahmos involved with the school were Sibnath Sastri and Monomohun Ghose.</ref> the Hindu Mahila Vidyalaya (''Hindu Women's School''.) Her husband Henry Beveridge was an orientalist (westerners intrigued with Asian cultures) working in India, meaning they were not Westerners critical of Hindu identity. Mrs. Emily Phear was an honorary teacher, and she too was involved in Brahmo Samaji circles for societal development. (Her husband Sir John Budd Phear helped Brahmo Samaj legally.) A non-Hindu that likewise began a girls school (Hindu Female School[https://www.bethunecollegiateschool.com/]) with Brahmos and other Hindus was John Bethune, whose accomplices were Dakshinaranjan Mukherjee, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Ramgopal Ghosh, and Madanmohan Tarkalanka (the last even taught at the school without pay.) Others foreign women in India that engaged positively with Hindu activist organizations were Mary Carpenter[https://southasianbritain.org/people/mary-carpenter/] and Sophia Dobson Collet with Brahmo Samaj, Alma B.R.A. with Arya Samaj, and Mary Hobson with Prarthana Samaj[https://puneprarthanasamaj.org/].

Hindu women that set women's rights activism into motion were Arya Samaj's Lajwanti Sood and Satyavati Devi, and Brahmo Samaj's Kadambini Ganguly and Sarala Devi Chaudhurani. Swarnakumari Devi was both an Arya Samaji and a Brahmo Samaji.
[[image:Dr. Anandi Gopal Joshi.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Dr. Anandi Gopal Joshi in 1886 marking a milestone with 2 other Asian women.]]
What is also worth mentioning is that there were women not members of sociopolitical organizations who pursued and achieved new societal achievements, showing that many Hindu women thought for themselves. Dr. Anandibai Joshi was India's first female doctor to trained in Western medicine. Her education and trip to U.S. was funded by [[Shatata-Unnati#Shahu's royal authority to implement reforms|Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj]]. Upon return, he even funded her return journey and offer her supervisory role at Kolhapur's largest hospital[https://old.rcsmgmc.ac.in/]. Foundations[https://anandibai.org/resources/], institutions (i.e., Dr. Anandi Gopal Higher Education & Medical Facilities), awards (i.e., IRDS's[https://ngosindia.org/uttar-pradesh-ngos/irds-institute-for-research-documentation-in-social-sciences-lucknow/] Anandibai Joshi Award for Medicine), and scholarships (i.e., Dr. Anandi Gopal Scholarship Scheme) are named after her in commemoration. (Dr. Anandi Gopal Higher Education & Medical Facilities itself is a collaboration between the U.S. university she graduated in (DUCM[https://drexel.edu/medicine/news-events/publications/pulse/spring-2018/]) and SMCW. She let people know that she was not ashamed of being a Hindu. She was often pressured by Christian missionaries to convert[https://knowledge.lancashire.ac.uk/id/eprint/48487/1/bharadwaj-et-al-2023-journey-across-the-world-to-study-medicine-the-anandi-joshi-story.pdf]. Dr. Anandi had written her thesis, "Obstetrics among the Aryan Hindus", containing references from both the traditional Ayurvedic (''Susruta Samhita'' and ''Charaka Samhita'') and modern American medical literatures. (Mentionable is that although her husband Gopalrao Joshi's relentless, public letter-writing campaigns and essays targeted Lokmanya Tilak for being not liberal enough and Justice Ranade for being too liberal Tilak's ''Kesari'' and ''Mahratta'' newspapers glorified Dr. Joshi as a rolemodel for women.)

===Female upliftment===
:''See also: [[Indian Freedom Fighters]] 
;Theosophical Society wing
[[image:Paris Women's Congress.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Dr. Reddy and 3 Indian women at the Paris Women's Congress (1926.)]]
The top 3 champions who politically improved Indian women's rights in the modern era were foreigners — Dr. Annie Besant, Dorothy Jinarajadasa, and Margaret Cousins. They did not tell Indian women to leave Hinduism but rather they themselves became Hindu in practice and Indian in habit. They then sought to restore the Vedic-era of womanhood wherein women had authority (i.e., to become clerics, scholars, and leaders.) Emma Mitchell (American) and Francesca Arundale (English) greatly contributed to building of Hindu educational institutions (i.e., Central Hindu College.)

Dr. Muthulakshmi Reddy is a big name in female rights, and she was influenced by Dr. Besant in her college years (1907-1912) and was guided by Dr. Besant in both her social reform and political work. She worked with Dr. Besant and others to establish the Women's Indian Association (1917.) After Dr. Besant's death, she took over the presidency of the WIA. Gandhi was another major mentor but Reddy never formally joined the INC but sometimes protested colonial injustices (i.e., Gandhi's arrest.)

;Ramakrishna Mission wing
[[image:Nivedita & Vivekanand.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Nivedita with Vivekanand.]]
[[Niveditā, Sister|Sister Nivedita (Margaret Noble)]], a convert from Ireland became a disciple of [[Swami Vivekananda|Swami Vivekanand]] and joined Aurobindo's Dawn Society and had also founded and ran girls' schools in Kolkata (i.e., Ramakrishna Sarada Mission Sister Nivedita Girls' School[https://www.sisterniveditagirlsschool.org/home.html] in Baghbazar) to educate girls who had little to no access to education (i.e., poorest of the poor.) She advocated for women's intellectual and moral development, influenced by Vivekanand's vision of strong Indian womanhood. Her work included lectures, fundraising (India, England, and U.S.), and writings that promoted gender equality in access to knowledge and opportunities. She had worked with Dr. Annie Besant at times. Likewise, Sister Christine, disciple of Vivekanand, is another example of a Westerner who utilized the Ramakrishna Mission and Vivekanand's circles as vehicles for improving female rights in India.

;INC wing
:''See also: [[Indian Freedom Fighters#INC's Hindu activist roots|INC's Hindu activist roots]] 
[[image:Nellie Sen Gupta.jpg|right|thumb|100px|N.S. Gupta.]]
Nellie Sen Gupta[https://www.thedailystar.net/in-focus/news/deshpriya-jatindra-mohan-nellie-sengupta-2036981] (nee Edith Ellen Gray) had married freedom fighter Jatindra Mohan Sen Gupta, and both joined the INC — she also founded Deepali Sangha, a women's organization aimed at promoting social and political awareness, leadership, training, and empowerment among women. Her husband passed away but she was advised to stay in the-then East Pakistan to take care of Hindu rights, which she did. Umadevi (born Wanda Dynowska), a Polish convert to Sanatan Dharm too championed women's rights in India and translated ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'', ''[[Mahabharata]]'', ''[[Ramayana]]'', and other [[Hindu Scriptures|Hindu and Bauddh literature]] into Polish. Mira Behn (born Madeleine Slade), the daughter of a British Royal Navy admiral, gave up her affluent lifestyle to become Gandhi's servant in India.
[[image:Sarla Behn Chipko Movement.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Sarla Behn's Chipko act[https://www.adda247.com/school/chipko-movement/].]]
Sarla Behn[https://growbilliontrees.com/blogs/knowledge/sarla-behn-tree-nurturing-nature-and-empowering-communities-for-a-sustainable-future?srsltid=AfmBOoq4h0d0skQBNr4w4zOvISuhYz02_EXtPvD3pUoQYjTlcvNHEbQ-#fullcontent] (born Catherine Mary Heilman) from England setup the Lakshmi Ashram Kausani in 1946 within Uttarakhand to uplift women, after having lived in the Sevagram Ashram[https://gandhiashramsevagram.org/] in Maharashtra. The organization educated rural hill girls academically, trained women of self-reliance and industrial skills (i.e., khadi weaving), taught personal care (i.e., literacy, hygiene, anti-liquor campaigns), and promoted [[Environmentalism|ecological awareness]] (Chipko Movement.) It also worked with the INC to encourage nationalist fervour. Lakshmi Ashram individual units were known as Mahila Mandals. This ashram attracted foreign residents intrigued with Sanatan Dharm even after independence, like David Hopkins, who relocated to there in the 1990's.
[[image:Durgabai Deshmukh.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Dr. D.D.]]
Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh, pupil of Gandhi and freedom fighter in the colonial era, established the Central Social Welfare Board (1953.) She later became president of the All India Women's Conference (1931.) Taraben Premchand is an important mention, as she was an important member of this organization, as well as the Jain Mahila Parishad[https://www.dbjainsabha.com], Jyoti Sangh[https://jyotisangh.org/about-us/] (local women's advancement group in Gujarat), and Shraddhanand Ashram[https://shraddhanandmahilashram.org/].

Madeleine Rolland was Women's International League for Peace and Freedom's[https://www.wilpf.org/] French section and never settled in India. However, upon engaging with Hindu culture in the 1920's, she translated Ananda Coomaraswamy's ''[[Nataraja Dasakam|The Dance of Shiva]]'' into French, introducing Hinduism to the-then residents of France. She also translated Rabindranath Tagore's writings of Sanatan themes and universal humanism, helping popularize them in Europe. She welcomed Gandhi on his visit to Marseille, France. [[image:Kanuparti Varalakshmamma.jpg|right|thumb|100px|'Sarada'.]]
Kanuparti Varalakshmamma (alias 'Sarada'), a devout Gandhian, used Hindu themes like providing ethical refences (i.e., Savitri, Sita) to depict women's morality, dignity, and conduct. She often engaged with the idea of a grihalakshmi (idea woman of the household.) She also founded the Stree Hitaishini Mandali for uplifting women. She used ''Andhra Patrika'', a newspaper created by a promoter of the ''Bhagavad Gita'', Kasinathuni Nageswara Rao, to preach her ideas.
[[image:Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit.jpg|right|thumb|100px|'Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit'.]]
It is also noteworthy that the 1st female head of government in the world was a [[Bauddh Dharm|Bauddh]] (Sirimavo Bandaranaike of Sri Lanka, non-INC member), and 2nd was a Hindu (Indira Gandhi, INC member.) Also Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit[https://news.un.org/en/story/2024/03/1147327] (born Swaroop Rani Nehru) played a significant role in global representation of women, particularly in the United Nations. She was the first woman to serve as the President of the UN General Assembly (1953-1954), a position she held to advocate for decolonization and the independence of countries in Asia and Africa. She was also the first Indian woman to hold a cabinet rank in a provincial government. Hansa Mehta[https://india.un.org/en/311450-hansa-mehta%E2%80%99s-life-story-continues-inspire] had an impact on the UN's constitution wording wherein "''all human beings''" instead of "all men" in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. (She was also one of only 2 women delegates working alongside Eleanor Roosevelt in the UN Human Rights Commission 1946-48.)
[[image:Nilla Cram Cook.jpg|right|thumb|100px|'Nilla Nagini Devi'.]]
Nilla Cram Cook, an American who settled at Gandhi's ashrams, had [[Conversion|converted to Hinduism]] in the 1930's but identified with the '[[Samyag Darshan#Samadarshan|sarva dharma sambhava]]' ideal, so considered herself a [[Bhakta|devotee]] of not only [[Krishna]] but of Jesus too, and so she later also translated the Quran and engaged with Islamic practices in a syncretic way with her Hindu and Christian customs. Her final literary work was ''The Way of the Swam: Poems of Kashmir'' (1958), which was mostly focused around the [[Saiva|Shaiv]] mystic poetess Lal Ded[https://hindupost.in/society-culture/lal-ded-her-life-and-works/#][https://homegrown.co.in/homegrown-voices/the-poetry-of-lal-ded-mysticism-resistance-the-female-voice-in-14th-century-kashmir] and others from Kashmir syncretic Sanatan-[[Bauddh Dharm|Bauddh]]-[[Sufism with Vaishnavism|Sufi]] tradition. She dedicated the book to Pandit. She didn't work on women's upliftment directly but did participate with Gandhi's Harijan Sevak Sangh. She had also written about Sarojini Naidu (1st Indian woman-president of the INC.)

;Other associations
[[image:Maharani Chimnabai Gaekwad II.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Maharani Chimnabai.]]
[[image:Sethu Parvathi Bayi.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Junior Queen Bayi.]]
The National Council of Women in India[https://www.ncwi.in/], founded 1925, was also a monumental organization to make progress for women — it mainly focused on female literacy, vocational training, public participation, and legal reform. It was primarily the initiative of Lady Meherbai Tata, a Mazdaean icon, and its first president was Maharani Chimnabai Gaekwad II, born Gajrabai Ghatge, a princess of Dewas (M.P.) She supported societal progress of women that did not compromise on Hindu identity (i.e., traditional customs like wearing sari and sindhoor or like celebrating Raksha Bandhan), which is how she framed her ''The Position of Women in Indian Life'' book. She financed schools for girls, as well as Hindu charities and temples. The Gaekwad family also funded libraries and women's institutions and social reform initiatives. She discussed the eradication or the purdah, child marriage, women's restrictions (i.e., obtaining education and employment), and other obstacles towards advancement. Following her presidentship, Sethu Parvathi Bayi took over. She was from the royal family of Travancore (Kerala), and her family was deeply connected to the Padmanabhaswamy Temple[https://spst.in/][https://www.padmanabhaswamytemple.com/]. She financed Hindu institutions as well. It is notable that Sucharu Deo, daughter of Brahmo leader K.C. Sen was a prominent member and she had also helped build the Maharani Girls' High School[https://school.banglarshiksha.gov.in/ws/website/index/19013701705] in Darjeeling (W.B.) together with her sister (Suniti) and Hemlata Sarkar, daughter of Brahmo leader Sibnath Sastri.

From Hindu-based institutions like sociopolitical organizations and schools came a number of philanthropic associations.
;Most influential persons for women's upliftment
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Area of Contribution
! Meaning
! Steps Taken
! Activists
! Organizations
! Founder's Affiliation(s)
|-
|Political rights and visibility
|1. Women appearing in public political spaces 2. Women being recognized as leaders (not just participants) 3. Changing social norms about women's public roles 4. Symbolic representation
|Helped institutionalize women's leadership through bodies like Women's Indian Association
|Dr. Annie Besant (women's political rights + organizational leadership), Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay (political participation, economic empowerment, cooperatives), Margaret Cousins[https://www.womensmuseumofireland.ie/exhibits/margaret-elizabeth-cousins] (Suffarage, WIA), Sarojini Naidu (mass mobilization of women in politics)
|
|
|-
|Modern institutional equality
|
|Helped institutionalize institutional equality through contributing policy influence (Hansa Mehta) and constitutional rights (Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh)
|Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh (welfare systems), Hansa Mehta
|
|
|-
|Foundational legal reform
|
|
|Raja Ram Mohan Roy (abolition of sati), Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar (widow remarriage)
|
|
|-
|Education
|
|
|Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar
|
|
|-
|}

====Hindu influence internationally====
Even outside of India during the 20th century, women's rights were not perfect, and so many women incorporated Hindu symbolism (i.e., worship) and concepts towards promoting societies where women would have equal rights.
[[image:M.J. Gage.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Matilda Joslyn Gage.]]
[[image: Charlotte Despard.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Charlotte Despard, an Anglo-Irish suffragist who supported Indian independence.]]
As [[Worship of God as Mother|worship of God as a female or mother]] has been common in Sanatan Dharm since its foundation, that made validating female upliftment in India quicker. Even in Western nations, prominent women's rights organizations implemented imagery of goddesses from pertinent ancient cultures, like U.K.'s Women's Freedom League and National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies, and the global International Woman Suffrage Alliance, to legitimize female equality and women being in positions of power. Some American and European feminists and women's rights activists, like Matilda Joslyn Gage<ref>"''While the sale of daughters was practiced in England for seven hundred years after the introduction of Christianity, we note that by the ancient law of India, a father was forbidden to sell his daughter in marriage, or receive the smallest present therefor.''" - P. 79-82 ''Woman, Church and State'' (1893) By Matilda Joslyn Gage</ref> (U.S. suffragist) and Helena Petrovna Blavatsky<ref>"''The pre- and post-Vedic woman was as free as man; and no impure terrestrial thought was ever mixed with the religious symbology of the early Aryans.''" 
"''This is proven by the fact that in the Vedic period their women were not placed apart from men in penetralia, or ‘Zenanas.’ Their seclusion began when the Mahomedans … had conquered the land and gradually enforced their ways and customs upon the Hindus.''" 
- P. 379-380 ''The Secret Doctrine: Volume I'' By Helena Blavatsky </ref> (European feminist), even used the examples of [[Worship of God as Mother|Hindu goddess-worship]] and Hindu queens to support their examples. And though Blavatsky did not officially align with any single religion to encourage recruitment for her Theosophical Society, she referenced Sanatan and Bauddh scriptures (Upanishads, and then Gita, then Bauddh shastras) more than others. (M.J. Gage[https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/the-feminist-inspired-witches-of-oz-180985334/] in her ''Woman, Church, and State'' even highlighted Hindu texts to counter the male-centric theology of the West and referenced ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'' to validate the concept of a female [[divinity]].) Even feminists of the colonial era like Victoria Woodhull that was skeptical of organized religion, respected "''Christna and Buddha''" (Krishna and Gautama.) Mary Lowe Dickinson at the World's Parliament Circles (1893) was so impressed by [[Swami Vivekananda|Swami Vivekanand]]'s speech, that she developed a fascination with female divinity of Hinduism, and in her editorials and public circles, argued that Hinduism's recognition of a feminine aspect within the divine was spiritually superior to the rigidly patriarchal, all-male Trinity of mainstream American Christianity. Emily Pitts Stevens and Charlotte LeMoyne Wills (wrote about the genderless [[Brahm]]) became disciples of Vivekanand. Laura de Force Gordon wrote about the immortal soul and continuous cycle of life. Alice Moore McComas wrote about the interconnectedness (aikatmyam) of all things. In U.K., Charlotte Despard's specific pamphlets linked [[karma]] to political activism. Margaret Louise Sanger was influenced by Vivekanand and Rabindranath Tagore. Sarah Bull<ref> P. 483 ''Western Admirers of Ramakrishna and His Disciples'' By Gopal Stavig, Swami Shuddhidananda </ref>, who particularly focused on women's education and reform was connected to both Vivekanand and Sister Nivedita. Josephine MacLeod was a major promoter of Vivekanand in the West and was involved in transatlantic reform-intellectual networks. Viktoria Ocampo of Argentina was deeply influenced by Tagore, even hosting him in Argentina and promoting his ideas widely. Gabriela Mistral of Chile was too, and she applied Tagore's ideas to women's education, child welfare, and cultural reform. Mabel Dodge Luhan was fascinated with Sanatan philosophy and influenced by Vivekanand. Mentionable is Emma Calve of France, who wasn't a political feminist leader but influential in women's intellectual-cultural circles, and she was deeply influenced by Vivekanand.
[[image:Carol Patrice Christ.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Carol Patrice Christ.]]
After suffragists had attained complete institutional equality, they them progressed to the next stage of female liberation by ensuring that their own spiritual faith wasn't male-chauvinistic or making them subordinates of males. Feminists were inspired by goddess deity of Hinduism to then promote it within generic spirituality. Valerie Saiving, Isaac Bonewits and Naomi Goldenberg founded in the 1970's, Thealogy, a feminine-specific theology. Carol Patrice Christ launched the Goddess Movement, which provided 4 aspects of Goddess symbolism as reasons to needing a goddess in women's lives; 1) the Goddess as affirmation of female power, 2) the female body, 3) the female will, and 4) women's bond and heritage. She specifically used the Shakti concept to prove that a major global religion (Hinduism) explicitly defined the [[Brahmanda|material universe]]/nature/change ([[Darshana#Sankhya|Prakriti]]) as an inherently active, female, and sacred force. She was an ecofeminist, as were Charlene Spretnak and Miriam Simos were ecofeminists too. Merlin Stone wrote ''Ancient Mirrors of Womanhood: Our Goddess and Heroine Heritage'' (1979) and in a chapter analyzes goddesses like [[Durga]], [[Kali]], [[Lakshmi Puja|Lakshmi]], Parvati, and Saraswati. Devout Christian women feminists too drew on Hindu practices and ideas to support women's advocacy, and they include Ivone Gebara, Pearl Sydenstricker Buck, and Sally McFague.

'Matriarchal religion' is a philosophy stating that societies were Goddess worshippers with females having the same status and rights as men before male gods began being worshipped, and the latter led to patriarchy. Goddesses being worshipped contiguously in Hindu societies for thousands of years was the backing this thought utilized, in addition to feminist archaeology (i.e., ancient idols and temples of goddesses uncovered.)

==Start of modern reforms==
In modern India, most positive social changes within Indian Hindu societies came not first as enforcement or pressure from European rulers but from advocacy of forward-thinking Hindus. Raja Ram Mohan Roy had led the campaign to purge Hindu societies of Sati and caste prejudices. Roy worked with British imperial authority, specifically Lord William Bentinck to have sati outlawed. Roy himself was a religious leader that reiterated Upanishads for their principles.

Other institutions of positive social changes were mainly Hindu ones or were governed by Hindu religious leaders, not secular ones.

The Indian National Social Conference of 1887 was organized by Justice Ranade, Rai Raghunath Rao, Narendra Nath Sen Gupta, and Janki Nath Ghoshal. Ranade was founder of the Prarthana Samaj, a religious group.

Arya Samajis, Brahmo Samajis, and Prarthana Samajis were the most vocal and active forces advocating: 
#Widow Remarriage (i.e., Widow Remarriage Act 1856—initiative of Brahmo Samaj)
#Women's right to divorce (i.e., Native Marriage Act 1872—initiative of Brahmo Samaj) 
#Property rights for women 
#Opposition to child marriages (i.e., Age of Consent Act 1891—initiative of Brahmo Samaj and Prarthana Samaj, Child Marriage Restraint Act 1929—initiative of Arya Samaj) 
#Universal accessible education (built schools, including colleges and gurukuls) 
#Caste-based reservations (i.e., 50% quota of 1902—initiative of Shahu Maharaj, who later became an Arya Samaji)
[[image:Justice Ranade.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Mahadev Govind Ranade (alias 'Justice Ranade'.)]]
[[image:Jagannath Shankarshet.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Jagannath Shankarshet (alias 'Architect of Modern Mumbai'.)]]
The Indian Factories Act 1881's ratification was a landmark in workers' rights and the credit goes mainly to Sorabjee Shapoorjee Bengalee, and then Prarthana Samaj. He did work alongside the Prarthana Samaj to lobby the British authority through the First Factory Commission in 1875 (made to investigate the brutal conditions of Indian labour.) Prarthana Samaj's ''Subodh Patrika'' newspaper specifically critiqued mill owners. Rahnumai Mazdayasnan Sabha, its newspaper ''Rast Goftar'', and Bengalee himself referenced labour reformers Sasipada Banerji and Protap Chunder Mozumdar, and used the former's methods of worker upliftment as a blueprint for their own legislative arguments. Collaboration between the Sabha and Prarthana Samaj began with the latter's creation of the Theistic Association, on which the Parsi Naoroji Furdonji was its 1st Chairman. Ranade and Bhandarkar drove the Association from discussing only theism to improving society through finding solutions of work hardships. The Night School Initiative was launched, helping workers receive adequate training, particularly in labourer-heavy neighborhoods Byculla, Dongri, Khetwadi, and Thakurdwar. (From 1886-1890 alone, over 2,750 industrial workers successfully studied through this initiative.) Protap Chunder Mozoomdar, a Brahmo, began eight night schools in 1872 within Mumbai when he relocated to the city.<ref> P. 47 ''Peaceful Industrial Relations, Their Science and Technique'' (1957) By R. J. Soman </ref> Brahmos then established night schools within Kolkata by 1878.

Brahmo Samaj's K.C. Sen’s first visit to Mumbai in March-April 1864 engaged him with Bengalee, Furdonji, Ranade, and Bhandarkar (all then members of Young India.) They all discussed ways to develop India. They also shared strategies on how to bypass orthodox religious resistance—Furdonji within Zoroastrianism and Sen within Sanatan Dharm. Bengalee's First Labor Bill (1878) laid the groundwork for the later Indian Factories Act.

Prior to all of this, Jagannath Shankarshet[https://www.vishwakonkani.org/hall-of-fame/hon-jagannath-shankar-sheth/] spent the 1850s petitioning the British Parliament for local governance. As a result, it codified the Indian Councils Act of 1861, thus creating the Bombay Legislative Council as a political body to better govern the-then Bombay Presidency. Shankarshet was the main founder of Bombay Association. In its first leadership were also Dr. Ramachandra Vitthal Lad (alias 'Dr. Bhau Daji'), a Hindu intellectual who used his Sanskrit knowledge to decipher inscriptions, preserve manuscripts, and help reconstruct the forgotten timelines of ancient Guptas and Western Kshatrapa dynasties. Mentionable is the Parsi Sir Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy of the group. Shankarshet was a wealthy philanthropist that constructed and financed Sanatan and secular infrastructure, most notably the Bhavani Shankar Mandir[https://www.mcgm.gov.in/irj/go/km/docs/documents/D%20Ward/Heritage-Sites/73_Legacy%20of%20D%20Ward_Article_Bhavani%20Shankar%20Temple.pdf] (Mumbai), Sanskrit Seminary and Sanskrit Library (both in Mumbai too.) Elphinstone Educational Institution[https://elphinstone.ac.in/index.php] and Grant Medical College[https://gmcjjh.edu.in/] were his creations too. (Jeejeebhoy contributed to constructing the Grant Medical College.)

===Shahu's royal authority to implement reforms===
[[image:Shahu adoption.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Prince Yeshwantrao Ghatge being adopted by the royal family of Kohlapur.]]
[[image:Rajarshi.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Rajarshi Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj IV.]]
[[image:School foundation.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Foundation of Shri Shahu Chhatrapati Shikshan Sanstha.]]
The greatest champion on all of these sections for reforms was Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj[https://aissms.org/breaking-barriers-chhatrapati-shahu-maharaj-and-his-enduring-impact-on-progress-and-modernity/] (born Yeshwantrao Ghatge), '[[Rta and Spiritual Authority#Rishis|Rajarshi]]', the ruler of Kohlapur Kingdom who affiliated with organizations but probably the Arya Samaj[https://thearyasamaj.org] more than any other. Shahu definitely was not shy to publicly perform prayers, as he famously attended temples of goddesses Ambabai[https://www.mahalaxmikolhapur.com/home] and Bhavani[https://shrituljabhavani.org/] when having returned from his Europe trip in 1902. Also in 1902, Pratap Singh Maharaj of Idhar (Gujarat) introduced and educated him about the Arya Samaj. He provided patronage to the Arya Samaj.[https://navjyot.net/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/10.pdf]

The king passed many policies for for the upliftment of untouchable, nomadic, non-Brahmin communities and for females.<ref>Act of Free and Compulsory Primary Education (1917), Widow remarriage Act (1917), End of Balutedari (1918), Repeal of Kulkarni Watan (1918), Intercaste and Interreligious Marriages and Sanctioning of Registered Marriage Act (1919), Act relating to protection of Harassment of Women (1919), Divorce act (1919), Order on prohibition of Untouchability practice (1919), Illegitimate Children's Rights and Devadasi Prohibition Act (1920); 
[https://www.indiejournal.in/article/rajarshi-shahu-maharaj-and-his-tryst-with-the-arya-samaj "Rajarshi Shahu Maharaj & his tryst with the Arya Samaj Lessons for our times"] By Devkumar Ahire (Jun 26, 2023 6:42 PM)</ref>

;Prejudiced disgruntled castists promoting anti-Brahman hate, not universalism
While Shahu was affiliated with the Satyashodhak Samaj (SS) because it wanted to uplift the non-dwija castes, he did not feel they had any religious foundations, whereas the Arya Samaj was encompassed both a spiritual and social movement.<ref>"Beyond Reformism: Chhatrapati Shahu and Hinduism Reimagined" By Surajkumar Thube P. 124-144 ''Nidān: International Journal for Indian Studies, Volume 8'', Issue 1 (July 2023)</ref> Also, the SS of Pune was antithetical to social cohesion because it targeted the Brahman caste as an enemy, and while its main founder (Jyotirao Phule) made absurd claims like 'Shiv-Dharma'<ref>"''The real Shiv-Dharma that is ours, we are re-establishing it as Sarvajanik Satya Dharma.''" Chapter 4, ''Sarvajanik Satya Pustak''</ref> or 'Mahadev-Dharma' (worship of [[Shiva|Shiv]] as God and some local gods like Khandoba as avatars) being the true religion of Indians whereas every other Hindu belief and practice was an imposition by 'non-Indian Brahman invaders'. Being a chauvinist, he also criticized freedom fighter martyrs Lakshmi Bai, Nana Sahib, Tantia Tope for being Brahmans. He also wrote positively that freedom fighters lost the 1857 War of Independence against the British colonialists. He was also openly criticized by his own relative Baburao Phule, who accused the former of being a Christian convert who destroyed the Hindu religion.<ref>P. 58-59 ''The Caste Question: Dalits and the Politics of Modern India'' (2009) By Anupama Rao </ref>

Phule though anti-Brahman, was influenced by some Brahmans, such as Balshastri Jambhekar (a Hindu activist) who pushed scientific knowledge and history through Marathi, criticized caste segregation, and attacked other or kinds or orthodoxy like widowhood. He was also influenced by some Hindu activists who were not anti-Brahman (i.e., Karsandas Mulji.)

The organization would receive the most aid from Shahu (financial and social work), Karmvir (social work), and Padval (intellectual) but they themselves always kept a distance from the SS because of its explicitly castist vitriol. People would choose to align or become members of other associations for their inclusivity and harmonious vision for the future.

;Satyashodhak Samaj becoming less anti-Brahman
"''All Hindus are equal. No one is superior, no one is inferior. Let all flesh and blood be one. Four varnas are a real deceit. It's a tool to keep the non-Brahmins in slavery. There is no difference among the Hindus. Hindu is the only varna. If a Hindu eats or marries with another Hindu that's not ''[[adharma]].'' In contrast, what divide Hindus in the name of religion is not a dharma, but a trick by Brahmins. One who calls themselves a Hindu, whether they are Europeans or Africans, they are our coreligionists.''" - P. 39 ''Deshache Dushman'' (1925) By Dinkarrao Javalkar
[[image:Sasipada Banerji.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Sasipada Banerji (alias 'Sevabrata'.)]]
Notable is that Phule's friend Narayan Meghaji Lokhande, a labour organization leader, was close friends with Phule and used Khandoba-worship and the reverence of Sundays for Khandoba in his petition to British authority to achieve Sunday as a holiday for factory labourers (S.S. Bengalee's idea that he campaigned for over a decade.) (In some Satyashodhak branches, incoming members took an initialization oath in the name of "Khanderao".) Phule and Lokhande emulated Brahmans, like forming the political lobby group Deenbandhu Sarvajanik Sabha after Ranade's Poona Sarvajanik Sabha and forming the Bombay Mill Hands Association based and its mouthpiece ''Deenbandhu'' on the Working Men's Club (India's 1st labour welfare platform) and its mouthpiece ''Bharat Sramajibi'' (India's 1st labour journal) of Sasipada Banerji (Brahmo Samaji.) Mentionable is that Lokhande used phrases "''Hindu Bhau''", "''Hindu Dharma''" and "''Hindu Samaj''" in his writings.

Though Dinkarrao Javalkar portrayed himself as pan-Hindu when discussing the specific topic of Hindu unity, he still prejudicially criticized the Brahman caste in general<ref>"''This day will be counted among the most important days in the history of Hindus. There is no reason for you to fear jail. The Brahmans who eat ghee and roti should have that fear. To make the touchable people behave is in your hands. You are the sons of Hindus. You capture the tank saying 'har har Mahadev' and follow the advice of your leader Dr. Ambedkar Saheb. This is my own position.''" -Dinkarrao Javalkar at satyagraha with Keshavrao Jedhe and Dr. Ambedkar among a Mahar crowd</ref> and targeted some prominent Brahmans like Lokmanya Tilak. (Javalkar and Keshavrao Jedhe also portrayed themselves as pro-woman but derogatory remarks about women from the Brahman and certain other castes<ref>P. 44 ''19th Century Maharashtra: A Reassessment'' (2020) By Shraddha Kumbhojkar </ref> and both appealed to Dr. B.R. Ambedkar in 1927 to exclude Brahmans from the Mahad Satyagraha<ref> P. 27 ''Social Reform Movements in India: A Historical Perspective'' (1991) By V.D. Divekar</ref>.) Jedhe did protest with other activists (including Brahmans like Narhar Vishnu Gadgil, Seshdas Ranade, Shreedhar Mahadev Joshi, and members of Arya Samaj) for the right of Dalits to worship at Pune's Devdeveshwar Mandir[https://devdeveshwarsanthan.org/home.html]. Javalkar did write favourably about some like Ranade, Gopal Ganesh Agarkar, and Krishna Gopal Gokhale but even they were rarely mentioned. He rightfully partook in the Kalaram Mandir[https://www.shrikalaramsansthannasik.org/] Satyagraha in Nasik that protested for Dalits to be able to enter the temple. He was a communist and 10 years after his death, the Peasants and Workers Party (PWP) was formed.

SS branches outside of Pune were less hateful of Brahmans. It is also noteworthy, however, is that Nana Patil, a founder of the PWP, was affiliated with both the Satyashodhak and Prarthana associations [meaning that he, like most other Satyashodhaks didn't believe in Phule's religious ideology.] Some other PWP founders like Jedhe and Madhavrao Bagal were Satyashodhaks, they popularized Shiv Jayanti and Ganesh Chathuri. The latter and his son Vasantrao even wrote devotional pieces inspired from Bhakti Era saints (i.e., [[Tukaram]], [[Eknath]]) and valourizing pieces about Shahu. Tulshidas Jadhav, a Gandian within the PWP, championed the Bhakti Era's Warkari Movement, which was still popular in his time, because it was based on social equality and public seva. Also noteworthy is, that even some prominent members supported the Arya Samaj, like Krishnarao Bhalekar<ref>"''Bhalekar said that while Hinduism needed to be reformed , this reform should be brought about from within . He said he would defend Hinduism if it was under attack from Islam or Christianity.''" - P. 35 ''Non-Brahman Movement in Maharashtra'' (1989) By M.S. Gore </ref> (1 of the founders of SS with Phule) defended Dayanand Saraswati (Arya Samaj’s founder), when the latter’s procession was opposed by some orthodox Hindus in Pune, and Bhalekar organized a speech to be delivered by Saraswati at a dharmshal near a Rokdoba Temple in Pune. SS' Moro Vitthal Walvekar was directly affiliated with the Prarthana Samaj and played a crucial role in its associated media landscape (frequently serving as an editor of ''Subodha Patrika''.)

Bhalekar himself made the claim that the SS is the true follower of Sant Tukaram's [[Bhāgavata-dharma|Bhagwat Dharma]] ([[Krishna|Krishnaite]] [[Vaishnava|Vaishnavism]].) His son was Mukundrao Patil, who made the claim, "''The Satyasodhak Samaj is the true heir of the Hindu religion. Brahmanism is not Hinduism.''"<ref>''Dinmitra'' newspaper (1920s)</ref> Javalkar claimed SS is the true representative of the Hindu religion and that SS members are liberating Hinduism from the supremacy of the Brahmins. Shivram Janma Kamble (a Dalit) stated the SS is a revival movement of the true Hinduism. Kisan Faguji Bansode (a Dalit) argued "Shivdharma" was the true Hindu religion and that the SS advocates that version. Dr. Ramayya Venkayya Ayyavaru in ''Khristi Bandhujanans Vinanti'' or ''A Request to Our Christian Brothers'' (1887) wrote to missionaries that Indians did not need to be baptized and that monotheism has been embedded in Indian culture and that Indians. Previously, he, backed firmly by Lokhande and the urban Mumbai executive committee of the SS, aggressively fought against changing the name of the SS to 'Satya Dharma Samaj'.

There were those in his organization that promoted about how in ancient Sanatan society, there were no caste distinctions and that people were recognized by their merits. Their view was promoted by Tukaram Tatya Padval, who wrote ''Jatibhed Vivekshar'' (1861) after being inspired by Ashwaghosha's ''Vajrasuchi''. Phule republished copies of Padval's books, and the 2 developed a friendship. He did write at that in ancient India, certain sages were had Sudra or Avarna status but rose to the rank of a Brahman through their intellect, and used examples of Valmiki (wrote a ''Ramayan''), Sankhya, and Kabilar rishis. He also published copies of the ''Bhagavad Gita'', ''Yogasutra'', and compilations of the ''Rajayoga'' and ''Sankhya Karika.'' He further compiled the ''Tukarambaba ani Tyanche Shisya Yanchi Abhanga Gatha'' (1889) and ''Eknath Maharajancha Abhangachi Gatha'' (1903.) Padval, however, never became a member of Phule's organization and instead became a member of the Theosophical Society.

Krishnarao Arjun Keluskar, who was a member of the Mumbai SS had written positively of Krishna and the latter's ethics of the ''Bhagavad Gita'', as well as of Shivaji, Sant Tukaram, Gautam Buddha, and Govind Janardan Borkar (alias Shri Gajananaswami.) It was he who first influenced Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar with [[Bauddh Dharm]]. (Ambedkar had later converted to the dharm, but that's an Arya dharma, so is not damaging to Sanatan society or Indian society like converting to Islam would be.)

;Shahu forming his own Satyashodhak Samaj focused on upliftment (free of anti-Brahman distractions)
As a result of the Satyashodhak Samaj of Pune being too antagonistic of Brahmans, Shahu had instead founded his own branch in 1911 — Shri Shahu Satyashodhak Samaj. By an order, Shahu replaced the Brahman priests in the Patgaon Sansthan (Mauni Maharaj Math[https://durgbharari.in/maunibaba-patgaon/]) and Jyotiba Devasthan[https://shreejyotiba.com/?lang=E][https://maharashtratourism.gov.in/temple/jyotiba/] with Maratha priests. Bhaskarrao Jadhav and Anna Babaji Latthe were leaders of Shahu's Kolhapur Satyashodhak Samaj. Whereas Phule mostly only wrote positively of Shiva and local-born gods, Jadhav in his ''Marathas and their Religion'' wrote positively about Krishna and the ''Bhagavad Gita''. He further worked with Shahu to aid Arya Samaj in its activities and goals (i.e., train non-Brahmans to become priests too.) Noteworthy is that Latthe, who worked personally with Shahu Maharaj, was its first VP and that he worked to dismantle priestly ([[Jain Dharm|Jain priests]], not usually Brahmans) intermediation within the Jain clergy. (He was a big-time activist for general upliftment and for reform within the Jain community (i.e., wrote ''Jain Dharmacha Parichay''.)

Latthe founded the Dakshin Bharat Jain Sabha[https://dbjainsabha.com/], of which Dr. Bhaurao Patil (from a Jain family) became a member and through he wasn't a member of any SS branch, he did sometimes participate in its activities and himself founded the Rayat Shikshan Sansthan[https://rayatshikshan.edu/], which educated students in a multitude of topics, including Sanskrit. Patil (alias 'Karmvir Anna') was deeply influenced by Mahatma Gandhi and Vitthal Ramji Shinde.

;Shahu distancing himself formally from Satyashodhak Samaj
The SS had earned a bad reputation in Maharashtra with the general public, particularly for the outright anti-Brahman vitriol spewed in the SS's publications and events. Because the goal of Shahu and true reformers was to achieve a harmonious society with all people cooperating, it would not make sense to support an organization that's known for abusing persons (i.e., Brahmans) specifically over their caste identity.

In 1921, Shahu made a public statement in a Baroda newspaper that even though he granted significant support to the non-Brahman movement and introduced measures to eliminate Brahman dominance, he had never been affiliated with Phule's SS, and that he always accepted [[Rta and Spiritual Authority#Rishis|Vedic ritual authority]].

;Granting, accommodating, and expanding Arya Samaj
Shahu attended Arya Samaj sessions like the one at Navsari in 1918 and another at Bhavnagar in 1920<ref>P. 6. ''People's Raj Volume 30'' (1974) By Directorate-General of Information and Public Relations </ref>. He provided funding for Gurukul Boarding House to be built at Kerle, wherein large buildings and well-irrigated lands were granted to the Arya Samaj. Later, the Rajaram Anathalaya orphanage was added to this grant. He also brought educational institutions in his domain under the leadership of Arya Pratinidhi Sabha. Rajaram College's administration was also granted to the Arya Samaj.

;Spiritual Authority as Rajarshi
Shahu Maharaj, being a devout Sanatan wanted to proclaim the rights that warriors of history had and so participated in important ceremonies and worked with priests (i.e., Brahmans) to achieve the rights to learn and perform Vedic ceremonies. He established the Vedokta Committee for Marathas to be able to perform Vedic rites without requiring priests. In 1905, the Karveer Peeth's (or Kolhapur Math's) Shankaracharya declared full rights of Vedokta to Chhatrapati Shahu.

Tatyarao Joshirao was appointed by Shahu Maharaj as new royal purohit, replacing the Rajopadhye (creator of the infamous 'Vedokta Controversy'), who denied the Maharaj to perform Vedic rites. Joshirao was from a family that had traditional ownership of the historic Binkhambi Ganapati Mandir in Kolhapur.

Rajaram Shastri (alias 'Bhagavata'), a Brahman scholar, linguist, and researcher, openly challenged the religious orthodoxy, arguing from scripture that Shahu Maharaj had full rights to the Vedas. Vishnu Topkhane was another Brahman who greatly helped the Chhatrapati with his progressive reforms. Topkhane the educationalist helped the latter establish the Vidyapeeth High School near the Shri Karveer Niwasini Ambabai Mahalakshmi Temple. Freedom fighter Gokhale was someone who worked with Shahu. When the Vedokta Controversy broke out and the conservative press attacked the Maharaja, Gokhale privately and publicly validated Shahu Maharaj's stance, recognizing that social reform was a prerequisite for true political freedom. Ranade, though passed away before much Shahu's reforms began, was admired by the latter for his progressive ideals and actions.

Chhatrapati Shahu founded the Satyashodhak School for spiritual training in 1913, in which seminarians (predominantly from castes such as Marathas, Mahars, and Chambhars) were taught to recite and preach the poems (i.e., abhangs of Tukaram) of sants. He also created the Shivaji Vedic School (aliases 'Shahu Vedic School', 'Shahu Vedic Pathshala', 'Shri Shahu Vaidik Vidyalay') in 1920 and had invited scholars from Varanasi (spiritual capital of Sanatan Dharm) to ensure the highest standard of scriptural and linguistic training. The school trained seminarians (of all castes) to learn Sanskrit and become priests and conduct ceremonies. He further established and financed the office of the Kshatra Jagadguru (''Warrior Universal Teacher''), a pontiff seat open to anyone of any caste. The first Kshatra Jagadguru was Sadashivrao Lakshmanrao Sankpal Patil Benadikar, was an accomplished Sanskrit scholar who received his formal higher education at Rajaram College in Kolhapur. The Kshatra Jagadguru Peeth was the pontiff's seat at Patgaon (in the Bhudargad region of Kolhapur.) Patgaon was chosen because it was the historic site of the Mauni Maharaj Math, a highly respected spiritual center that had historically blessed Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj[https://pilgrimdata.in/temple/mouni-maharaj-math-temple-patgaon-bhudargarh-dist-kolhapur/]. The Kshatra Jagadguru had the Shri Sadashivrao Patil Shikshan Sanstha educationalist association named after him, and it runs schools[https://www.mwssm.org/][https://sspiop.com/] in Maharashtra still. Other organizations too use his name for schools like Sadashivrao Mandlik Mahavidyalaya (Kolhapur) of the ⁠Jay Shivray Education Society.

===Successive associations===
From Hindu-based institutions like sociopolitical organizations and schools came a number of philanthropic associations. Even other humanitarian associations that were not established by Hindu activists, were established by their influence. For example, Krishna Gopal Gokhale had participated in many sessions of the Prarthana Samaj as he was Ranade's pupil, and he later joined the Deccan Education Society, which he left to establish the Servants of India Society. Narayan Malhar Joshi was a member of Gokhale's group and later formed his own Social Service League[https://socialserviceleague.org.in/]. Hriday Nath Kunzru too was part of Gokhale's group and left to establish the Seva Samiti.

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Organization
! Demographic of Focus
! Region(s)
! Founder
! Founder's Affiliation(s)
! Achievement
|-
|Anath Balikashram Society
|Widows
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Andhra Mahila Sabha
|Females
|Andhra Pradesh
|Durgabai Deshmukh
|
|
|-
|Bharat Stree Mahamandal
|Females
|Bengal, Bihar, Punjab, Sindh, U.P.
|Sarala Devi Chaudhurani
|Arya Samaji, Brahmo Samaji, accepted Bijoy Krishna Chattopadhyaya as her guru
|
|-
|Buddhi Vardhak Sabha
|General public
|Gujarat
|Narmadashankar Labheshankar Dave
|
|Exposed people in positions of power that abused their privileges, build schools for girls
|-
|Central Social Welfare Board
|Females and children
|
|Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh
|
|
|-
|Hindu Widow Marriage Association
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Hindustani Seva Dal
|Females
|Every province
|Dr. Narayan Subbarao Hardikar
|
|Established the Hindustani Seva Mandal (later became Rashtriya Seva Dal) in 1923, established the Arya Bala Sabha, taught the Gita during his student days in Kolkata, was a fan of Lokmanya Tilak, and had enthusiastically worked with Lala Rai
|-
|Indian Reform Association
|Females
|West Bengal
|Keshub Chandra Sen
|
|Brahmo Samaji, founded ''Sulabh Samachar'' as weekly newspaper of group
|-
|Kasthurbha Gandhi Kanya Gurukulam[http://www.kgkgurukulam.org/]
|Girls
|Tamil Nadu (Vedaranyam)
|Vedaratnam Pillai
|
|Involved in temple-based philanthropy and donated to Sri Ramakrishna Mission too
|-
|Lakshmi Ashram
|Females
|Uttarakhand
|Sarla Behn
|
|Established individual Mahila Mandals throughout Uttarakhand and promoted important skills as well as ecological awareness
|-
|Lokahitawadi Mandal
|General public
|Maharashtra
|Vishnu Vaman Shirwadkar
|
|Wrote about Hindu themes, including persons from scriptures and about Shivaji poetically, philosophically, and nationally
|-
|Maharshi Karve Stree Shikshan Samstha
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Mahila Vidyalaya (Pune)
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Nishkam Karma Math
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Poona Seva Sadan
|Females
|Maharashtra (at its peak, included M.P. and T.N.)
|Ramabai Ranade
|
|
|-
|Samata Sangh
|General public
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Self Employed Women's Association (SEWA)
|Females
|18 states
|Ela Bhatt
|Gandhian Textile Labour Association
|Established: own bank (Shri Mahila Sewa Sahakari Bank, or 'SEWA Cooperative Bank'), SEWA Mahila Housing Trust
|-
|Servants of the People Society
|Females
|Kerala, Maharashtra, M.P., Odisha T.N., Uttarakhand U.P.
|
|
|
|-
|Shraddhanand Ashram[https://shraddhanandmahilashram.org] (alias Hindu Women's Welfare Society)
|Females and boys
|Maharashtra (Mumbai)
|Swami Shraddhanand
|
|Has cared for thousands of destitute women and orphans, and educated them and provided skills development, as well as fostered personal development
|-
|Stree Hitaishini Mandali
|Females
|Andhra Pradesh
|Kanuparti Varalakshmamma
|
|Educated many females
|-
|Veda Samaj
|General public
|Tamil Nadu
|Chembeti Sridharalu Naidu
|
|It advanced female literacy through local activism, campaigned against child marriages, promoted widow remarriage and windows' rehabilitation into being societal contributing members
|-
|Widow Marriage Association
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|}

==Inspiration to Madras Presidency==
[[image:M.C. Rajah.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Mylai Chinna Thambi Pillai Rajah (the real 'Periyar'.)]]
While the Arya Samaj, Brahmo Samaj, Prarthana Samaj, and a host of other Hindu-based humanitarian and sociopolitical institutions existed in the-then Madras Presidency of southern India, they inspired local organizations as well. Shahu Maharaj had friends in the-then Justice Party (JP, est. 1916), like Arcot Ramasamy Mudaliar and Panaganti Ramarayaningar. While some ethnic groups, like certain castes even falsely supported the idea of an 'Aryan Invasion Theory' and themselves (Dravidian-languages speakers) as indigenous, they still appreciated Hinduism and did not consider it alien.

The biggest uplifter of the party was M.C. Rajah, who had the highest influence upon the policies that improved the lives of the Dalits in Madras Presidency. The party itself was founded primarily by 3 individuals — Sir Pitti Theagaraya Chetty (political founder who built the political machine), Dr. Taravath Madhavan Nair (ideological co-founder), and Dr. Chintadripet Natesa Mudaliar (cultural/grassroots mobilizer who helped shape cultural legitimacy.) Dr. Nair had said that Hindu society had originally possessed broader equality before caste dominance hardened it. Chetty occasionally used dharm-based ethical framing. He is consistently described as arguing that governance must align with "''dharma and justice''". The Dr. Mudaliar was a devout Shaiva that infused into the party Shaivism as a cultural identity for southerners.
[[image:P.T. Rajan.jpg|right|thumb|200px|P.T. Rajan (centre-right, wearing glasses next to priest), touring with the idol of [[Ayyappan|Ayyappa]] he had made at Swamimalai Temple[https://swamimalaiswaminathar.hrce.tn.gov.in/] and it was placed in the Sabarimala Temple[https://www.sabarimalauptodate.in/].]]
An ideologue of influence to the JP and Self-Respect Movement was Maraimalai Adigal, a Shaiv preacher and writer, who claimed that both the JP and Self-Respect Movement were from his teachings and that militant atheist Erode Venkatappa Ramasami Naicker had hijacked them. JP founder Dr. Nair died in 1919 and Chetty in 1925, so had no interaction Naicker. Ponnambala Thiaga Rajan was an active party member and disagreed with Naicker's ideology, so joined Congress-aligned politics. Mudaliar died in 1935 around the time Naicker entered the JP. Naicker was also a prejudiced castist that criticized but did not contribute to build schools and shelters for women and children, as Rajah[https://www.news18.com/opinion/opinion-m-c-rajah-the-forgotten-hindu-mahasabha-dalit-8937192.html][https://vskbharat.com/m-c-rajah-a-staunch-hindu-leader/?lang=en][https://thecommunemag.com/m-c-rajah-the-hindu-mahasabha-dalit/], a practicing Hindu of the party did. Rajah even once formed a political alliance with the Hindu Mahasabha, was the contributor. Before Rajah, the party's caste disparity was mainly about civil service occupations and education access for underprivileged castes. Rajah was recommended by Ambedkar to convert but Rajah replied there's no religion better than Hinduism.<ref>P. 92 ''The Political Evolution of Muslims in Tamilnadu and Madras, 1930-1947'' By J.B. Prashant More (1997) </ref><ref> In a public meeting of the All India Adi Dravida Mahajana Sabha in Nungambakkam, Chennai he said, "''The president (of this meeting) mentioned that no other community other than us has more right to be called Hindus. Conversion will not bring about any good. By saying so, I am not undermining or wishing away the oppression and ills we have faced. We need to fight for our rights. The speed at which reforms are happening might be slow. But think about our current situation and how much it has improved. I beseech you to please abandon any move that will weaken us. I request the government to bring about the Untouchability Abolition Bill and pass it quickly. The Harijans are proud Hindus. That is the only reason why even after years of oppression by higher castes and a barrage of proselytization efforts by other religions hasn't changed their resolve being Hindus.''" P. 123 ''Evolution of Hindu Nationalism - Icons of HMS, RSS & BJS'' By Sankara Narayanan T (2025)</ref> Adigal's writings had a profound impact on Subramania Ramanathan, the founder of the Self-Respect Movement, and on the Naicker but the latter only wanted pro-Tamil and castist societal changes, not promotion of Shaivism. Naicker would later break away from the party and form his own Dravidar Kazhagam, a title he copied from Adigal's Shaiv association (Podhunilak Kazhagam.) (His own pupil, Conjeevaram Natarajan Annadurai, would eventually disown him after he married his own adopted daughter, and Annadurai would leave his group.)
[[image:Alamelu.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Alamelu Mangai Thayarammal, a Brahmo Samaji, was co-founder of the party among 29 others (all men.)]]
The Hindu sentiment was definitely present in the JP. Many left after Naicker's hijacking. Important members bothered by Naicker's rhetoric apart from Rajan were Ananda Prasad Patro, Arunachalam Thamaraiselvam Panneerselvam, Muthiah Annamalai Chettiar, Ramasamy Kandasamy Shanmukham Chetty, and Subbarayalu Kumaraswami Reddiar. Chettiar even personally regularly donated to temple renovations, endowing temple lands or festivals, supporting pilgrimage facilities, and Hindu-managed schools. Rajan, the last leader of the JP, was the head-of-government of the Presidency, and was a big devotee a [[Ayyappan|Swami Ayyappa]]. Rajan even solemnized a marriage of a German couple converted to Hinduism in Coimbatore (Oct 31, 1962.) He further discouraged conversion of Dalits from Hinduism to another religion<ref>"''If by mass conversion you expect to achieve your object, you will be disappointed, because of a mere change of religion it will not give you all that you want.''" 
P. 147 ''Sir P. T. Rajan's Eighty Second Birthday Souvenir, 1973'' By P.T. Rajan and K. Paramasivam</ref> while encouraging caste-Hindus to better treat Dalits. His family had deep ties to the Meenakshi Amman Temple[https://maduraimeenakshi.hrce.tn.gov.in/] in Madurai, with his son (Palanivel Rajan), serving as a minister, and his daughter-in-law (Rukmani), serving as the first female chairperson of the temple's board of trustees. His predecessor Ramakrishna Ranga Rao denied that the JP was anti-Hindu and declared that it aimed to purify Hindu society from "''absurdities''" and return "''Hinduism greater and more glorious than it was in the past...''"<ref>"''As I understand it, the Self-Respect movement stands for certain great ideals to make Hinduism greater and more glorious than it was in the past, to rid it of all those absurdities which are the accretions of an unfortunate era of the past, and unite us in a solid federation so that all those who profess to follow the Hindu faith may feel that they are brethren following one of the most ancient and glorious religions of the world. No longer should the foreigner point his finger of scorn at this or that particular phase of Hinduism which belies its cosmopolitan tendency by inflicting personal hardship on classes or communities. If a few youths in their exuberant enthusiasm have been carried away beyond the bounds of Hinduism it will not do to fight shy of the new movements, but political wisdom and sagacity lie in taking them into our fold and guiding them aright along the paths of duty and rectitude.''" 
P. 289 ''The Indian Annual Register An Annual Digest of Public Affairs of India Recording the Nation's Activities Each Year in Matters Political, Economic, Industrial, Educational, Social, Etc · Volume 2'' By Nipendra Nath Mitra (1934)</ref> Alamelu Mangai Thayarammal, conferred 'Pandithai' title by Saiva Sabha in Palamcottah, was a JP co-founder [with 29 co-founders being men] who was a Brahmo Samaji, meaning the influence of the Hindu-based organizations wasn't insignificant. Paramasivan Subbarayan Gounder, while not technically a JP member, worked with it closely, and both he and his women's rights activist wife Kailash Radhabai Kulmud were Brahmos. It is also noteworthy that [[Ascetics|ascetic]] Swamiyar Kaivalyar who supported the party without being a member wrote pro-Shaiv material. Cattamanchi Ramalinga Reddy, an ex-member who formed his own party in 1923 was a close friend of Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, and he himself engaged with Hindu texts on a literary artistic level. As Hinduism isn't a scripture-dependent religion, some JP members like A.R. Mudaliar heavily criticized certain scriptures but were devout Hindus ([[Vaiśnava|Vaishnav]] in his case.) And while orthodox opposition was present, the majority of Indians, including religious leaders, supported reforms, like when Shankaracharya of Kanchi[https://www.kamakoti.org/] supported the "Hindu Religious Endowments Bill" (1921) even while voicing some concerns in within. Mentionable is that [[Shatata-Unnati#Female upliftment|Dr. Muthulakshmi Reddy]] wasn't part of the JP but it still nominated her in 1926 for the Madras Legislative Council to bring about positive changes.

==Impactful legacy==
The currents resulting from electrifying the establishments in the colonial era by activists, especially Bhave, Gandhi, Ramakrishna, Tagore, and Vivekanand, are still being felt. Humanitarians worldwide in the colonial era recognized those individuals in particular. Albert Schweitzer of France praised Tagore, Howard Thurman and Thomas Merton spoke positively about Sanatan spirituality in general, and Romain Rolland commended Ramakrishna and Vivekanand. Even international figures who changed the world scientifically and social scientifically recognized, like Albert Einstein revering Tagore and his Upanishadic-style monism, and Ernst Friedrich Schumacher exalting both Bhave and Tagore. (Schumacher was influenced by Buddhism as well, upon visiting Burma, and he founded 'Buddhist Economics'.)

And because [[Ārya Samudāy|Arya dharmas]], focus on the rights of all creatures, including animals, activists struggling to improve [[Animal rights#Influence upon Westerners|animals' lives too were impacted]] by Sanatan, Jain, and Bauddh thoughts on the topic.

One thing that Arya dharmas, particularly Sanatan Dharm, has been able to do is accommodate many viewpoints [provided that they converge at its foundation.] For example, even atheists like M.N. Roy have praised philosophical systems, such as Sankhya, Nyaya, and Vaishesik darshans believe they appreciate that their cosmologies delve into the natural world and don't treat it as maya. Likewise, Nobel Prize-winning physicist Erwin Schrödinger[https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1933/schrodinger/biographical/] used Hindu metaphysics to make sense of the bizarre subatomic behaviors discovered in quantum mechanics. Norwegian philosopher Arne Næss, heavily influenced by Gandhi, who founded the "Deep Ecology" movement in the 1970s, pointed directly to Sanatan ethics (mainly ahimsa) to argue against human destruction of the Earth. Leo Tolstoy, who refused to accept the Nobel[https://www.nobelprize.org/ceremonies/proclamation-sent-to-leo-tolstoy-after-the-1901-years-presentation-of-nobel-prizes/], had based much of his humanistic philosophies of anarcho-pacifism and anti-colonialism on the ''[[Thirukkural]]'' and Gandhism.

==Related articles==
*[[Women]]
*[[Women as Rishikas in the Vedas]]
*[[Worship of God as Mother]]

==External resources==
*[https://www.ijhsss.com/files/08.-ABHISEK-KARMAKAR_6813z4a4.pdf "Changing status of women in Indian politics (1917-1947): the role of civil society"], P. 42-45 ''International Journal of Humanities & Social Science Studies'' Volume-I, Issue-II (September 2014) By Abhisek Karmakar
*[https://www.besanthill.org/about/history-heritage/annie-besant/ Besant Hill School of Happy Valley in Ojai, California]
*[https://www.anniebesant.org Annie Besant Women's College in Hyderabad, Telangana]
*[https://www.aryasabha.mu/cultural-programme-arya-mahila-mandal-in-the-context-of-the-200th-birth-anniversary-of-swami-dayananda-saraswati/ Arya Mahila Mandal (Mauritius)]
*[https://www.thearyasamaj.org/ammkarolbagh Arya Mahila Mandal Karol Bagh]
*[https://vatikashaktipeeth.com/seven-agitations/women-awakening.html Vatika Shakti Peeth]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category: History]]
[[Category: Economics]]
[[Category: Societal altruism]]

Shatata-Unnati

2026-07-04T22:42:25Z

Himanshu Bhatt: /* Start of modern reforms */

{{Author|Himanshu Bhatt}}
'Shatata-Unnati' is ''continual change'', 'abhyas' means improvement, 'kram-parivartanam' is ''incremental reformation'', while 'shodhanam' is ''refinement''. All of these terms are descriptive of Hindu society throughout the ages.

Continual social betterment has been one of the defining characteristics of Hindu society. All major cultures have had evils in their histories, including Hindu societies, but the shining examples to enforce positive changes and adaptability to a changing world are the Hinduism, Christianity, and Judaism.

In an era wherein colonial norms meant imprisonment or executions for speaking out against imperial rule, Mahatma Gandhi challenged the ideas of forcing nations to be subservient, fighting oppression by violence, and purging one's own nation of evils (i.e., inequality and superstition.) Today, much of the world still looks to Gandhi's perseverance to bring positive change into society.

Transformation of India's political systems made India into the world's largest democracy, and for accomplishing that, [[Indian Freedom Fighters#INC's Hindu activist roots|Hindu doctrines were rationalize to promote democracy]]. Even in India's political spectrum, Hindu principles were used to make liberalism and communism resonate with people, like Ram Rajya being a communist utopia. Some of the Communist Party of India's [[Indian Freedom Fighters#CPI's Hindu activist roots|founders were idealogues for both communism and Hinduism]], such as Swami Kumaranand, Swami Satyabhakt, and Swami Sahajanand Saraswati, as well as Keezhedathu Damodaran, Radhamohan Gokulji, and Rahul Sankrityayan.

==Comparison in societal reformation (India and Europe)==
:''See also: [[Contribution of Hindu Diaspora]]''
Whereas even in modern times, in most European Christian societies, witch-hunts and slavery were the norm, in Indian Hindu societies, widow-burning was the norm among certain communities (usually northwestern) and caste prejudice was prevalent. Both the Christian and Hindu communities worked to extinguish these and other evils.

Historical societal injustices have been acknowledged and reconciled. Even today, the lasting legacy of important Hindu reformers is visible wherein quotas employment and educational quotas are implemented for social upward mobility to ensure poorer castes and women do not fall behind.

During the colonial era, as human rights improved in Western societies as results from agricultural/economic advancements, Western writers of non-Christian societies took a chauvinistic, parochialist, and Eurocentric approach towards Hindu societies, claiming that they:
#Would never improve in human rights, morality, or rationality
#Are permanently stagnant
#Cannot produce modern or political economic institutions

Critics of the colonial era were proven wrong in these concrete ways:
#Large-scale societal reforms led by Hindu activists themselves improved Hindu societies — i.e., promoting window remarriage and caste integration while also creating quotas for females and historically-disadvantaged castes
#Rapid expansion of education and intellectual mobility — i.e., growth of global Hindu academic presence
#Global economic and corporate leadership — i.e., entrepreneurship and CEOs of major multinational companies like Adobe, Google, and Microsoft
#Democratic political evolution — i.e., maintaining electoral democracies like Hindu-majority nations, providing peaceful transfers of power, and granting significant autonomy to judiciary, press, and civil societies
#Religious and philosophical continuity + adaptation
#Ritual practice has diversified massively by religion and class — i.e., clerics ([[Rta and Spiritual Authority|priests]] and [[ascetics|monks]]) are from many backgrounds
#Reinterpretation of scriptures became internationally influential — i.e., Aldous Huxley loved the perennialism of Upanishads, Erwin Schrödinger the idea of aikatmyam, and Henry David Thoreau that of Ishavasyam
#Non-Hindus from outside of the Indian Subcontinent have converted to Sanatan Dharm and have promoted the religion — James Donald Walters who founded Ananda Sangha, Richard Alpert who founded Hanuman Foundation, John Edwin Favors who founded iFast[https://ifastdc.com/][https://ifastglobal.com/], and Robert Hansen who founded Saiva Siddhanta Church[https://www.himalayanacademy.com/]
#Hindu-based intellectual practices have popularized globally — i.e., [[Ayurveda|Ayurvedic medicine]], divination, political activism, [[Animal rights#Influence upon Westerners|animal rights]], [[Animal_rights#Vegetarianism|vegetarianism]], and [[yoga]]

==Hindu-led social betterment==
What is extraordinary in the case of India is that it was the religious institutions ([[Organizations|Hindu organizations]] and [[Hindu Post-Secondary Institutes|schools]]) that made revolutionary changes, not normally secular or non-Hindu ones. Practicing Hindus saw that superstitious and chauvinistic practices had become institutionalized (caste system and misogyny) within Hindu society, so they formed associations to help, uplift, educate the destitute. They would even go steps further to privilege the marginalized through reservations.

Even women who were more exploratory and not members of specific religions engaged with Hinduism positively. The best example might be Annette Beveridge, an Englishwoman who was the daughter of a Unitarian Christian herself became affiliated with Keshub Chandra Sen in England. She was drawn to his lectures and this fascination with his philosophy inspired her to begin life in India, where she even established<ref>Its expenses were financed by Ananda Mohan Bose and Durga Mohan Das, Dwarkanath Ganguly was its headmaster, and others Brahmos involved with the school were Sibnath Sastri and Monomohun Ghose.</ref> the Hindu Mahila Vidyalaya (''Hindu Women's School''.) Her husband Henry Beveridge was an orientalist (westerners intrigued with Asian cultures) working in India, meaning they were not Westerners critical of Hindu identity. Mrs. Emily Phear was an honorary teacher, and she too was involved in Brahmo Samaji circles for societal development. (Her husband Sir John Budd Phear helped Brahmo Samaj legally.) A non-Hindu that likewise began a girls school (Hindu Female School[https://www.bethunecollegiateschool.com/]) with Brahmos and other Hindus was John Bethune, whose accomplices were Dakshinaranjan Mukherjee, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Ramgopal Ghosh, and Madanmohan Tarkalanka (the last even taught at the school without pay.) Others foreign women in India that engaged positively with Hindu activist organizations were Mary Carpenter[https://southasianbritain.org/people/mary-carpenter/] and Sophia Dobson Collet with Brahmo Samaj, Alma B.R.A. with Arya Samaj, and Mary Hobson with Prarthana Samaj[https://puneprarthanasamaj.org/].

Hindu women that set women's rights activism into motion were Arya Samaj's Lajwanti Sood and Satyavati Devi, and Brahmo Samaj's Kadambini Ganguly and Sarala Devi Chaudhurani. Swarnakumari Devi was both an Arya Samaji and a Brahmo Samaji.
[[image:Dr. Anandi Gopal Joshi.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Dr. Anandi Gopal Joshi in 1886 marking a milestone with 2 other Asian women.]]
What is also worth mentioning is that there were women not members of sociopolitical organizations who pursued and achieved new societal achievements, showing that many Hindu women thought for themselves. Dr. Anandibai Joshi was India's first female doctor to trained in Western medicine. Her education and trip to U.S. was funded by [[Shatata-Unnati#Shahu's royal authority to implement reforms|Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj]]. Upon return, he even funded her return journey and offer her supervisory role at Kolhapur's largest hospital[https://old.rcsmgmc.ac.in/]. Foundations[https://anandibai.org/resources/], institutions (i.e., Dr. Anandi Gopal Higher Education & Medical Facilities), awards (i.e., IRDS's[https://ngosindia.org/uttar-pradesh-ngos/irds-institute-for-research-documentation-in-social-sciences-lucknow/] Anandibai Joshi Award for Medicine), and scholarships (i.e., Dr. Anandi Gopal Scholarship Scheme) are named after her in commemoration. (Dr. Anandi Gopal Higher Education & Medical Facilities itself is a collaboration between the U.S. university she graduated in (DUCM[https://drexel.edu/medicine/news-events/publications/pulse/spring-2018/]) and SMCW. She let people know that she was not ashamed of being a Hindu. She was often pressured by Christian missionaries to convert[https://knowledge.lancashire.ac.uk/id/eprint/48487/1/bharadwaj-et-al-2023-journey-across-the-world-to-study-medicine-the-anandi-joshi-story.pdf]. Dr. Anandi had written her thesis, "Obstetrics among the Aryan Hindus", containing references from both the traditional Ayurvedic (''Susruta Samhita'' and ''Charaka Samhita'') and modern American medical literatures. (Mentionable is that although her husband Gopalrao Joshi's relentless, public letter-writing campaigns and essays targeted Lokmanya Tilak for being not liberal enough and Justice Ranade for being too liberal Tilak's ''Kesari'' and ''Mahratta'' newspapers glorified Dr. Joshi as a rolemodel for women.)

===Female upliftment===
:''See also: [[Indian Freedom Fighters]] 
;Theosophical Society wing
[[image:Paris Women's Congress.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Dr. Reddy and 3 Indian women at the Paris Women's Congress (1926.)]]
The top 3 champions who politically improved Indian women's rights in the modern era were foreigners — Dr. Annie Besant, Dorothy Jinarajadasa, and Margaret Cousins. They did not tell Indian women to leave Hinduism but rather they themselves became Hindu in practice and Indian in habit. They then sought to restore the Vedic-era of womanhood wherein women had authority (i.e., to become clerics, scholars, and leaders.) Emma Mitchell (American) and Francesca Arundale (English) greatly contributed to building of Hindu educational institutions (i.e., Central Hindu College.)

Dr. Muthulakshmi Reddy is a big name in female rights, and she was influenced by Dr. Besant in her college years (1907-1912) and was guided by Dr. Besant in both her social reform and political work. She worked with Dr. Besant and others to establish the Women's Indian Association (1917.) After Dr. Besant's death, she took over the presidency of the WIA. Gandhi was another major mentor but Reddy never formally joined the INC but sometimes protested colonial injustices (i.e., Gandhi's arrest.)

;Ramakrishna Mission wing
[[image:Nivedita & Vivekanand.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Nivedita with Vivekanand.]]
[[Niveditā, Sister|Sister Nivedita (Margaret Noble)]], a convert from Ireland became a disciple of [[Swami Vivekananda|Swami Vivekanand]] and joined Aurobindo's Dawn Society and had also founded and ran girls' schools in Kolkata (i.e., Ramakrishna Sarada Mission Sister Nivedita Girls' School[https://www.sisterniveditagirlsschool.org/home.html] in Baghbazar) to educate girls who had little to no access to education (i.e., poorest of the poor.) She advocated for women's intellectual and moral development, influenced by Vivekanand's vision of strong Indian womanhood. Her work included lectures, fundraising (India, England, and U.S.), and writings that promoted gender equality in access to knowledge and opportunities. She had worked with Dr. Annie Besant at times. Likewise, Sister Christine, disciple of Vivekanand, is another example of a Westerner who utilized the Ramakrishna Mission and Vivekanand's circles as vehicles for improving female rights in India.

;INC wing
:''See also: [[Indian Freedom Fighters#INC's Hindu activist roots|INC's Hindu activist roots]] 
[[image:Nellie Sen Gupta.jpg|right|thumb|100px|N.S. Gupta.]]
Nellie Sen Gupta[https://www.thedailystar.net/in-focus/news/deshpriya-jatindra-mohan-nellie-sengupta-2036981] (nee Edith Ellen Gray) had married freedom fighter Jatindra Mohan Sen Gupta, and both joined the INC — she also founded Deepali Sangha, a women's organization aimed at promoting social and political awareness, leadership, training, and empowerment among women. Her husband passed away but she was advised to stay in the-then East Pakistan to take care of Hindu rights, which she did. Umadevi (born Wanda Dynowska), a Polish convert to Sanatan Dharm too championed women's rights in India and translated ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'', ''[[Mahabharata]]'', ''[[Ramayana]]'', and other [[Hindu Scriptures|Hindu and Bauddh literature]] into Polish. Mira Behn (born Madeleine Slade), the daughter of a British Royal Navy admiral, gave up her affluent lifestyle to become Gandhi's servant in India.
[[image:Sarla Behn Chipko Movement.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Sarla Behn's Chipko act[https://www.adda247.com/school/chipko-movement/].]]
Sarla Behn[https://growbilliontrees.com/blogs/knowledge/sarla-behn-tree-nurturing-nature-and-empowering-communities-for-a-sustainable-future?srsltid=AfmBOoq4h0d0skQBNr4w4zOvISuhYz02_EXtPvD3pUoQYjTlcvNHEbQ-#fullcontent] (born Catherine Mary Heilman) from England setup the Lakshmi Ashram Kausani in 1946 within Uttarakhand to uplift women, after having lived in the Sevagram Ashram[https://gandhiashramsevagram.org/] in Maharashtra. The organization educated rural hill girls academically, trained women of self-reliance and industrial skills (i.e., khadi weaving), taught personal care (i.e., literacy, hygiene, anti-liquor campaigns), and promoted [[Environmentalism|ecological awareness]] (Chipko Movement.) It also worked with the INC to encourage nationalist fervour. Lakshmi Ashram individual units were known as Mahila Mandals. This ashram attracted foreign residents intrigued with Sanatan Dharm even after independence, like David Hopkins, who relocated to there in the 1990's.
[[image:Durgabai Deshmukh.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Dr. D.D.]]
Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh, pupil of Gandhi and freedom fighter in the colonial era, established the Central Social Welfare Board (1953.) She later became president of the All India Women's Conference (1931.) Taraben Premchand is an important mention, as she was an important member of this organization, as well as the Jain Mahila Parishad[https://www.dbjainsabha.com], Jyoti Sangh[https://jyotisangh.org/about-us/] (local women's advancement group in Gujarat), and Shraddhanand Ashram[https://shraddhanandmahilashram.org/].

Madeleine Rolland was Women's International League for Peace and Freedom's[https://www.wilpf.org/] French section and never settled in India. However, upon engaging with Hindu culture in the 1920's, she translated Ananda Coomaraswamy's ''[[Nataraja Dasakam|The Dance of Shiva]]'' into French, introducing Hinduism to the-then residents of France. She also translated Rabindranath Tagore's writings of Sanatan themes and universal humanism, helping popularize them in Europe. She welcomed Gandhi on his visit to Marseille, France. [[image:Kanuparti Varalakshmamma.jpg|right|thumb|100px|'Sarada'.]]
Kanuparti Varalakshmamma (alias 'Sarada'), a devout Gandhian, used Hindu themes like providing ethical refences (i.e., Savitri, Sita) to depict women's morality, dignity, and conduct. She often engaged with the idea of a grihalakshmi (idea woman of the household.) She also founded the Stree Hitaishini Mandali for uplifting women. She used ''Andhra Patrika'', a newspaper created by a promoter of the ''Bhagavad Gita'', Kasinathuni Nageswara Rao, to preach her ideas.
[[image:Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit.jpg|right|thumb|100px|'Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit'.]]
It is also noteworthy that the 1st female head of government in the world was a [[Bauddh Dharm|Bauddh]] (Sirimavo Bandaranaike of Sri Lanka, non-INC member), and 2nd was a Hindu (Indira Gandhi, INC member.) Also Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit[https://news.un.org/en/story/2024/03/1147327] (born Swaroop Rani Nehru) played a significant role in global representation of women, particularly in the United Nations. She was the first woman to serve as the President of the UN General Assembly (1953-1954), a position she held to advocate for decolonization and the independence of countries in Asia and Africa. She was also the first Indian woman to hold a cabinet rank in a provincial government. Hansa Mehta[https://india.un.org/en/311450-hansa-mehta%E2%80%99s-life-story-continues-inspire] had an impact on the UN's constitution wording wherein "''all human beings''" instead of "all men" in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. (She was also one of only 2 women delegates working alongside Eleanor Roosevelt in the UN Human Rights Commission 1946-48.)
[[image:Nilla Cram Cook.jpg|right|thumb|100px|'Nilla Nagini Devi'.]]
Nilla Cram Cook, an American who settled at Gandhi's ashrams, had [[Conversion|converted to Hinduism]] in the 1930's but identified with the '[[Samyag Darshan#Samadarshan|sarva dharma sambhava]]' ideal, so considered herself a [[Bhakta|devotee]] of not only [[Krishna]] but of Jesus too, and so she later also translated the Quran and engaged with Islamic practices in a syncretic way with her Hindu and Christian customs. Her final literary work was ''The Way of the Swam: Poems of Kashmir'' (1958), which was mostly focused around the [[Saiva|Shaiv]] mystic poetess Lal Ded[https://hindupost.in/society-culture/lal-ded-her-life-and-works/#][https://homegrown.co.in/homegrown-voices/the-poetry-of-lal-ded-mysticism-resistance-the-female-voice-in-14th-century-kashmir] and others from Kashmir syncretic Sanatan-[[Bauddh Dharm|Bauddh]]-[[Sufism with Vaishnavism|Sufi]] tradition. She dedicated the book to Pandit. She didn't work on women's upliftment directly but did participate with Gandhi's Harijan Sevak Sangh. She had also written about Sarojini Naidu (1st Indian woman-president of the INC.)

;Other associations
[[image:Maharani Chimnabai Gaekwad II.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Maharani Chimnabai.]]
[[image:Sethu Parvathi Bayi.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Junior Queen Bayi.]]
The National Council of Women in India[https://www.ncwi.in/], founded 1925, was also a monumental organization to make progress for women — it mainly focused on female literacy, vocational training, public participation, and legal reform. It was primarily the initiative of Lady Meherbai Tata, a Mazdaean icon, and its first president was Maharani Chimnabai Gaekwad II, born Gajrabai Ghatge, a princess of Dewas (M.P.) She supported societal progress of women that did not compromise on Hindu identity (i.e., traditional customs like wearing sari and sindhoor or like celebrating Raksha Bandhan), which is how she framed her ''The Position of Women in Indian Life'' book. She financed schools for girls, as well as Hindu charities and temples. The Gaekwad family also funded libraries and women's institutions and social reform initiatives. She discussed the eradication or the purdah, child marriage, women's restrictions (i.e., obtaining education and employment), and other obstacles towards advancement. Following her presidentship, Sethu Parvathi Bayi took over. She was from the royal family of Travancore (Kerala), and her family was deeply connected to the Padmanabhaswamy Temple[https://spst.in/][https://www.padmanabhaswamytemple.com/]. She financed Hindu institutions as well. It is notable that Sucharu Deo, daughter of Brahmo leader K.C. Sen was a prominent member and she had also helped build the Maharani Girls' High School[https://school.banglarshiksha.gov.in/ws/website/index/19013701705] in Darjeeling (W.B.) together with her sister (Suniti) and Hemlata Sarkar, daughter of Brahmo leader Sibnath Sastri.

From Hindu-based institutions like sociopolitical organizations and schools came a number of philanthropic associations.
;Most influential persons for women's upliftment
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Area of Contribution
! Meaning
! Steps Taken
! Activists
! Organizations
! Founder's Affiliation(s)
|-
|Political rights and visibility
|1. Women appearing in public political spaces 2. Women being recognized as leaders (not just participants) 3. Changing social norms about women's public roles 4. Symbolic representation
|Helped institutionalize women's leadership through bodies like Women's Indian Association
|Dr. Annie Besant (women's political rights + organizational leadership), Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay (political participation, economic empowerment, cooperatives), Margaret Cousins[https://www.womensmuseumofireland.ie/exhibits/margaret-elizabeth-cousins] (Suffarage, WIA), Sarojini Naidu (mass mobilization of women in politics)
|
|
|-
|Modern institutional equality
|
|Helped institutionalize institutional equality through contributing policy influence (Hansa Mehta) and constitutional rights (Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh)
|Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh (welfare systems), Hansa Mehta
|
|
|-
|Foundational legal reform
|
|
|Raja Ram Mohan Roy (abolition of sati), Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar (widow remarriage)
|
|
|-
|Education
|
|
|Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar
|
|
|-
|}

====Hindu influence internationally====
Even outside of India during the 20th century, women's rights were not perfect, and so many women incorporated Hindu symbolism (i.e., worship) and concepts towards promoting societies where women would have equal rights.
[[image:M.J. Gage.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Matilda Joslyn Gage.]]
[[image: Charlotte Despard.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Charlotte Despard, an Anglo-Irish suffragist who supported Indian independence.]]
As [[Worship of God as Mother|worship of God as a female or mother]] has been common in Sanatan Dharm since its foundation, that made validating female upliftment in India quicker. Even in Western nations, prominent women's rights organizations implemented imagery of goddesses from pertinent ancient cultures, like U.K.'s Women's Freedom League and National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies, and the global International Woman Suffrage Alliance, to legitimize female equality and women being in positions of power. Some American and European feminists and women's rights activists, like Matilda Joslyn Gage<ref>"''While the sale of daughters was practiced in England for seven hundred years after the introduction of Christianity, we note that by the ancient law of India, a father was forbidden to sell his daughter in marriage, or receive the smallest present therefor.''" - P. 79-82 ''Woman, Church and State'' (1893) By Matilda Joslyn Gage</ref> (U.S. suffragist) and Helena Petrovna Blavatsky<ref>"''The pre- and post-Vedic woman was as free as man; and no impure terrestrial thought was ever mixed with the religious symbology of the early Aryans.''" 
"''This is proven by the fact that in the Vedic period their women were not placed apart from men in penetralia, or ‘Zenanas.’ Their seclusion began when the Mahomedans … had conquered the land and gradually enforced their ways and customs upon the Hindus.''" 
- P. 379-380 ''The Secret Doctrine: Volume I'' By Helena Blavatsky </ref> (European feminist), even used the examples of [[Worship of God as Mother|Hindu goddess-worship]] and Hindu queens to support their examples. And though Blavatsky did not officially align with any single religion to encourage recruitment for her Theosophical Society, she referenced Sanatan and Bauddh scriptures (Upanishads, and then Gita, then Bauddh shastras) more than others. (M.J. Gage[https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/the-feminist-inspired-witches-of-oz-180985334/] in her ''Woman, Church, and State'' even highlighted Hindu texts to counter the male-centric theology of the West and referenced ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'' to validate the concept of a female [[divinity]].) Even feminists of the colonial era like Victoria Woodhull that was skeptical of organized religion, respected "''Christna and Buddha''" (Krishna and Gautama.) Mary Lowe Dickinson at the World's Parliament Circles (1893) was so impressed by [[Swami Vivekananda|Swami Vivekanand]]'s speech, that she developed a fascination with female divinity of Hinduism, and in her editorials and public circles, argued that Hinduism's recognition of a feminine aspect within the divine was spiritually superior to the rigidly patriarchal, all-male Trinity of mainstream American Christianity. Emily Pitts Stevens and Charlotte LeMoyne Wills (wrote about the genderless [[Brahm]]) became disciples of Vivekanand. Laura de Force Gordon wrote about the immortal soul and continuous cycle of life. Alice Moore McComas wrote about the interconnectedness (aikatmyam) of all things. In U.K., Charlotte Despard's specific pamphlets linked [[karma]] to political activism. Margaret Louise Sanger was influenced by Vivekanand and Rabindranath Tagore. Sarah Bull<ref> P. 483 ''Western Admirers of Ramakrishna and His Disciples'' By Gopal Stavig, Swami Shuddhidananda </ref>, who particularly focused on women's education and reform was connected to both Vivekanand and Sister Nivedita. Josephine MacLeod was a major promoter of Vivekanand in the West and was involved in transatlantic reform-intellectual networks. Viktoria Ocampo of Argentina was deeply influenced by Tagore, even hosting him in Argentina and promoting his ideas widely. Gabriela Mistral of Chile was too, and she applied Tagore's ideas to women's education, child welfare, and cultural reform. Mabel Dodge Luhan was fascinated with Sanatan philosophy and influenced by Vivekanand. Mentionable is Emma Calve of France, who wasn't a political feminist leader but influential in women's intellectual-cultural circles, and she was deeply influenced by Vivekanand.
[[image:Carol Patrice Christ.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Carol Patrice Christ.]]
After suffragists had attained complete institutional equality, they them progressed to the next stage of female liberation by ensuring that their own spiritual faith wasn't male-chauvinistic or making them subordinates of males. Feminists were inspired by goddess deity of Hinduism to then promote it within generic spirituality. Valerie Saiving, Isaac Bonewits and Naomi Goldenberg founded in the 1970's, Thealogy, a feminine-specific theology. Carol Patrice Christ launched the Goddess Movement, which provided 4 aspects of Goddess symbolism as reasons to needing a goddess in women's lives; 1) the Goddess as affirmation of female power, 2) the female body, 3) the female will, and 4) women's bond and heritage. She specifically used the Shakti concept to prove that a major global religion (Hinduism) explicitly defined the [[Brahmanda|material universe]]/nature/change ([[Darshana#Sankhya|Prakriti]]) as an inherently active, female, and sacred force. She was an ecofeminist, as were Charlene Spretnak and Miriam Simos were ecofeminists too. Merlin Stone wrote ''Ancient Mirrors of Womanhood: Our Goddess and Heroine Heritage'' (1979) and in a chapter analyzes goddesses like [[Durga]], [[Kali]], [[Lakshmi Puja|Lakshmi]], Parvati, and Saraswati. Devout Christian women feminists too drew on Hindu practices and ideas to support women's advocacy, and they include Ivone Gebara, Pearl Sydenstricker Buck, and Sally McFague.

'Matriarchal religion' is a philosophy stating that societies were Goddess worshippers with females having the same status and rights as men before male gods began being worshipped, and the latter led to patriarchy. Goddesses being worshipped contiguously in Hindu societies for thousands of years was the backing this thought utilized, in addition to feminist archaeology (i.e., ancient idols and temples of goddesses uncovered.)

==Start of modern reforms==
In modern India, most positive social changes within Indian Hindu societies came not first as enforcement or pressure from European rulers but from advocacy of forward-thinking Hindus. Raja Ram Mohan Roy had led the campaign to purge Hindu societies of Sati and caste prejudices. Roy worked with British imperial authority, specifically Lord William Bentinck to have sati outlawed. Roy himself was a religious leader that reiterated Upanishads for their principles.

Other institutions of positive social changes were mainly Hindu ones or were governed by Hindu religious leaders, not secular ones.

The Indian National Social Conference of 1887 was organized by Justice Ranade, Rai Raghunath Rao, Narendra Nath Sen Gupta, and Janki Nath Ghoshal. Ranade was founder of the Prarthana Samaj, a religious group.

Arya Samajis, Brahmo Samajis, and Prarthana Samajis were the most vocal and active forces advocating: 
#Widow Remarriage (i.e., Widow Remarriage Act 1856—initiative of Brahmo Samaj)
#Women's right to divorce (i.e., Native Marriage Act 1872—initiative of Brahmo Samaj) 
#Property rights for women 
#Opposition to child marriages (i.e., Age of Consent Act 1891—initiative of Brahmo Samaj and Prarthana Samaj, Child Marriage Restraint Act 1929—initiative of Arya Samaj) 
#Universal accessible education (built schools, including colleges and gurukuls) 
#Caste-based reservations (i.e., 50% quota of 1902)—initiative of Shahu Maharaj (he later became an Arya Samaji)
[[image:Justice Ranade.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Mahadev Govind Ranade (alias 'Justice Ranade'.)]]
[[image:Jagannath Shankarshet.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Jagannath Shankarshet (alias 'Architect of Modern Mumbai'.)]]
The Indian Factories Act 1881's ratification was a landmark in workers' rights and the credit goes mainly to Sorabjee Shapoorjee Bengalee, and then Prarthana Samaj. He did work alongside the Prarthana Samaj to lobby the British authority through the First Factory Commission in 1875 (made to investigate the brutal conditions of Indian labour.) Prarthana Samaj's ''Subodh Patrika'' newspaper specifically critiqued mill owners. Rahnumai Mazdayasnan Sabha, its newspaper ''Rast Goftar'', and Bengalee himself referenced labour reformers Sasipada Banerji and Protap Chunder Mozumdar, and used the former's methods of worker upliftment as a blueprint for their own legislative arguments. Collaboration between the Sabha and Prarthana Samaj began with the latter's creation of the Theistic Association, on which the Parsi Naoroji Furdonji was its 1st Chairman. Ranade and Bhandarkar drove the Association from discussing only theism to improving society through finding solutions of work hardships. The Night School Initiative was launched, helping workers receive adequate training, particularly in labourer-heavy neighborhoods Byculla, Dongri, Khetwadi, and Thakurdwar. (From 1886-1890 alone, over 2,750 industrial workers successfully studied through this initiative.) Protap Chunder Mozoomdar, a Brahmo, began eight night schools in 1872 within Mumbai when he relocated to the city.<ref> P. 47 ''Peaceful Industrial Relations, Their Science and Technique'' (1957) By R. J. Soman </ref> Brahmos then established night schools within Kolkata by 1878.

Brahmo Samaj's K.C. Sen’s first visit to Mumbai in March-April 1864 engaged him with Bengalee, Furdonji, Ranade, and Bhandarkar (all then members of Young India.) They all discussed ways to develop India. They also shared strategies on how to bypass orthodox religious resistance—Furdonji within Zoroastrianism and Sen within Sanatan Dharm. Bengalee's First Labor Bill (1878) laid the groundwork for the later Indian Factories Act.

Prior to all of this, Jagannath Shankarshet[https://www.vishwakonkani.org/hall-of-fame/hon-jagannath-shankar-sheth/] spent the 1850s petitioning the British Parliament for local governance. As a result, it codified the Indian Councils Act of 1861, thus creating the Bombay Legislative Council as a political body to better govern the-then Bombay Presidency. Shankarshet was the main founder of Bombay Association. In its first leadership were also Dr. Ramachandra Vitthal Lad (alias 'Dr. Bhau Daji'), a Hindu intellectual who used his Sanskrit knowledge to decipher inscriptions, preserve manuscripts, and help reconstruct the forgotten timelines of ancient Guptas and Western Kshatrapa dynasties. Mentionable is the Parsi Sir Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy of the group. Shankarshet was a wealthy philanthropist that constructed and financed Sanatan and secular infrastructure, most notably the Bhavani Shankar Mandir[https://www.mcgm.gov.in/irj/go/km/docs/documents/D%20Ward/Heritage-Sites/73_Legacy%20of%20D%20Ward_Article_Bhavani%20Shankar%20Temple.pdf] (Mumbai), Sanskrit Seminary and Sanskrit Library (both in Mumbai too.) Elphinstone Educational Institution[https://elphinstone.ac.in/index.php] and Grant Medical College[https://gmcjjh.edu.in/] were his creations too. (Jeejeebhoy contributed to constructing the Grant Medical College.)

===Shahu's royal authority to implement reforms===
[[image:Shahu adoption.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Prince Yeshwantrao Ghatge being adopted by the royal family of Kohlapur.]]
[[image:Rajarshi.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Rajarshi Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj IV.]]
[[image:School foundation.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Foundation of Shri Shahu Chhatrapati Shikshan Sanstha.]]
The greatest champion on all of these sections for reforms was Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj[https://aissms.org/breaking-barriers-chhatrapati-shahu-maharaj-and-his-enduring-impact-on-progress-and-modernity/] (born Yeshwantrao Ghatge), '[[Rta and Spiritual Authority#Rishis|Rajarshi]]', the ruler of Kohlapur Kingdom who affiliated with organizations but probably the Arya Samaj[https://thearyasamaj.org] more than any other. Shahu definitely was not shy to publicly perform prayers, as he famously attended temples of goddesses Ambabai[https://www.mahalaxmikolhapur.com/home] and Bhavani[https://shrituljabhavani.org/] when having returned from his Europe trip in 1902. Also in 1902, Pratap Singh Maharaj of Idhar (Gujarat) introduced and educated him about the Arya Samaj. He provided patronage to the Arya Samaj.[https://navjyot.net/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/10.pdf]

The king passed many policies for for the upliftment of untouchable, nomadic, non-Brahmin communities and for females.<ref>Act of Free and Compulsory Primary Education (1917), Widow remarriage Act (1917), End of Balutedari (1918), Repeal of Kulkarni Watan (1918), Intercaste and Interreligious Marriages and Sanctioning of Registered Marriage Act (1919), Act relating to protection of Harassment of Women (1919), Divorce act (1919), Order on prohibition of Untouchability practice (1919), Illegitimate Children's Rights and Devadasi Prohibition Act (1920); 
[https://www.indiejournal.in/article/rajarshi-shahu-maharaj-and-his-tryst-with-the-arya-samaj "Rajarshi Shahu Maharaj & his tryst with the Arya Samaj Lessons for our times"] By Devkumar Ahire (Jun 26, 2023 6:42 PM)</ref>

;Prejudiced disgruntled castists promoting anti-Brahman hate, not universalism
While Shahu was affiliated with the Satyashodhak Samaj (SS) because it wanted to uplift the non-dwija castes, he did not feel they had any religious foundations, whereas the Arya Samaj was encompassed both a spiritual and social movement.<ref>"Beyond Reformism: Chhatrapati Shahu and Hinduism Reimagined" By Surajkumar Thube P. 124-144 ''Nidān: International Journal for Indian Studies, Volume 8'', Issue 1 (July 2023)</ref> Also, the SS of Pune was antithetical to social cohesion because it targeted the Brahman caste as an enemy, and while its main founder (Jyotirao Phule) made absurd claims like 'Shiv-Dharma'<ref>"''The real Shiv-Dharma that is ours, we are re-establishing it as Sarvajanik Satya Dharma.''" Chapter 4, ''Sarvajanik Satya Pustak''</ref> or 'Mahadev-Dharma' (worship of [[Shiva|Shiv]] as God and some local gods like Khandoba as avatars) being the true religion of Indians whereas every other Hindu belief and practice was an imposition by 'non-Indian Brahman invaders'. Being a chauvinist, he also criticized freedom fighter martyrs Lakshmi Bai, Nana Sahib, Tantia Tope for being Brahmans. He also wrote positively that freedom fighters lost the 1857 War of Independence against the British colonialists. He was also openly criticized by his own relative Baburao Phule, who accused the former of being a Christian convert who destroyed the Hindu religion.<ref>P. 58-59 ''The Caste Question: Dalits and the Politics of Modern India'' (2009) By Anupama Rao </ref>

Phule though anti-Brahman, was influenced by some Brahmans, such as Balshastri Jambhekar (a Hindu activist) who pushed scientific knowledge and history through Marathi, criticized caste segregation, and attacked other or kinds or orthodoxy like widowhood. He was also influenced by some Hindu activists who were not anti-Brahman (i.e., Karsandas Mulji.)

The organization would receive the most aid from Shahu (financial and social work), Karmvir (social work), and Padval (intellectual) but they themselves always kept a distance from the SS because of its explicitly castist vitriol. People would choose to align or become members of other associations for their inclusivity and harmonious vision for the future.

;Satyashodhak Samaj becoming less anti-Brahman
"''All Hindus are equal. No one is superior, no one is inferior. Let all flesh and blood be one. Four varnas are a real deceit. It's a tool to keep the non-Brahmins in slavery. There is no difference among the Hindus. Hindu is the only varna. If a Hindu eats or marries with another Hindu that's not ''[[adharma]].'' In contrast, what divide Hindus in the name of religion is not a dharma, but a trick by Brahmins. One who calls themselves a Hindu, whether they are Europeans or Africans, they are our coreligionists.''" - P. 39 ''Deshache Dushman'' (1925) By Dinkarrao Javalkar
[[image:Sasipada Banerji.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Sasipada Banerji (alias 'Sevabrata'.)]]
Notable is that Phule's friend Narayan Meghaji Lokhande, a labour organization leader, was close friends with Phule and used Khandoba-worship and the reverence of Sundays for Khandoba in his petition to British authority to achieve Sunday as a holiday for factory labourers (S.S. Bengalee's idea that he campaigned for over a decade.) (In some Satyashodhak branches, incoming members took an initialization oath in the name of "Khanderao".) Phule and Lokhande emulated Brahmans, like forming the political lobby group Deenbandhu Sarvajanik Sabha after Ranade's Poona Sarvajanik Sabha and forming the Bombay Mill Hands Association based and its mouthpiece ''Deenbandhu'' on the Working Men's Club (India's 1st labour welfare platform) and its mouthpiece ''Bharat Sramajibi'' (India's 1st labour journal) of Sasipada Banerji (Brahmo Samaji.) Mentionable is that Lokhande used phrases "''Hindu Bhau''", "''Hindu Dharma''" and "''Hindu Samaj''" in his writings.

Though Dinkarrao Javalkar portrayed himself as pan-Hindu when discussing the specific topic of Hindu unity, he still prejudicially criticized the Brahman caste in general<ref>"''This day will be counted among the most important days in the history of Hindus. There is no reason for you to fear jail. The Brahmans who eat ghee and roti should have that fear. To make the touchable people behave is in your hands. You are the sons of Hindus. You capture the tank saying 'har har Mahadev' and follow the advice of your leader Dr. Ambedkar Saheb. This is my own position.''" -Dinkarrao Javalkar at satyagraha with Keshavrao Jedhe and Dr. Ambedkar among a Mahar crowd</ref> and targeted some prominent Brahmans like Lokmanya Tilak. (Javalkar and Keshavrao Jedhe also portrayed themselves as pro-woman but derogatory remarks about women from the Brahman and certain other castes<ref>P. 44 ''19th Century Maharashtra: A Reassessment'' (2020) By Shraddha Kumbhojkar </ref> and both appealed to Dr. B.R. Ambedkar in 1927 to exclude Brahmans from the Mahad Satyagraha<ref> P. 27 ''Social Reform Movements in India: A Historical Perspective'' (1991) By V.D. Divekar</ref>.) Jedhe did protest with other activists (including Brahmans like Narhar Vishnu Gadgil, Seshdas Ranade, Shreedhar Mahadev Joshi, and members of Arya Samaj) for the right of Dalits to worship at Pune's Devdeveshwar Mandir[https://devdeveshwarsanthan.org/home.html]. Javalkar did write favourably about some like Ranade, Gopal Ganesh Agarkar, and Krishna Gopal Gokhale but even they were rarely mentioned. He rightfully partook in the Kalaram Mandir[https://www.shrikalaramsansthannasik.org/] Satyagraha in Nasik that protested for Dalits to be able to enter the temple. He was a communist and 10 years after his death, the Peasants and Workers Party (PWP) was formed.

SS branches outside of Pune were less hateful of Brahmans. It is also noteworthy, however, is that Nana Patil, a founder of the PWP, was affiliated with both the Satyashodhak and Prarthana associations [meaning that he, like most other Satyashodhaks didn't believe in Phule's religious ideology.] Some other PWP founders like Jedhe and Madhavrao Bagal were Satyashodhaks, they popularized Shiv Jayanti and Ganesh Chathuri. The latter and his son Vasantrao even wrote devotional pieces inspired from Bhakti Era saints (i.e., [[Tukaram]], [[Eknath]]) and valourizing pieces about Shahu. Tulshidas Jadhav, a Gandian within the PWP, championed the Bhakti Era's Warkari Movement, which was still popular in his time, because it was based on social equality and public seva. Also noteworthy is, that even some prominent members supported the Arya Samaj, like Krishnarao Bhalekar<ref>"''Bhalekar said that while Hinduism needed to be reformed , this reform should be brought about from within . He said he would defend Hinduism if it was under attack from Islam or Christianity.''" - P. 35 ''Non-Brahman Movement in Maharashtra'' (1989) By M.S. Gore </ref> (1 of the founders of SS with Phule) defended Dayanand Saraswati (Arya Samaj’s founder), when the latter’s procession was opposed by some orthodox Hindus in Pune, and Bhalekar organized a speech to be delivered by Saraswati at a dharmshal near a Rokdoba Temple in Pune. SS' Moro Vitthal Walvekar was directly affiliated with the Prarthana Samaj and played a crucial role in its associated media landscape (frequently serving as an editor of ''Subodha Patrika''.)

Bhalekar himself made the claim that the SS is the true follower of Sant Tukaram's [[Bhāgavata-dharma|Bhagwat Dharma]] ([[Krishna|Krishnaite]] [[Vaishnava|Vaishnavism]].) His son was Mukundrao Patil, who made the claim, "''The Satyasodhak Samaj is the true heir of the Hindu religion. Brahmanism is not Hinduism.''"<ref>''Dinmitra'' newspaper (1920s)</ref> Javalkar claimed SS is the true representative of the Hindu religion and that SS members are liberating Hinduism from the supremacy of the Brahmins. Shivram Janma Kamble (a Dalit) stated the SS is a revival movement of the true Hinduism. Kisan Faguji Bansode (a Dalit) argued "Shivdharma" was the true Hindu religion and that the SS advocates that version. Dr. Ramayya Venkayya Ayyavaru in ''Khristi Bandhujanans Vinanti'' or ''A Request to Our Christian Brothers'' (1887) wrote to missionaries that Indians did not need to be baptized and that monotheism has been embedded in Indian culture and that Indians. Previously, he, backed firmly by Lokhande and the urban Mumbai executive committee of the SS, aggressively fought against changing the name of the SS to 'Satya Dharma Samaj'.

There were those in his organization that promoted about how in ancient Sanatan society, there were no caste distinctions and that people were recognized by their merits. Their view was promoted by Tukaram Tatya Padval, who wrote ''Jatibhed Vivekshar'' (1861) after being inspired by Ashwaghosha's ''Vajrasuchi''. Phule republished copies of Padval's books, and the 2 developed a friendship. He did write at that in ancient India, certain sages were had Sudra or Avarna status but rose to the rank of a Brahman through their intellect, and used examples of Valmiki (wrote a ''Ramayan''), Sankhya, and Kabilar rishis. He also published copies of the ''Bhagavad Gita'', ''Yogasutra'', and compilations of the ''Rajayoga'' and ''Sankhya Karika.'' He further compiled the ''Tukarambaba ani Tyanche Shisya Yanchi Abhanga Gatha'' (1889) and ''Eknath Maharajancha Abhangachi Gatha'' (1903.) Padval, however, never became a member of Phule's organization and instead became a member of the Theosophical Society.

Krishnarao Arjun Keluskar, who was a member of the Mumbai SS had written positively of Krishna and the latter's ethics of the ''Bhagavad Gita'', as well as of Shivaji, Sant Tukaram, Gautam Buddha, and Govind Janardan Borkar (alias Shri Gajananaswami.) It was he who first influenced Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar with [[Bauddh Dharm]]. (Ambedkar had later converted to the dharm, but that's an Arya dharma, so is not damaging to Sanatan society or Indian society like converting to Islam would be.)

;Shahu forming his own Satyashodhak Samaj focused on upliftment (free of anti-Brahman distractions)
As a result of the Satyashodhak Samaj of Pune being too antagonistic of Brahmans, Shahu had instead founded his own branch in 1911 — Shri Shahu Satyashodhak Samaj. By an order, Shahu replaced the Brahman priests in the Patgaon Sansthan (Mauni Maharaj Math[https://durgbharari.in/maunibaba-patgaon/]) and Jyotiba Devasthan[https://shreejyotiba.com/?lang=E][https://maharashtratourism.gov.in/temple/jyotiba/] with Maratha priests. Bhaskarrao Jadhav and Anna Babaji Latthe were leaders of Shahu's Kolhapur Satyashodhak Samaj. Whereas Phule mostly only wrote positively of Shiva and local-born gods, Jadhav in his ''Marathas and their Religion'' wrote positively about Krishna and the ''Bhagavad Gita''. He further worked with Shahu to aid Arya Samaj in its activities and goals (i.e., train non-Brahmans to become priests too.) Noteworthy is that Latthe, who worked personally with Shahu Maharaj, was its first VP and that he worked to dismantle priestly ([[Jain Dharm|Jain priests]], not usually Brahmans) intermediation within the Jain clergy. (He was a big-time activist for general upliftment and for reform within the Jain community (i.e., wrote ''Jain Dharmacha Parichay''.)

Latthe founded the Dakshin Bharat Jain Sabha[https://dbjainsabha.com/], of which Dr. Bhaurao Patil (from a Jain family) became a member and through he wasn't a member of any SS branch, he did sometimes participate in its activities and himself founded the Rayat Shikshan Sansthan[https://rayatshikshan.edu/], which educated students in a multitude of topics, including Sanskrit. Patil (alias 'Karmvir Anna') was deeply influenced by Mahatma Gandhi and Vitthal Ramji Shinde.

;Shahu distancing himself formally from Satyashodhak Samaj
The SS had earned a bad reputation in Maharashtra with the general public, particularly for the outright anti-Brahman vitriol spewed in the SS's publications and events. Because the goal of Shahu and true reformers was to achieve a harmonious society with all people cooperating, it would not make sense to support an organization that's known for abusing persons (i.e., Brahmans) specifically over their caste identity.

In 1921, Shahu made a public statement in a Baroda newspaper that even though he granted significant support to the non-Brahman movement and introduced measures to eliminate Brahman dominance, he had never been affiliated with Phule's SS, and that he always accepted [[Rta and Spiritual Authority#Rishis|Vedic ritual authority]].

;Granting, accommodating, and expanding Arya Samaj
Shahu attended Arya Samaj sessions like the one at Navsari in 1918 and another at Bhavnagar in 1920<ref>P. 6. ''People's Raj Volume 30'' (1974) By Directorate-General of Information and Public Relations </ref>. He provided funding for Gurukul Boarding House to be built at Kerle, wherein large buildings and well-irrigated lands were granted to the Arya Samaj. Later, the Rajaram Anathalaya orphanage was added to this grant. He also brought educational institutions in his domain under the leadership of Arya Pratinidhi Sabha. Rajaram College's administration was also granted to the Arya Samaj.

;Spiritual Authority as Rajarshi
Shahu Maharaj, being a devout Sanatan wanted to proclaim the rights that warriors of history had and so participated in important ceremonies and worked with priests (i.e., Brahmans) to achieve the rights to learn and perform Vedic ceremonies. He established the Vedokta Committee for Marathas to be able to perform Vedic rites without requiring priests. In 1905, the Karveer Peeth's (or Kolhapur Math's) Shankaracharya declared full rights of Vedokta to Chhatrapati Shahu.

Tatyarao Joshirao was appointed by Shahu Maharaj as new royal purohit, replacing the Rajopadhye (creator of the infamous 'Vedokta Controversy'), who denied the Maharaj to perform Vedic rites. Joshirao was from a family that had traditional ownership of the historic Binkhambi Ganapati Mandir in Kolhapur.

Rajaram Shastri (alias 'Bhagavata'), a Brahman scholar, linguist, and researcher, openly challenged the religious orthodoxy, arguing from scripture that Shahu Maharaj had full rights to the Vedas. Vishnu Topkhane was another Brahman who greatly helped the Chhatrapati with his progressive reforms. Topkhane the educationalist helped the latter establish the Vidyapeeth High School near the Shri Karveer Niwasini Ambabai Mahalakshmi Temple. Freedom fighter Gokhale was someone who worked with Shahu. When the Vedokta Controversy broke out and the conservative press attacked the Maharaja, Gokhale privately and publicly validated Shahu Maharaj's stance, recognizing that social reform was a prerequisite for true political freedom. Ranade, though passed away before much Shahu's reforms began, was admired by the latter for his progressive ideals and actions.

Chhatrapati Shahu founded the Satyashodhak School for spiritual training in 1913, in which seminarians (predominantly from castes such as Marathas, Mahars, and Chambhars) were taught to recite and preach the poems (i.e., abhangs of Tukaram) of sants. He also created the Shivaji Vedic School (aliases 'Shahu Vedic School', 'Shahu Vedic Pathshala', 'Shri Shahu Vaidik Vidyalay') in 1920 and had invited scholars from Varanasi (spiritual capital of Sanatan Dharm) to ensure the highest standard of scriptural and linguistic training. The school trained seminarians (of all castes) to learn Sanskrit and become priests and conduct ceremonies. He further established and financed the office of the Kshatra Jagadguru (''Warrior Universal Teacher''), a pontiff seat open to anyone of any caste. The first Kshatra Jagadguru was Sadashivrao Lakshmanrao Sankpal Patil Benadikar, was an accomplished Sanskrit scholar who received his formal higher education at Rajaram College in Kolhapur. The Kshatra Jagadguru Peeth was the pontiff's seat at Patgaon (in the Bhudargad region of Kolhapur.) Patgaon was chosen because it was the historic site of the Mauni Maharaj Math, a highly respected spiritual center that had historically blessed Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj[https://pilgrimdata.in/temple/mouni-maharaj-math-temple-patgaon-bhudargarh-dist-kolhapur/]. The Kshatra Jagadguru had the Shri Sadashivrao Patil Shikshan Sanstha educationalist association named after him, and it runs schools[https://www.mwssm.org/][https://sspiop.com/] in Maharashtra still. Other organizations too use his name for schools like Sadashivrao Mandlik Mahavidyalaya (Kolhapur) of the ⁠Jay Shivray Education Society.

===Successive associations===
From Hindu-based institutions like sociopolitical organizations and schools came a number of philanthropic associations. Even other humanitarian associations that were not established by Hindu activists, were established by their influence. For example, Krishna Gopal Gokhale had participated in many sessions of the Prarthana Samaj as he was Ranade's pupil, and he later joined the Deccan Education Society, which he left to establish the Servants of India Society. Narayan Malhar Joshi was a member of Gokhale's group and later formed his own Social Service League[https://socialserviceleague.org.in/]. Hriday Nath Kunzru too was part of Gokhale's group and left to establish the Seva Samiti.

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Organization
! Demographic of Focus
! Region(s)
! Founder
! Founder's Affiliation(s)
! Achievement
|-
|Anath Balikashram Society
|Widows
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Andhra Mahila Sabha
|Females
|Andhra Pradesh
|Durgabai Deshmukh
|
|
|-
|Bharat Stree Mahamandal
|Females
|Bengal, Bihar, Punjab, Sindh, U.P.
|Sarala Devi Chaudhurani
|Arya Samaji, Brahmo Samaji, accepted Bijoy Krishna Chattopadhyaya as her guru
|
|-
|Buddhi Vardhak Sabha
|General public
|Gujarat
|Narmadashankar Labheshankar Dave
|
|Exposed people in positions of power that abused their privileges, build schools for girls
|-
|Central Social Welfare Board
|Females and children
|
|Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh
|
|
|-
|Hindu Widow Marriage Association
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Hindustani Seva Dal
|Females
|Every province
|Dr. Narayan Subbarao Hardikar
|
|Established the Hindustani Seva Mandal (later became Rashtriya Seva Dal) in 1923, established the Arya Bala Sabha, taught the Gita during his student days in Kolkata, was a fan of Lokmanya Tilak, and had enthusiastically worked with Lala Rai
|-
|Indian Reform Association
|Females
|West Bengal
|Keshub Chandra Sen
|
|Brahmo Samaji, founded ''Sulabh Samachar'' as weekly newspaper of group
|-
|Kasthurbha Gandhi Kanya Gurukulam[http://www.kgkgurukulam.org/]
|Girls
|Tamil Nadu (Vedaranyam)
|Vedaratnam Pillai
|
|Involved in temple-based philanthropy and donated to Sri Ramakrishna Mission too
|-
|Lakshmi Ashram
|Females
|Uttarakhand
|Sarla Behn
|
|Established individual Mahila Mandals throughout Uttarakhand and promoted important skills as well as ecological awareness
|-
|Lokahitawadi Mandal
|General public
|Maharashtra
|Vishnu Vaman Shirwadkar
|
|Wrote about Hindu themes, including persons from scriptures and about Shivaji poetically, philosophically, and nationally
|-
|Maharshi Karve Stree Shikshan Samstha
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Mahila Vidyalaya (Pune)
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Nishkam Karma Math
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Poona Seva Sadan
|Females
|Maharashtra (at its peak, included M.P. and T.N.)
|Ramabai Ranade
|
|
|-
|Samata Sangh
|General public
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Self Employed Women's Association (SEWA)
|Females
|18 states
|Ela Bhatt
|Gandhian Textile Labour Association
|Established: own bank (Shri Mahila Sewa Sahakari Bank, or 'SEWA Cooperative Bank'), SEWA Mahila Housing Trust
|-
|Servants of the People Society
|Females
|Kerala, Maharashtra, M.P., Odisha T.N., Uttarakhand U.P.
|
|
|
|-
|Shraddhanand Ashram[https://shraddhanandmahilashram.org] (alias Hindu Women's Welfare Society)
|Females and boys
|Maharashtra (Mumbai)
|Swami Shraddhanand
|
|Has cared for thousands of destitute women and orphans, and educated them and provided skills development, as well as fostered personal development
|-
|Stree Hitaishini Mandali
|Females
|Andhra Pradesh
|Kanuparti Varalakshmamma
|
|Educated many females
|-
|Veda Samaj
|General public
|Tamil Nadu
|Chembeti Sridharalu Naidu
|
|It advanced female literacy through local activism, campaigned against child marriages, promoted widow remarriage and windows' rehabilitation into being societal contributing members
|-
|Widow Marriage Association
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|}

==Inspiration to Madras Presidency==
[[image:M.C. Rajah.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Mylai Chinna Thambi Pillai Rajah (the real 'Periyar'.)]]
While the Arya Samaj, Brahmo Samaj, Prarthana Samaj, and a host of other Hindu-based humanitarian and sociopolitical institutions existed in the-then Madras Presidency of southern India, they inspired local organizations as well. Shahu Maharaj had friends in the-then Justice Party (JP, est. 1916), like Arcot Ramasamy Mudaliar and Panaganti Ramarayaningar. While some ethnic groups, like certain castes even falsely supported the idea of an 'Aryan Invasion Theory' and themselves (Dravidian-languages speakers) as indigenous, they still appreciated Hinduism and did not consider it alien.

The biggest uplifter of the party was M.C. Rajah, who had the highest influence upon the policies that improved the lives of the Dalits in Madras Presidency. The party itself was founded primarily by 3 individuals — Sir Pitti Theagaraya Chetty (political founder who built the political machine), Dr. Taravath Madhavan Nair (ideological co-founder), and Dr. Chintadripet Natesa Mudaliar (cultural/grassroots mobilizer who helped shape cultural legitimacy.) Dr. Nair had said that Hindu society had originally possessed broader equality before caste dominance hardened it. Chetty occasionally used dharm-based ethical framing. He is consistently described as arguing that governance must align with "''dharma and justice''". The Dr. Mudaliar was a devout Shaiva that infused into the party Shaivism as a cultural identity for southerners.
[[image:P.T. Rajan.jpg|right|thumb|200px|P.T. Rajan (centre-right, wearing glasses next to priest), touring with the idol of [[Ayyappan|Ayyappa]] he had made at Swamimalai Temple[https://swamimalaiswaminathar.hrce.tn.gov.in/] and it was placed in the Sabarimala Temple[https://www.sabarimalauptodate.in/].]]
An ideologue of influence to the JP and Self-Respect Movement was Maraimalai Adigal, a Shaiv preacher and writer, who claimed that both the JP and Self-Respect Movement were from his teachings and that militant atheist Erode Venkatappa Ramasami Naicker had hijacked them. JP founder Dr. Nair died in 1919 and Chetty in 1925, so had no interaction Naicker. Ponnambala Thiaga Rajan was an active party member and disagreed with Naicker's ideology, so joined Congress-aligned politics. Mudaliar died in 1935 around the time Naicker entered the JP. Naicker was also a prejudiced castist that criticized but did not contribute to build schools and shelters for women and children, as Rajah[https://www.news18.com/opinion/opinion-m-c-rajah-the-forgotten-hindu-mahasabha-dalit-8937192.html][https://vskbharat.com/m-c-rajah-a-staunch-hindu-leader/?lang=en][https://thecommunemag.com/m-c-rajah-the-hindu-mahasabha-dalit/], a practicing Hindu of the party did. Rajah even once formed a political alliance with the Hindu Mahasabha, was the contributor. Before Rajah, the party's caste disparity was mainly about civil service occupations and education access for underprivileged castes. Rajah was recommended by Ambedkar to convert but Rajah replied there's no religion better than Hinduism.<ref>P. 92 ''The Political Evolution of Muslims in Tamilnadu and Madras, 1930-1947'' By J.B. Prashant More (1997) </ref><ref> In a public meeting of the All India Adi Dravida Mahajana Sabha in Nungambakkam, Chennai he said, "''The president (of this meeting) mentioned that no other community other than us has more right to be called Hindus. Conversion will not bring about any good. By saying so, I am not undermining or wishing away the oppression and ills we have faced. We need to fight for our rights. The speed at which reforms are happening might be slow. But think about our current situation and how much it has improved. I beseech you to please abandon any move that will weaken us. I request the government to bring about the Untouchability Abolition Bill and pass it quickly. The Harijans are proud Hindus. That is the only reason why even after years of oppression by higher castes and a barrage of proselytization efforts by other religions hasn't changed their resolve being Hindus.''" P. 123 ''Evolution of Hindu Nationalism - Icons of HMS, RSS & BJS'' By Sankara Narayanan T (2025)</ref> Adigal's writings had a profound impact on Subramania Ramanathan, the founder of the Self-Respect Movement, and on the Naicker but the latter only wanted pro-Tamil and castist societal changes, not promotion of Shaivism. Naicker would later break away from the party and form his own Dravidar Kazhagam, a title he copied from Adigal's Shaiv association (Podhunilak Kazhagam.) (His own pupil, Conjeevaram Natarajan Annadurai, would eventually disown him after he married his own adopted daughter, and Annadurai would leave his group.)
[[image:Alamelu.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Alamelu Mangai Thayarammal, a Brahmo Samaji, was co-founder of the party among 29 others (all men.)]]
The Hindu sentiment was definitely present in the JP. Many left after Naicker's hijacking. Important members bothered by Naicker's rhetoric apart from Rajan were Ananda Prasad Patro, Arunachalam Thamaraiselvam Panneerselvam, Muthiah Annamalai Chettiar, Ramasamy Kandasamy Shanmukham Chetty, and Subbarayalu Kumaraswami Reddiar. Chettiar even personally regularly donated to temple renovations, endowing temple lands or festivals, supporting pilgrimage facilities, and Hindu-managed schools. Rajan, the last leader of the JP, was the head-of-government of the Presidency, and was a big devotee a [[Ayyappan|Swami Ayyappa]]. Rajan even solemnized a marriage of a German couple converted to Hinduism in Coimbatore (Oct 31, 1962.) He further discouraged conversion of Dalits from Hinduism to another religion<ref>"''If by mass conversion you expect to achieve your object, you will be disappointed, because of a mere change of religion it will not give you all that you want.''" 
P. 147 ''Sir P. T. Rajan's Eighty Second Birthday Souvenir, 1973'' By P.T. Rajan and K. Paramasivam</ref> while encouraging caste-Hindus to better treat Dalits. His family had deep ties to the Meenakshi Amman Temple[https://maduraimeenakshi.hrce.tn.gov.in/] in Madurai, with his son (Palanivel Rajan), serving as a minister, and his daughter-in-law (Rukmani), serving as the first female chairperson of the temple's board of trustees. His predecessor Ramakrishna Ranga Rao denied that the JP was anti-Hindu and declared that it aimed to purify Hindu society from "''absurdities''" and return "''Hinduism greater and more glorious than it was in the past...''"<ref>"''As I understand it, the Self-Respect movement stands for certain great ideals to make Hinduism greater and more glorious than it was in the past, to rid it of all those absurdities which are the accretions of an unfortunate era of the past, and unite us in a solid federation so that all those who profess to follow the Hindu faith may feel that they are brethren following one of the most ancient and glorious religions of the world. No longer should the foreigner point his finger of scorn at this or that particular phase of Hinduism which belies its cosmopolitan tendency by inflicting personal hardship on classes or communities. If a few youths in their exuberant enthusiasm have been carried away beyond the bounds of Hinduism it will not do to fight shy of the new movements, but political wisdom and sagacity lie in taking them into our fold and guiding them aright along the paths of duty and rectitude.''" 
P. 289 ''The Indian Annual Register An Annual Digest of Public Affairs of India Recording the Nation's Activities Each Year in Matters Political, Economic, Industrial, Educational, Social, Etc · Volume 2'' By Nipendra Nath Mitra (1934)</ref> Alamelu Mangai Thayarammal, conferred 'Pandithai' title by Saiva Sabha in Palamcottah, was a JP co-founder [with 29 co-founders being men] who was a Brahmo Samaji, meaning the influence of the Hindu-based organizations wasn't insignificant. Paramasivan Subbarayan Gounder, while not technically a JP member, worked with it closely, and both he and his women's rights activist wife Kailash Radhabai Kulmud were Brahmos. It is also noteworthy that [[Ascetics|ascetic]] Swamiyar Kaivalyar who supported the party without being a member wrote pro-Shaiv material. Cattamanchi Ramalinga Reddy, an ex-member who formed his own party in 1923 was a close friend of Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, and he himself engaged with Hindu texts on a literary artistic level. As Hinduism isn't a scripture-dependent religion, some JP members like A.R. Mudaliar heavily criticized certain scriptures but were devout Hindus ([[Vaiśnava|Vaishnav]] in his case.) And while orthodox opposition was present, the majority of Indians, including religious leaders, supported reforms, like when Shankaracharya of Kanchi[https://www.kamakoti.org/] supported the "Hindu Religious Endowments Bill" (1921) even while voicing some concerns in within. Mentionable is that [[Shatata-Unnati#Female upliftment|Dr. Muthulakshmi Reddy]] wasn't part of the JP but it still nominated her in 1926 for the Madras Legislative Council to bring about positive changes.

==Impactful legacy==
The currents resulting from electrifying the establishments in the colonial era by activists, especially Bhave, Gandhi, Ramakrishna, Tagore, and Vivekanand, are still being felt. Humanitarians worldwide in the colonial era recognized those individuals in particular. Albert Schweitzer of France praised Tagore, Howard Thurman and Thomas Merton spoke positively about Sanatan spirituality in general, and Romain Rolland commended Ramakrishna and Vivekanand. Even international figures who changed the world scientifically and social scientifically recognized, like Albert Einstein revering Tagore and his Upanishadic-style monism, and Ernst Friedrich Schumacher exalting both Bhave and Tagore. (Schumacher was influenced by Buddhism as well, upon visiting Burma, and he founded 'Buddhist Economics'.)

And because [[Ārya Samudāy|Arya dharmas]], focus on the rights of all creatures, including animals, activists struggling to improve [[Animal rights#Influence upon Westerners|animals' lives too were impacted]] by Sanatan, Jain, and Bauddh thoughts on the topic.

One thing that Arya dharmas, particularly Sanatan Dharm, has been able to do is accommodate many viewpoints [provided that they converge at its foundation.] For example, even atheists like M.N. Roy have praised philosophical systems, such as Sankhya, Nyaya, and Vaishesik darshans believe they appreciate that their cosmologies delve into the natural world and don't treat it as maya. Likewise, Nobel Prize-winning physicist Erwin Schrödinger[https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1933/schrodinger/biographical/] used Hindu metaphysics to make sense of the bizarre subatomic behaviors discovered in quantum mechanics. Norwegian philosopher Arne Næss, heavily influenced by Gandhi, who founded the "Deep Ecology" movement in the 1970s, pointed directly to Sanatan ethics (mainly ahimsa) to argue against human destruction of the Earth. Leo Tolstoy, who refused to accept the Nobel[https://www.nobelprize.org/ceremonies/proclamation-sent-to-leo-tolstoy-after-the-1901-years-presentation-of-nobel-prizes/], had based much of his humanistic philosophies of anarcho-pacifism and anti-colonialism on the ''[[Thirukkural]]'' and Gandhism.

==Related articles==
*[[Women]]
*[[Women as Rishikas in the Vedas]]
*[[Worship of God as Mother]]

==External resources==
*[https://www.ijhsss.com/files/08.-ABHISEK-KARMAKAR_6813z4a4.pdf "Changing status of women in Indian politics (1917-1947): the role of civil society"], P. 42-45 ''International Journal of Humanities & Social Science Studies'' Volume-I, Issue-II (September 2014) By Abhisek Karmakar
*[https://www.besanthill.org/about/history-heritage/annie-besant/ Besant Hill School of Happy Valley in Ojai, California]
*[https://www.anniebesant.org Annie Besant Women's College in Hyderabad, Telangana]
*[https://www.aryasabha.mu/cultural-programme-arya-mahila-mandal-in-the-context-of-the-200th-birth-anniversary-of-swami-dayananda-saraswati/ Arya Mahila Mandal (Mauritius)]
*[https://www.thearyasamaj.org/ammkarolbagh Arya Mahila Mandal Karol Bagh]
*[https://vatikashaktipeeth.com/seven-agitations/women-awakening.html Vatika Shakti Peeth]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category: History]]
[[Category: Economics]]
[[Category: Societal altruism]]

Shatata-Unnati

2026-07-03T06:57:12Z

Himanshu Bhatt: /* Start of modern reforms */

{{Author|Himanshu Bhatt}}
'Shatata-Unnati' is ''continual change'', 'abhyas' means improvement, 'kram-parivartanam' is ''incremental reformation'', while 'shodhanam' is ''refinement''. All of these terms are descriptive of Hindu society throughout the ages.

Continual social betterment has been one of the defining characteristics of Hindu society. All major cultures have had evils in their histories, including Hindu societies, but the shining examples to enforce positive changes and adaptability to a changing world are the Hinduism, Christianity, and Judaism.

In an era wherein colonial norms meant imprisonment or executions for speaking out against imperial rule, Mahatma Gandhi challenged the ideas of forcing nations to be subservient, fighting oppression by violence, and purging one's own nation of evils (i.e., inequality and superstition.) Today, much of the world still looks to Gandhi's perseverance to bring positive change into society.

Transformation of India's political systems made India into the world's largest democracy, and for accomplishing that, [[Indian Freedom Fighters#INC's Hindu activist roots|Hindu doctrines were rationalize to promote democracy]]. Even in India's political spectrum, Hindu principles were used to make liberalism and communism resonate with people, like Ram Rajya being a communist utopia. Some of the Communist Party of India's [[Indian Freedom Fighters#CPI's Hindu activist roots|founders were idealogues for both communism and Hinduism]], such as Swami Kumaranand, Swami Satyabhakt, and Swami Sahajanand Saraswati, as well as Keezhedathu Damodaran, Radhamohan Gokulji, and Rahul Sankrityayan.

==Comparison in societal reformation (India and Europe)==
:''See also: [[Contribution of Hindu Diaspora]]''
Whereas even in modern times, in most European Christian societies, witch-hunts and slavery were the norm, in Indian Hindu societies, widow-burning was the norm among certain communities (usually northwestern) and caste prejudice was prevalent. Both the Christian and Hindu communities worked to extinguish these and other evils.

Historical societal injustices have been acknowledged and reconciled. Even today, the lasting legacy of important Hindu reformers is visible wherein quotas employment and educational quotas are implemented for social upward mobility to ensure poorer castes and women do not fall behind.

During the colonial era, as human rights improved in Western societies as results from agricultural/economic advancements, Western writers of non-Christian societies took a chauvinistic, parochialist, and Eurocentric approach towards Hindu societies, claiming that they:
#Would never improve in human rights, morality, or rationality
#Are permanently stagnant
#Cannot produce modern or political economic institutions

Critics of the colonial era were proven wrong in these concrete ways:
#Large-scale societal reforms led by Hindu activists themselves improved Hindu societies — i.e., promoting window remarriage and caste integration while also creating quotas for females and historically-disadvantaged castes
#Rapid expansion of education and intellectual mobility — i.e., growth of global Hindu academic presence
#Global economic and corporate leadership — i.e., entrepreneurship and CEOs of major multinational companies like Adobe, Google, and Microsoft
#Democratic political evolution — i.e., maintaining electoral democracies like Hindu-majority nations, providing peaceful transfers of power, and granting significant autonomy to judiciary, press, and civil societies
#Religious and philosophical continuity + adaptation
#Ritual practice has diversified massively by religion and class — i.e., clerics ([[Rta and Spiritual Authority|priests]] and [[ascetics|monks]]) are from many backgrounds
#Reinterpretation of scriptures became internationally influential — i.e., Aldous Huxley loved the perennialism of Upanishads, Erwin Schrödinger the idea of aikatmyam, and Henry David Thoreau that of Ishavasyam
#Non-Hindus from outside of the Indian Subcontinent have converted to Sanatan Dharm and have promoted the religion — James Donald Walters who founded Ananda Sangha, Richard Alpert who founded Hanuman Foundation, John Edwin Favors who founded iFast[https://ifastdc.com/][https://ifastglobal.com/], and Robert Hansen who founded Saiva Siddhanta Church[https://www.himalayanacademy.com/]
#Hindu-based intellectual practices have popularized globally — i.e., [[Ayurveda|Ayurvedic medicine]], divination, political activism, [[Animal rights#Influence upon Westerners|animal rights]], [[Animal_rights#Vegetarianism|vegetarianism]], and [[yoga]]

==Hindu-led social betterment==
What is extraordinary in the case of India is that it was the religious institutions ([[Organizations|Hindu organizations]] and [[Hindu Post-Secondary Institutes|schools]]) that made revolutionary changes, not normally secular or non-Hindu ones. Practicing Hindus saw that superstitious and chauvinistic practices had become institutionalized (caste system and misogyny) within Hindu society, so they formed associations to help, uplift, educate the destitute. They would even go steps further to privilege the marginalized through reservations.

Even women who were more exploratory and not members of specific religions engaged with Hinduism positively. The best example might be Annette Beveridge, an Englishwoman who was the daughter of a Unitarian Christian herself became affiliated with Keshub Chandra Sen in England. She was drawn to his lectures and this fascination with his philosophy inspired her to begin life in India, where she even established<ref>Its expenses were financed by Ananda Mohan Bose and Durga Mohan Das, Dwarkanath Ganguly was its headmaster, and others Brahmos involved with the school were Sibnath Sastri and Monomohun Ghose.</ref> the Hindu Mahila Vidyalaya (''Hindu Women's School''.) Her husband Henry Beveridge was an orientalist (westerners intrigued with Asian cultures) working in India, meaning they were not Westerners critical of Hindu identity. Mrs. Emily Phear was an honorary teacher, and she too was involved in Brahmo Samaji circles for societal development. (Her husband Sir John Budd Phear helped Brahmo Samaj legally.) A non-Hindu that likewise began a girls school (Hindu Female School[https://www.bethunecollegiateschool.com/]) with Brahmos and other Hindus was John Bethune, whose accomplices were Dakshinaranjan Mukherjee, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Ramgopal Ghosh, and Madanmohan Tarkalanka (the last even taught at the school without pay.) Others foreign women in India that engaged positively with Hindu activist organizations were Mary Carpenter[https://southasianbritain.org/people/mary-carpenter/] and Sophia Dobson Collet with Brahmo Samaj, Alma B.R.A. with Arya Samaj, and Mary Hobson with Prarthana Samaj[https://puneprarthanasamaj.org/].

Hindu women that set women's rights activism into motion were Arya Samaj's Lajwanti Sood and Satyavati Devi, and Brahmo Samaj's Kadambini Ganguly and Sarala Devi Chaudhurani. Swarnakumari Devi was both an Arya Samaji and a Brahmo Samaji.
[[image:Dr. Anandi Gopal Joshi.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Dr. Anandi Gopal Joshi in 1886 marking a milestone with 2 other Asian women.]]
What is also worth mentioning is that there were women not members of sociopolitical organizations who pursued and achieved new societal achievements, showing that many Hindu women thought for themselves. Dr. Anandibai Joshi was India's first female doctor to trained in Western medicine. Her education and trip to U.S. was funded by [[Shatata-Unnati#Shahu's royal authority to implement reforms|Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj]]. Upon return, he even funded her return journey and offer her supervisory role at Kolhapur's largest hospital[https://old.rcsmgmc.ac.in/]. Foundations[https://anandibai.org/resources/], institutions (i.e., Dr. Anandi Gopal Higher Education & Medical Facilities), awards (i.e., IRDS's[https://ngosindia.org/uttar-pradesh-ngos/irds-institute-for-research-documentation-in-social-sciences-lucknow/] Anandibai Joshi Award for Medicine), and scholarships (i.e., Dr. Anandi Gopal Scholarship Scheme) are named after her in commemoration. (Dr. Anandi Gopal Higher Education & Medical Facilities itself is a collaboration between the U.S. university she graduated in (DUCM[https://drexel.edu/medicine/news-events/publications/pulse/spring-2018/]) and SMCW. She let people know that she was not ashamed of being a Hindu. She was often pressured by Christian missionaries to convert[https://knowledge.lancashire.ac.uk/id/eprint/48487/1/bharadwaj-et-al-2023-journey-across-the-world-to-study-medicine-the-anandi-joshi-story.pdf]. Dr. Anandi had written her thesis, "Obstetrics among the Aryan Hindus", containing references from both the traditional Ayurvedic (''Susruta Samhita'' and ''Charaka Samhita'') and modern American medical literatures. (Mentionable is that although her husband Gopalrao Joshi's relentless, public letter-writing campaigns and essays targeted Lokmanya Tilak for being not liberal enough and Justice Ranade for being too liberal Tilak's ''Kesari'' and ''Mahratta'' newspapers glorified Dr. Joshi as a rolemodel for women.)

===Female upliftment===
:''See also: [[Indian Freedom Fighters]] 
;Theosophical Society wing
[[image:Paris Women's Congress.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Dr. Reddy and 3 Indian women at the Paris Women's Congress (1926.)]]
The top 3 champions who politically improved Indian women's rights in the modern era were foreigners — Dr. Annie Besant, Dorothy Jinarajadasa, and Margaret Cousins. They did not tell Indian women to leave Hinduism but rather they themselves became Hindu in practice and Indian in habit. They then sought to restore the Vedic-era of womanhood wherein women had authority (i.e., to become clerics, scholars, and leaders.) Emma Mitchell (American) and Francesca Arundale (English) greatly contributed to building of Hindu educational institutions (i.e., Central Hindu College.)

Dr. Muthulakshmi Reddy is a big name in female rights, and she was influenced by Dr. Besant in her college years (1907-1912) and was guided by Dr. Besant in both her social reform and political work. She worked with Dr. Besant and others to establish the Women's Indian Association (1917.) After Dr. Besant's death, she took over the presidency of the WIA. Gandhi was another major mentor but Reddy never formally joined the INC but sometimes protested colonial injustices (i.e., Gandhi's arrest.)

;Ramakrishna Mission wing
[[image:Nivedita & Vivekanand.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Nivedita with Vivekanand.]]
[[Niveditā, Sister|Sister Nivedita (Margaret Noble)]], a convert from Ireland became a disciple of [[Swami Vivekananda|Swami Vivekanand]] and joined Aurobindo's Dawn Society and had also founded and ran girls' schools in Kolkata (i.e., Ramakrishna Sarada Mission Sister Nivedita Girls' School[https://www.sisterniveditagirlsschool.org/home.html] in Baghbazar) to educate girls who had little to no access to education (i.e., poorest of the poor.) She advocated for women's intellectual and moral development, influenced by Vivekanand's vision of strong Indian womanhood. Her work included lectures, fundraising (India, England, and U.S.), and writings that promoted gender equality in access to knowledge and opportunities. She had worked with Dr. Annie Besant at times. Likewise, Sister Christine, disciple of Vivekanand, is another example of a Westerner who utilized the Ramakrishna Mission and Vivekanand's circles as vehicles for improving female rights in India.

;INC wing
:''See also: [[Indian Freedom Fighters#INC's Hindu activist roots|INC's Hindu activist roots]] 
[[image:Nellie Sen Gupta.jpg|right|thumb|100px|N.S. Gupta.]]
Nellie Sen Gupta[https://www.thedailystar.net/in-focus/news/deshpriya-jatindra-mohan-nellie-sengupta-2036981] (nee Edith Ellen Gray) had married freedom fighter Jatindra Mohan Sen Gupta, and both joined the INC — she also founded Deepali Sangha, a women's organization aimed at promoting social and political awareness, leadership, training, and empowerment among women. Her husband passed away but she was advised to stay in the-then East Pakistan to take care of Hindu rights, which she did. Umadevi (born Wanda Dynowska), a Polish convert to Sanatan Dharm too championed women's rights in India and translated ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'', ''[[Mahabharata]]'', ''[[Ramayana]]'', and other [[Hindu Scriptures|Hindu and Bauddh literature]] into Polish. Mira Behn (born Madeleine Slade), the daughter of a British Royal Navy admiral, gave up her affluent lifestyle to become Gandhi's servant in India.
[[image:Sarla Behn Chipko Movement.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Sarla Behn's Chipko act[https://www.adda247.com/school/chipko-movement/].]]
Sarla Behn[https://growbilliontrees.com/blogs/knowledge/sarla-behn-tree-nurturing-nature-and-empowering-communities-for-a-sustainable-future?srsltid=AfmBOoq4h0d0skQBNr4w4zOvISuhYz02_EXtPvD3pUoQYjTlcvNHEbQ-#fullcontent] (born Catherine Mary Heilman) from England setup the Lakshmi Ashram Kausani in 1946 within Uttarakhand to uplift women, after having lived in the Sevagram Ashram[https://gandhiashramsevagram.org/] in Maharashtra. The organization educated rural hill girls academically, trained women of self-reliance and industrial skills (i.e., khadi weaving), taught personal care (i.e., literacy, hygiene, anti-liquor campaigns), and promoted [[Environmentalism|ecological awareness]] (Chipko Movement.) It also worked with the INC to encourage nationalist fervour. Lakshmi Ashram individual units were known as Mahila Mandals. This ashram attracted foreign residents intrigued with Sanatan Dharm even after independence, like David Hopkins, who relocated to there in the 1990's.
[[image:Durgabai Deshmukh.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Dr. D.D.]]
Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh, pupil of Gandhi and freedom fighter in the colonial era, established the Central Social Welfare Board (1953.) She later became president of the All India Women's Conference (1931.) Taraben Premchand is an important mention, as she was an important member of this organization, as well as the Jain Mahila Parishad[https://www.dbjainsabha.com], Jyoti Sangh[https://jyotisangh.org/about-us/] (local women's advancement group in Gujarat), and Shraddhanand Ashram[https://shraddhanandmahilashram.org/].

Madeleine Rolland was Women's International League for Peace and Freedom's[https://www.wilpf.org/] French section and never settled in India. However, upon engaging with Hindu culture in the 1920's, she translated Ananda Coomaraswamy's ''[[Nataraja Dasakam|The Dance of Shiva]]'' into French, introducing Hinduism to the-then residents of France. She also translated Rabindranath Tagore's writings of Sanatan themes and universal humanism, helping popularize them in Europe. She welcomed Gandhi on his visit to Marseille, France. [[image:Kanuparti Varalakshmamma.jpg|right|thumb|100px|'Sarada'.]]
Kanuparti Varalakshmamma (alias 'Sarada'), a devout Gandhian, used Hindu themes like providing ethical refences (i.e., Savitri, Sita) to depict women's morality, dignity, and conduct. She often engaged with the idea of a grihalakshmi (idea woman of the household.) She also founded the Stree Hitaishini Mandali for uplifting women. She used ''Andhra Patrika'', a newspaper created by a promoter of the ''Bhagavad Gita'', Kasinathuni Nageswara Rao, to preach her ideas.
[[image:Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit.jpg|right|thumb|100px|'Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit'.]]
It is also noteworthy that the 1st female head of government in the world was a [[Bauddh Dharm|Bauddh]] (Sirimavo Bandaranaike of Sri Lanka, non-INC member), and 2nd was a Hindu (Indira Gandhi, INC member.) Also Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit[https://news.un.org/en/story/2024/03/1147327] (born Swaroop Rani Nehru) played a significant role in global representation of women, particularly in the United Nations. She was the first woman to serve as the President of the UN General Assembly (1953-1954), a position she held to advocate for decolonization and the independence of countries in Asia and Africa. She was also the first Indian woman to hold a cabinet rank in a provincial government. Hansa Mehta[https://india.un.org/en/311450-hansa-mehta%E2%80%99s-life-story-continues-inspire] had an impact on the UN's constitution wording wherein "''all human beings''" instead of "all men" in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. (She was also one of only 2 women delegates working alongside Eleanor Roosevelt in the UN Human Rights Commission 1946-48.)
[[image:Nilla Cram Cook.jpg|right|thumb|100px|'Nilla Nagini Devi'.]]
Nilla Cram Cook, an American who settled at Gandhi's ashrams, had [[Conversion|converted to Hinduism]] in the 1930's but identified with the '[[Samyag Darshan#Samadarshan|sarva dharma sambhava]]' ideal, so considered herself a [[Bhakta|devotee]] of not only [[Krishna]] but of Jesus too, and so she later also translated the Quran and engaged with Islamic practices in a syncretic way with her Hindu and Christian customs. Her final literary work was ''The Way of the Swam: Poems of Kashmir'' (1958), which was mostly focused around the [[Saiva|Shaiv]] mystic poetess Lal Ded[https://hindupost.in/society-culture/lal-ded-her-life-and-works/#][https://homegrown.co.in/homegrown-voices/the-poetry-of-lal-ded-mysticism-resistance-the-female-voice-in-14th-century-kashmir] and others from Kashmir syncretic Sanatan-[[Bauddh Dharm|Bauddh]]-[[Sufism with Vaishnavism|Sufi]] tradition. She dedicated the book to Pandit. She didn't work on women's upliftment directly but did participate with Gandhi's Harijan Sevak Sangh. She had also written about Sarojini Naidu (1st Indian woman-president of the INC.)

;Other associations
[[image:Maharani Chimnabai Gaekwad II.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Maharani Chimnabai.]]
[[image:Sethu Parvathi Bayi.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Junior Queen Bayi.]]
The National Council of Women in India[https://www.ncwi.in/], founded 1925, was also a monumental organization to make progress for women — it mainly focused on female literacy, vocational training, public participation, and legal reform. It was primarily the initiative of Lady Meherbai Tata, a Mazdaean icon, and its first president was Maharani Chimnabai Gaekwad II, born Gajrabai Ghatge, a princess of Dewas (M.P.) She supported societal progress of women that did not compromise on Hindu identity (i.e., traditional customs like wearing sari and sindhoor or like celebrating Raksha Bandhan), which is how she framed her ''The Position of Women in Indian Life'' book. She financed schools for girls, as well as Hindu charities and temples. The Gaekwad family also funded libraries and women's institutions and social reform initiatives. She discussed the eradication or the purdah, child marriage, women's restrictions (i.e., obtaining education and employment), and other obstacles towards advancement. Following her presidentship, Sethu Parvathi Bayi took over. She was from the royal family of Travancore (Kerala), and her family was deeply connected to the Padmanabhaswamy Temple[https://spst.in/][https://www.padmanabhaswamytemple.com/]. She financed Hindu institutions as well. It is notable that Sucharu Deo, daughter of Brahmo leader K.C. Sen was a prominent member and she had also helped build the Maharani Girls' High School[https://school.banglarshiksha.gov.in/ws/website/index/19013701705] in Darjeeling (W.B.) together with her sister (Suniti) and Hemlata Sarkar, daughter of Brahmo leader Sibnath Sastri.

From Hindu-based institutions like sociopolitical organizations and schools came a number of philanthropic associations.
;Most influential persons for women's upliftment
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Area of Contribution
! Meaning
! Steps Taken
! Activists
! Organizations
! Founder's Affiliation(s)
|-
|Political rights and visibility
|1. Women appearing in public political spaces 2. Women being recognized as leaders (not just participants) 3. Changing social norms about women's public roles 4. Symbolic representation
|Helped institutionalize women's leadership through bodies like Women's Indian Association
|Dr. Annie Besant (women's political rights + organizational leadership), Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay (political participation, economic empowerment, cooperatives), Margaret Cousins[https://www.womensmuseumofireland.ie/exhibits/margaret-elizabeth-cousins] (Suffarage, WIA), Sarojini Naidu (mass mobilization of women in politics)
|
|
|-
|Modern institutional equality
|
|Helped institutionalize institutional equality through contributing policy influence (Hansa Mehta) and constitutional rights (Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh)
|Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh (welfare systems), Hansa Mehta
|
|
|-
|Foundational legal reform
|
|
|Raja Ram Mohan Roy (abolition of sati), Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar (widow remarriage)
|
|
|-
|Education
|
|
|Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar
|
|
|-
|}

====Hindu influence internationally====
Even outside of India during the 20th century, women's rights were not perfect, and so many women incorporated Hindu symbolism (i.e., worship) and concepts towards promoting societies where women would have equal rights.
[[image:M.J. Gage.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Matilda Joslyn Gage.]]
[[image: Charlotte Despard.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Charlotte Despard, an Anglo-Irish suffragist who supported Indian independence.]]
As [[Worship of God as Mother|worship of God as a female or mother]] has been common in Sanatan Dharm since its foundation, that made validating female upliftment in India quicker. Even in Western nations, prominent women's rights organizations implemented imagery of goddesses from pertinent ancient cultures, like U.K.'s Women's Freedom League and National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies, and the global International Woman Suffrage Alliance, to legitimize female equality and women being in positions of power. Some American and European feminists and women's rights activists, like Matilda Joslyn Gage<ref>"''While the sale of daughters was practiced in England for seven hundred years after the introduction of Christianity, we note that by the ancient law of India, a father was forbidden to sell his daughter in marriage, or receive the smallest present therefor.''" - P. 79-82 ''Woman, Church and State'' (1893) By Matilda Joslyn Gage</ref> (U.S. suffragist) and Helena Petrovna Blavatsky<ref>"''The pre- and post-Vedic woman was as free as man; and no impure terrestrial thought was ever mixed with the religious symbology of the early Aryans.''" 
"''This is proven by the fact that in the Vedic period their women were not placed apart from men in penetralia, or ‘Zenanas.’ Their seclusion began when the Mahomedans … had conquered the land and gradually enforced their ways and customs upon the Hindus.''" 
- P. 379-380 ''The Secret Doctrine: Volume I'' By Helena Blavatsky </ref> (European feminist), even used the examples of [[Worship of God as Mother|Hindu goddess-worship]] and Hindu queens to support their examples. And though Blavatsky did not officially align with any single religion to encourage recruitment for her Theosophical Society, she referenced Sanatan and Bauddh scriptures (Upanishads, and then Gita, then Bauddh shastras) more than others. (M.J. Gage[https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/the-feminist-inspired-witches-of-oz-180985334/] in her ''Woman, Church, and State'' even highlighted Hindu texts to counter the male-centric theology of the West and referenced ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'' to validate the concept of a female [[divinity]].) Even feminists of the colonial era like Victoria Woodhull that was skeptical of organized religion, respected "''Christna and Buddha''" (Krishna and Gautama.) Mary Lowe Dickinson at the World's Parliament Circles (1893) was so impressed by [[Swami Vivekananda|Swami Vivekanand]]'s speech, that she developed a fascination with female divinity of Hinduism, and in her editorials and public circles, argued that Hinduism's recognition of a feminine aspect within the divine was spiritually superior to the rigidly patriarchal, all-male Trinity of mainstream American Christianity. Emily Pitts Stevens and Charlotte LeMoyne Wills (wrote about the genderless [[Brahm]]) became disciples of Vivekanand. Laura de Force Gordon wrote about the immortal soul and continuous cycle of life. Alice Moore McComas wrote about the interconnectedness (aikatmyam) of all things. In U.K., Charlotte Despard's specific pamphlets linked [[karma]] to political activism. Margaret Louise Sanger was influenced by Vivekanand and Rabindranath Tagore. Sarah Bull<ref> P. 483 ''Western Admirers of Ramakrishna and His Disciples'' By Gopal Stavig, Swami Shuddhidananda </ref>, who particularly focused on women's education and reform was connected to both Vivekanand and Sister Nivedita. Josephine MacLeod was a major promoter of Vivekanand in the West and was involved in transatlantic reform-intellectual networks. Viktoria Ocampo of Argentina was deeply influenced by Tagore, even hosting him in Argentina and promoting his ideas widely. Gabriela Mistral of Chile was too, and she applied Tagore's ideas to women's education, child welfare, and cultural reform. Mabel Dodge Luhan was fascinated with Sanatan philosophy and influenced by Vivekanand. Mentionable is Emma Calve of France, who wasn't a political feminist leader but influential in women's intellectual-cultural circles, and she was deeply influenced by Vivekanand.
[[image:Carol Patrice Christ.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Carol Patrice Christ.]]
After suffragists had attained complete institutional equality, they them progressed to the next stage of female liberation by ensuring that their own spiritual faith wasn't male-chauvinistic or making them subordinates of males. Feminists were inspired by goddess deity of Hinduism to then promote it within generic spirituality. Valerie Saiving, Isaac Bonewits and Naomi Goldenberg founded in the 1970's, Thealogy, a feminine-specific theology. Carol Patrice Christ launched the Goddess Movement, which provided 4 aspects of Goddess symbolism as reasons to needing a goddess in women's lives; 1) the Goddess as affirmation of female power, 2) the female body, 3) the female will, and 4) women's bond and heritage. She specifically used the Shakti concept to prove that a major global religion (Hinduism) explicitly defined the [[Brahmanda|material universe]]/nature/change ([[Darshana#Sankhya|Prakriti]]) as an inherently active, female, and sacred force. She was an ecofeminist, as were Charlene Spretnak and Miriam Simos were ecofeminists too. Merlin Stone wrote ''Ancient Mirrors of Womanhood: Our Goddess and Heroine Heritage'' (1979) and in a chapter analyzes goddesses like [[Durga]], [[Kali]], [[Lakshmi Puja|Lakshmi]], Parvati, and Saraswati. Devout Christian women feminists too drew on Hindu practices and ideas to support women's advocacy, and they include Ivone Gebara, Pearl Sydenstricker Buck, and Sally McFague.

'Matriarchal religion' is a philosophy stating that societies were Goddess worshippers with females having the same status and rights as men before male gods began being worshipped, and the latter led to patriarchy. Goddesses being worshipped contiguously in Hindu societies for thousands of years was the backing this thought utilized, in addition to feminist archaeology (i.e., ancient idols and temples of goddesses uncovered.)

==Start of modern reforms==
In modern India, most positive social changes within Indian Hindu societies came not first as enforcement or pressure from European rulers but from advocacy of forward-thinking Hindus. Raja Ram Mohan Roy had led the campaign to purge Hindu societies of Sati and caste prejudices. Roy worked with British imperial authority, specifically Lord William Bentinck to have sati outlawed. Roy himself was a religious leader that reiterated Upanishads for their principles.

Other institutions of positive social changes were mainly Hindu ones or were governed by Hindu religious leaders, not secular ones.

The Indian National Social Conference of 1887 was organized by Justice Ranade, Rai Raghunath Rao, Narendra Nath Sen Gupta, and Janki Nath Ghoshal. Ranade was founder of the Prarthana Samaj, a religious group.

Arya Samajis, Brahmo Samajis, and Prarthana Samajis were the most vocal and active forces advocating: 
#Widow Remarriage (i.e., Widow Remarriage Act 1856—initiative of Brahmo Samaj)
#Women's right to divorce (i.e., Native Marriage Act 1872—initiative of Brahmo Samaj) 
#Property rights for women 
#Opposition to child marriages (i.e., Age of Consent Act 1891—initiative of Brahmo Samaj and Prarthana Samaj, Child Marriage Restraint Act 1929—initiative of Arya Samaj) 
#Universal accessible education (built schools, including colleges and gurukuls) 
#Caste-based reservations (i.e., )—initiative of Shahu Maharaj (he later became an Arya Samaji)
[[image:Justice Ranade.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Mahadev Govind Ranade (alias 'Justice Ranade'.)]]
[[image:Jagannath Shankarshet.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Jagannath Shankarshet (alias 'Architect of Modern Mumbai'.)]]
The Indian Factories Act 1881's ratification was a landmark in workers' rights and the credit goes mainly to Sorabjee Shapoorjee Bengalee, and then Prarthana Samaj. He did work alongside the Prarthana Samaj to lobby the British authority through the First Factory Commission in 1875 (made to investigate the brutal conditions of Indian labour.) Prarthana Samaj's ''Subodh Patrika'' newspaper specifically critiqued mill owners. Rahnumai Mazdayasnan Sabha, its newspaper ''Rast Goftar'', and Bengalee himself referenced labour reformers Sasipada Banerji and Protap Chunder Mozumdar, and used the former's methods of worker upliftment as a blueprint for their own legislative arguments. Collaboration between the Sabha and Prarthana Samaj began with the latter's creation of the Theistic Association, on which the Parsi Naoroji Furdonji was its 1st Chairman. Ranade and Bhandarkar drove the Association from discussing only theism to improving society through finding solutions of work hardships. The Night School Initiative was launched, helping workers receive adequate training, particularly in labourer-heavy neighborhoods Byculla, Dongri, Khetwadi, and Thakurdwar. (From 1886-1890 alone, over 2,750 industrial workers successfully studied through this initiative.) Protap Chunder Mozoomdar, a Brahmo, began eight night schools in 1872 within Mumbai when he relocated to the city.<ref> P. 47 ''Peaceful Industrial Relations, Their Science and Technique'' (1957) By R. J. Soman </ref> Brahmos then established night schools within Kolkata by 1878.

Brahmo Samaj's K.C. Sen’s first visit to Mumbai in March-April 1864 engaged him with Bengalee, Furdonji, Ranade, and Bhandarkar (all then members of Young India.) They all discussed ways to develop India. They also shared strategies on how to bypass orthodox religious resistance—Furdonji within Zoroastrianism and Sen within Sanatan Dharm. Bengalee's First Labor Bill (1878) laid the groundwork for the later Indian Factories Act.

Prior to all of this, Jagannath Shankarshet[https://www.vishwakonkani.org/hall-of-fame/hon-jagannath-shankar-sheth/] spent the 1850s petitioning the British Parliament for local governance. As a result, it codified the Indian Councils Act of 1861, thus creating the Bombay Legislative Council as a political body to better govern the-then Bombay Presidency. Shankarshet was the main founder of Bombay Association. In its first leadership were also Dr. Ramachandra Vitthal Lad (alias 'Dr. Bhau Daji'), a Hindu intellectual who used his Sanskrit knowledge to decipher inscriptions, preserve manuscripts, and help reconstruct the forgotten timelines of ancient Guptas and Western Kshatrapa dynasties. Mentionable is the Parsi Sir Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy of the group. Shankarshet was a wealthy philanthropist that constructed and financed Sanatan and secular infrastructure, most notably the Bhavani Shankar Mandir[https://www.mcgm.gov.in/irj/go/km/docs/documents/D%20Ward/Heritage-Sites/73_Legacy%20of%20D%20Ward_Article_Bhavani%20Shankar%20Temple.pdf] (Mumbai), Sanskrit Seminary and Sanskrit Library (both in Mumbai too.) Elphinstone Educational Institution[https://elphinstone.ac.in/index.php] and Grant Medical College[https://gmcjjh.edu.in/] were his creations too. (Jeejeebhoy contributed to constructing the Grant Medical College.)

===Shahu's royal authority to implement reforms===
[[image:Shahu adoption.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Prince Yeshwantrao Ghatge being adopted by the royal family of Kohlapur.]]
[[image:Rajarshi.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Rajarshi Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj IV.]]
[[image:School foundation.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Foundation of Shri Shahu Chhatrapati Shikshan Sanstha.]]
The greatest champion on all of these sections for reforms was Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj[https://aissms.org/breaking-barriers-chhatrapati-shahu-maharaj-and-his-enduring-impact-on-progress-and-modernity/] (born Yeshwantrao Ghatge), '[[Rta and Spiritual Authority#Rishis|Rajarshi]]', the ruler of Kohlapur Kingdom who affiliated with organizations but probably the Arya Samaj[https://thearyasamaj.org] more than any other. Shahu definitely was not shy to publicly perform prayers, as he famously attended temples of goddesses Ambabai[https://www.mahalaxmikolhapur.com/home] and Bhavani[https://shrituljabhavani.org/] when having returned from his Europe trip in 1902. Also in 1902, Pratap Singh Maharaj of Idhar (Gujarat) introduced and educated him about the Arya Samaj. He provided patronage to the Arya Samaj.[https://navjyot.net/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/10.pdf]

The king passed many policies for for the upliftment of untouchable, nomadic, non-Brahmin communities and for females.<ref>Act of Free and Compulsory Primary Education (1917), Widow remarriage Act (1917), End of Balutedari (1918), Repeal of Kulkarni Watan (1918), Intercaste and Interreligious Marriages and Sanctioning of Registered Marriage Act (1919), Act relating to protection of Harassment of Women (1919), Divorce act (1919), Order on prohibition of Untouchability practice (1919), Illegitimate Children's Rights and Devadasi Prohibition Act (1920); 
[https://www.indiejournal.in/article/rajarshi-shahu-maharaj-and-his-tryst-with-the-arya-samaj "Rajarshi Shahu Maharaj & his tryst with the Arya Samaj Lessons for our times"] By Devkumar Ahire (Jun 26, 2023 6:42 PM)</ref>

;Prejudiced disgruntled castists promoting anti-Brahman hate, not universalism
While Shahu was affiliated with the Satyashodhak Samaj (SS) because it wanted to uplift the non-dwija castes, he did not feel they had any religious foundations, whereas the Arya Samaj was encompassed both a spiritual and social movement.<ref>"Beyond Reformism: Chhatrapati Shahu and Hinduism Reimagined" By Surajkumar Thube P. 124-144 ''Nidān: International Journal for Indian Studies, Volume 8'', Issue 1 (July 2023)</ref> Also, the SS of Pune was antithetical to social cohesion because it targeted the Brahman caste as an enemy, and while its main founder (Jyotirao Phule) made absurd claims like 'Shiv-Dharma'<ref>"''The real Shiv-Dharma that is ours, we are re-establishing it as Sarvajanik Satya Dharma.''" Chapter 4, ''Sarvajanik Satya Pustak''</ref> or 'Mahadev-Dharma' (worship of [[Shiva|Shiv]] as God and some local gods like Khandoba as avatars) being the true religion of Indians whereas every other Hindu belief and practice was an imposition by 'non-Indian Brahman invaders'. Being a chauvinist, he also criticized freedom fighter martyrs Lakshmi Bai, Nana Sahib, Tantia Tope for being Brahmans. He also wrote positively that freedom fighters lost the 1857 War of Independence against the British colonialists. He was also openly criticized by his own relative Baburao Phule, who accused the former of being a Christian convert who destroyed the Hindu religion.<ref>P. 58-59 ''The Caste Question: Dalits and the Politics of Modern India'' (2009) By Anupama Rao </ref>

Phule though anti-Brahman, was influenced by some Brahmans, such as Balshastri Jambhekar (a Hindu activist) who pushed scientific knowledge and history through Marathi, criticized caste segregation, and attacked other or kinds or orthodoxy like widowhood. He was also influenced by some Hindu activists who were not anti-Brahman (i.e., Karsandas Mulji.)

The organization would receive the most aid from Shahu (financial and social work), Karmvir (social work), and Padval (intellectual) but they themselves always kept a distance from the SS because of its explicitly castist vitriol. People would choose to align or become members of other associations for their inclusivity and harmonious vision for the future.

;Satyashodhak Samaj becoming less anti-Brahman
"''All Hindus are equal. No one is superior, no one is inferior. Let all flesh and blood be one. Four varnas are a real deceit. It's a tool to keep the non-Brahmins in slavery. There is no difference among the Hindus. Hindu is the only varna. If a Hindu eats or marries with another Hindu that's not ''[[adharma]].'' In contrast, what divide Hindus in the name of religion is not a dharma, but a trick by Brahmins. One who calls themselves a Hindu, whether they are Europeans or Africans, they are our coreligionists.''" - P. 39 ''Deshache Dushman'' (1925) By Dinkarrao Javalkar
[[image:Sasipada Banerji.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Sasipada Banerji (alias 'Sevabrata'.)]]
Notable is that Phule's friend Narayan Meghaji Lokhande, a labour organization leader, was close friends with Phule and used Khandoba-worship and the reverence of Sundays for Khandoba in his petition to British authority to achieve Sunday as a holiday for factory labourers (S.S. Bengalee's idea that he campaigned for over a decade.) (In some Satyashodhak branches, incoming members took an initialization oath in the name of "Khanderao".) Phule and Lokhande emulated Brahmans, like forming the political lobby group Deenbandhu Sarvajanik Sabha after Ranade's Poona Sarvajanik Sabha and forming the Bombay Mill Hands Association based and its mouthpiece ''Deenbandhu'' on the Working Men's Club (India's 1st labour welfare platform) and its mouthpiece ''Bharat Sramajibi'' (India's 1st labour journal) of Sasipada Banerji (Brahmo Samaji.) Mentionable is that Lokhande used phrases "''Hindu Bhau''", "''Hindu Dharma''" and "''Hindu Samaj''" in his writings.

Though Dinkarrao Javalkar portrayed himself as pan-Hindu when discussing the specific topic of Hindu unity, he still prejudicially criticized the Brahman caste in general<ref>"''This day will be counted among the most important days in the history of Hindus. There is no reason for you to fear jail. The Brahmans who eat ghee and roti should have that fear. To make the touchable people behave is in your hands. You are the sons of Hindus. You capture the tank saying 'har har Mahadev' and follow the advice of your leader Dr. Ambedkar Saheb. This is my own position.''" -Dinkarrao Javalkar at satyagraha with Keshavrao Jedhe and Dr. Ambedkar among a Mahar crowd</ref> and targeted some prominent Brahmans like Lokmanya Tilak. (Javalkar and Keshavrao Jedhe also portrayed themselves as pro-woman but derogatory remarks about women from the Brahman and certain other castes<ref>P. 44 ''19th Century Maharashtra: A Reassessment'' (2020) By Shraddha Kumbhojkar </ref> and both appealed to Dr. B.R. Ambedkar in 1927 to exclude Brahmans from the Mahad Satyagraha<ref> P. 27 ''Social Reform Movements in India: A Historical Perspective'' (1991) By V.D. Divekar</ref>.) Jedhe did protest with other activists (including Brahmans like Narhar Vishnu Gadgil, Seshdas Ranade, Shreedhar Mahadev Joshi, and members of Arya Samaj) for the right of Dalits to worship at Pune's Devdeveshwar Mandir[https://devdeveshwarsanthan.org/home.html]. Javalkar did write favourably about some like Ranade, Gopal Ganesh Agarkar, and Krishna Gopal Gokhale but even they were rarely mentioned. He rightfully partook in the Kalaram Mandir[https://www.shrikalaramsansthannasik.org/] Satyagraha in Nasik that protested for Dalits to be able to enter the temple. He was a communist and 10 years after his death, the Peasants and Workers Party (PWP) was formed.

SS branches outside of Pune were less hateful of Brahmans. It is also noteworthy, however, is that Nana Patil, a founder of the PWP, was affiliated with both the Satyashodhak and Prarthana associations [meaning that he, like most other Satyashodhaks didn't believe in Phule's religious ideology.] Some other PWP founders like Jedhe and Madhavrao Bagal were Satyashodhaks, they popularized Shiv Jayanti and Ganesh Chathuri. The latter and his son Vasantrao even wrote devotional pieces inspired from Bhakti Era saints (i.e., [[Tukaram]], [[Eknath]]) and valourizing pieces about Shahu. Tulshidas Jadhav, a Gandian within the PWP, championed the Bhakti Era's Warkari Movement, which was still popular in his time, because it was based on social equality and public seva. Also noteworthy is, that even some prominent members supported the Arya Samaj, like Krishnarao Bhalekar<ref>"''Bhalekar said that while Hinduism needed to be reformed , this reform should be brought about from within . He said he would defend Hinduism if it was under attack from Islam or Christianity.''" - P. 35 ''Non-Brahman Movement in Maharashtra'' (1989) By M.S. Gore </ref> (1 of the founders of SS with Phule) defended Dayanand Saraswati (Arya Samaj’s founder), when the latter’s procession was opposed by some orthodox Hindus in Pune, and Bhalekar organized a speech to be delivered by Saraswati at a dharmshal near a Rokdoba Temple in Pune. SS' Moro Vitthal Walvekar was directly affiliated with the Prarthana Samaj and played a crucial role in its associated media landscape (frequently serving as an editor of ''Subodha Patrika''.)

Bhalekar himself made the claim that the SS is the true follower of Sant Tukaram's [[Bhāgavata-dharma|Bhagwat Dharma]] ([[Krishna|Krishnaite]] [[Vaishnava|Vaishnavism]].) His son was Mukundrao Patil, who made the claim, "''The Satyasodhak Samaj is the true heir of the Hindu religion. Brahmanism is not Hinduism.''"<ref>''Dinmitra'' newspaper (1920s)</ref> Javalkar claimed SS is the true representative of the Hindu religion and that SS members are liberating Hinduism from the supremacy of the Brahmins. Shivram Janma Kamble (a Dalit) stated the SS is a revival movement of the true Hinduism. Kisan Faguji Bansode (a Dalit) argued "Shivdharma" was the true Hindu religion and that the SS advocates that version. Dr. Ramayya Venkayya Ayyavaru in ''Khristi Bandhujanans Vinanti'' or ''A Request to Our Christian Brothers'' (1887) wrote to missionaries that Indians did not need to be baptized and that monotheism has been embedded in Indian culture and that Indians. Previously, he, backed firmly by Lokhande and the urban Mumbai executive committee of the SS, aggressively fought against changing the name of the SS to 'Satya Dharma Samaj'.

There were those in his organization that promoted about how in ancient Sanatan society, there were no caste distinctions and that people were recognized by their merits. Their view was promoted by Tukaram Tatya Padval, who wrote ''Jatibhed Vivekshar'' (1861) after being inspired by Ashwaghosha's ''Vajrasuchi''. Phule republished copies of Padval's books, and the 2 developed a friendship. He did write at that in ancient India, certain sages were had Sudra or Avarna status but rose to the rank of a Brahman through their intellect, and used examples of Valmiki (wrote a ''Ramayan''), Sankhya, and Kabilar rishis. He also published copies of the ''Bhagavad Gita'', ''Yogasutra'', and compilations of the ''Rajayoga'' and ''Sankhya Karika.'' He further compiled the ''Tukarambaba ani Tyanche Shisya Yanchi Abhanga Gatha'' (1889) and ''Eknath Maharajancha Abhangachi Gatha'' (1903.) Padval, however, never became a member of Phule's organization and instead became a member of the Theosophical Society.

Krishnarao Arjun Keluskar, who was a member of the Mumbai SS had written positively of Krishna and the latter's ethics of the ''Bhagavad Gita'', as well as of Shivaji, Sant Tukaram, Gautam Buddha, and Govind Janardan Borkar (alias Shri Gajananaswami.) It was he who first influenced Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar with [[Bauddh Dharm]]. (Ambedkar had later converted to the dharm, but that's an Arya dharma, so is not damaging to Sanatan society or Indian society like converting to Islam would be.)

;Shahu forming his own Satyashodhak Samaj focused on upliftment (free of anti-Brahman distractions)
As a result of the Satyashodhak Samaj of Pune being too antagonistic of Brahmans, Shahu had instead founded his own branch in 1911 — Shri Shahu Satyashodhak Samaj. By an order, Shahu replaced the Brahman priests in the Patgaon Sansthan (Mauni Maharaj Math[https://durgbharari.in/maunibaba-patgaon/]) and Jyotiba Devasthan[https://shreejyotiba.com/?lang=E][https://maharashtratourism.gov.in/temple/jyotiba/] with Maratha priests. Bhaskarrao Jadhav and Anna Babaji Latthe were leaders of Shahu's Kolhapur Satyashodhak Samaj. Whereas Phule mostly only wrote positively of Shiva and local-born gods, Jadhav in his ''Marathas and their Religion'' wrote positively about Krishna and the ''Bhagavad Gita''. He further worked with Shahu to aid Arya Samaj in its activities and goals (i.e., train non-Brahmans to become priests too.) Noteworthy is that Latthe, who worked personally with Shahu Maharaj, was its first VP and that he worked to dismantle priestly ([[Jain Dharm|Jain priests]], not usually Brahmans) intermediation within the Jain clergy. (He was a big-time activist for general upliftment and for reform within the Jain community (i.e., wrote ''Jain Dharmacha Parichay''.)

Latthe founded the Dakshin Bharat Jain Sabha[https://dbjainsabha.com/], of which Dr. Bhaurao Patil (from a Jain family) became a member and through he wasn't a member of any SS branch, he did sometimes participate in its activities and himself founded the Rayat Shikshan Sansthan[https://rayatshikshan.edu/], which educated students in a multitude of topics, including Sanskrit. Patil (alias 'Karmvir Anna') was deeply influenced by Mahatma Gandhi and Vitthal Ramji Shinde.

;Shahu distancing himself formally from Satyashodhak Samaj
The SS had earned a bad reputation in Maharashtra with the general public, particularly for the outright anti-Brahman vitriol spewed in the SS's publications and events. Because the goal of Shahu and true reformers was to achieve a harmonious society with all people cooperating, it would not make sense to support an organization that's known for abusing persons (i.e., Brahmans) specifically over their caste identity.

In 1921, Shahu made a public statement in a Baroda newspaper that even though he granted significant support to the non-Brahman movement and introduced measures to eliminate Brahman dominance, he had never been affiliated with Phule's SS, and that he always accepted [[Rta and Spiritual Authority#Rishis|Vedic ritual authority]].

;Granting, accommodating, and expanding Arya Samaj
Shahu attended Arya Samaj sessions like the one at Navsari in 1918 and another at Bhavnagar in 1920<ref>P. 6. ''People's Raj Volume 30'' (1974) By Directorate-General of Information and Public Relations </ref>. He provided funding for Gurukul Boarding House to be built at Kerle, wherein large buildings and well-irrigated lands were granted to the Arya Samaj. Later, the Rajaram Anathalaya orphanage was added to this grant. He also brought educational institutions in his domain under the leadership of Arya Pratinidhi Sabha. Rajaram College's administration was also granted to the Arya Samaj.

;Spiritual Authority as Rajarshi
Shahu Maharaj, being a devout Sanatan wanted to proclaim the rights that warriors of history had and so participated in important ceremonies and worked with priests (i.e., Brahmans) to achieve the rights to learn and perform Vedic ceremonies. He established the Vedokta Committee for Marathas to be able to perform Vedic rites without requiring priests. In 1905, the Karveer Peeth's (or Kolhapur Math's) Shankaracharya declared full rights of Vedokta to Chhatrapati Shahu.

Tatyarao Joshirao was appointed by Shahu Maharaj as new royal purohit, replacing the Rajopadhye (creator of the infamous 'Vedokta Controversy'), who denied the Maharaj to perform Vedic rites. Joshirao was from a family that had traditional ownership of the historic Binkhambi Ganapati Mandir in Kolhapur.

Rajaram Shastri (alias 'Bhagavata'), a Brahman scholar, linguist, and researcher, openly challenged the religious orthodoxy, arguing from scripture that Shahu Maharaj had full rights to the Vedas. Vishnu Topkhane was another Brahman who greatly helped the Chhatrapati with his progressive reforms. Topkhane the educationalist helped the latter establish the Vidyapeeth High School near the Shri Karveer Niwasini Ambabai Mahalakshmi Temple. Freedom fighter Gokhale was someone who worked with Shahu. When the Vedokta Controversy broke out and the conservative press attacked the Maharaja, Gokhale privately and publicly validated Shahu Maharaj's stance, recognizing that social reform was a prerequisite for true political freedom. Ranade, though passed away before much Shahu's reforms began, was admired by the latter for his progressive ideals and actions.

Chhatrapati Shahu founded the Satyashodhak School for spiritual training in 1913, in which seminarians (predominantly from castes such as Marathas, Mahars, and Chambhars) were taught to recite and preach the poems (i.e., abhangs of Tukaram) of sants. He also created the Shivaji Vedic School (aliases 'Shahu Vedic School', 'Shahu Vedic Pathshala', 'Shri Shahu Vaidik Vidyalay') in 1920 and had invited scholars from Varanasi (spiritual capital of Sanatan Dharm) to ensure the highest standard of scriptural and linguistic training. The school trained seminarians (of all castes) to learn Sanskrit and become priests and conduct ceremonies. He further established and financed the office of the Kshatra Jagadguru (''Warrior Universal Teacher''), a pontiff seat open to anyone of any caste. The first Kshatra Jagadguru was Sadashivrao Lakshmanrao Sankpal Patil Benadikar, was an accomplished Sanskrit scholar who received his formal higher education at Rajaram College in Kolhapur. The Kshatra Jagadguru Peeth was the pontiff's seat at Patgaon (in the Bhudargad region of Kolhapur.) Patgaon was chosen because it was the historic site of the Mauni Maharaj Math, a highly respected spiritual center that had historically blessed Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj[https://pilgrimdata.in/temple/mouni-maharaj-math-temple-patgaon-bhudargarh-dist-kolhapur/]. The Kshatra Jagadguru had the Shri Sadashivrao Patil Shikshan Sanstha educationalist association named after him, and it runs schools[https://www.mwssm.org/][https://sspiop.com/] in Maharashtra still. Other organizations too use his name for schools like Sadashivrao Mandlik Mahavidyalaya (Kolhapur) of the ⁠Jay Shivray Education Society.

===Successive associations===
From Hindu-based institutions like sociopolitical organizations and schools came a number of philanthropic associations. Even other humanitarian associations that were not established by Hindu activists, were established by their influence. For example, Krishna Gopal Gokhale had participated in many sessions of the Prarthana Samaj as he was Ranade's pupil, and he later joined the Deccan Education Society, which he left to establish the Servants of India Society. Narayan Malhar Joshi was a member of Gokhale's group and later formed his own Social Service League[https://socialserviceleague.org.in/]. Hriday Nath Kunzru too was part of Gokhale's group and left to establish the Seva Samiti.

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Organization
! Demographic of Focus
! Region(s)
! Founder
! Founder's Affiliation(s)
! Achievement
|-
|Anath Balikashram Society
|Widows
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Andhra Mahila Sabha
|Females
|Andhra Pradesh
|Durgabai Deshmukh
|
|
|-
|Bharat Stree Mahamandal
|Females
|Bengal, Bihar, Punjab, Sindh, U.P.
|Sarala Devi Chaudhurani
|Arya Samaji, Brahmo Samaji, accepted Bijoy Krishna Chattopadhyaya as her guru
|
|-
|Buddhi Vardhak Sabha
|General public
|Gujarat
|Narmadashankar Labheshankar Dave
|
|Exposed people in positions of power that abused their privileges, build schools for girls
|-
|Central Social Welfare Board
|Females and children
|
|Dr. Durgabai Deshmukh
|
|
|-
|Hindu Widow Marriage Association
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Hindustani Seva Dal
|Females
|Every province
|Dr. Narayan Subbarao Hardikar
|
|Established the Hindustani Seva Mandal (later became Rashtriya Seva Dal) in 1923, established the Arya Bala Sabha, taught the Gita during his student days in Kolkata, was a fan of Lokmanya Tilak, and had enthusiastically worked with Lala Rai
|-
|Indian Reform Association
|Females
|West Bengal
|Keshub Chandra Sen
|
|Brahmo Samaji, founded ''Sulabh Samachar'' as weekly newspaper of group
|-
|Kasthurbha Gandhi Kanya Gurukulam[http://www.kgkgurukulam.org/]
|Girls
|Tamil Nadu (Vedaranyam)
|Vedaratnam Pillai
|
|Involved in temple-based philanthropy and donated to Sri Ramakrishna Mission too
|-
|Lakshmi Ashram
|Females
|Uttarakhand
|Sarla Behn
|
|Established individual Mahila Mandals throughout Uttarakhand and promoted important skills as well as ecological awareness
|-
|Lokahitawadi Mandal
|General public
|Maharashtra
|Vishnu Vaman Shirwadkar
|
|Wrote about Hindu themes, including persons from scriptures and about Shivaji poetically, philosophically, and nationally
|-
|Maharshi Karve Stree Shikshan Samstha
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Mahila Vidyalaya (Pune)
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Nishkam Karma Math
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Poona Seva Sadan
|Females
|Maharashtra (at its peak, included M.P. and T.N.)
|Ramabai Ranade
|
|
|-
|Samata Sangh
|General public
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|Self Employed Women's Association (SEWA)
|Females
|18 states
|Ela Bhatt
|Gandhian Textile Labour Association
|Established: own bank (Shri Mahila Sewa Sahakari Bank, or 'SEWA Cooperative Bank'), SEWA Mahila Housing Trust
|-
|Servants of the People Society
|Females
|Kerala, Maharashtra, M.P., Odisha T.N., Uttarakhand U.P.
|
|
|
|-
|Shraddhanand Ashram[https://shraddhanandmahilashram.org] (alias Hindu Women's Welfare Society)
|Females and boys
|Maharashtra (Mumbai)
|Swami Shraddhanand
|
|Has cared for thousands of destitute women and orphans, and educated them and provided skills development, as well as fostered personal development
|-
|Stree Hitaishini Mandali
|Females
|Andhra Pradesh
|Kanuparti Varalakshmamma
|
|Educated many females
|-
|Veda Samaj
|General public
|Tamil Nadu
|Chembeti Sridharalu Naidu
|
|It advanced female literacy through local activism, campaigned against child marriages, promoted widow remarriage and windows' rehabilitation into being societal contributing members
|-
|Widow Marriage Association
|Females
|Maharashtra
|Dhondo Keshav Karve
|Educated at BHU
|
|-
|}

==Inspiration to Madras Presidency==
[[image:M.C. Rajah.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Mylai Chinna Thambi Pillai Rajah (the real 'Periyar'.)]]
While the Arya Samaj, Brahmo Samaj, Prarthana Samaj, and a host of other Hindu-based humanitarian and sociopolitical institutions existed in the-then Madras Presidency of southern India, they inspired local organizations as well. Shahu Maharaj had friends in the-then Justice Party (JP, est. 1916), like Arcot Ramasamy Mudaliar and Panaganti Ramarayaningar. While some ethnic groups, like certain castes even falsely supported the idea of an 'Aryan Invasion Theory' and themselves (Dravidian-languages speakers) as indigenous, they still appreciated Hinduism and did not consider it alien.

The biggest uplifter of the party was M.C. Rajah, who had the highest influence upon the policies that improved the lives of the Dalits in Madras Presidency. The party itself was founded primarily by 3 individuals — Sir Pitti Theagaraya Chetty (political founder who built the political machine), Dr. Taravath Madhavan Nair (ideological co-founder), and Dr. Chintadripet Natesa Mudaliar (cultural/grassroots mobilizer who helped shape cultural legitimacy.) Dr. Nair had said that Hindu society had originally possessed broader equality before caste dominance hardened it. Chetty occasionally used dharm-based ethical framing. He is consistently described as arguing that governance must align with "''dharma and justice''". The Dr. Mudaliar was a devout Shaiva that infused into the party Shaivism as a cultural identity for southerners.
[[image:P.T. Rajan.jpg|right|thumb|200px|P.T. Rajan (centre-right, wearing glasses next to priest), touring with the idol of [[Ayyappan|Ayyappa]] he had made at Swamimalai Temple[https://swamimalaiswaminathar.hrce.tn.gov.in/] and it was placed in the Sabarimala Temple[https://www.sabarimalauptodate.in/].]]
An ideologue of influence to the JP and Self-Respect Movement was Maraimalai Adigal, a Shaiv preacher and writer, who claimed that both the JP and Self-Respect Movement were from his teachings and that militant atheist Erode Venkatappa Ramasami Naicker had hijacked them. JP founder Dr. Nair died in 1919 and Chetty in 1925, so had no interaction Naicker. Ponnambala Thiaga Rajan was an active party member and disagreed with Naicker's ideology, so joined Congress-aligned politics. Mudaliar died in 1935 around the time Naicker entered the JP. Naicker was also a prejudiced castist that criticized but did not contribute to build schools and shelters for women and children, as Rajah[https://www.news18.com/opinion/opinion-m-c-rajah-the-forgotten-hindu-mahasabha-dalit-8937192.html][https://vskbharat.com/m-c-rajah-a-staunch-hindu-leader/?lang=en][https://thecommunemag.com/m-c-rajah-the-hindu-mahasabha-dalit/], a practicing Hindu of the party did. Rajah even once formed a political alliance with the Hindu Mahasabha, was the contributor. Before Rajah, the party's caste disparity was mainly about civil service occupations and education access for underprivileged castes. Rajah was recommended by Ambedkar to convert but Rajah replied there's no religion better than Hinduism.<ref>P. 92 ''The Political Evolution of Muslims in Tamilnadu and Madras, 1930-1947'' By J.B. Prashant More (1997) </ref><ref> In a public meeting of the All India Adi Dravida Mahajana Sabha in Nungambakkam, Chennai he said, "''The president (of this meeting) mentioned that no other community other than us has more right to be called Hindus. Conversion will not bring about any good. By saying so, I am not undermining or wishing away the oppression and ills we have faced. We need to fight for our rights. The speed at which reforms are happening might be slow. But think about our current situation and how much it has improved. I beseech you to please abandon any move that will weaken us. I request the government to bring about the Untouchability Abolition Bill and pass it quickly. The Harijans are proud Hindus. That is the only reason why even after years of oppression by higher castes and a barrage of proselytization efforts by other religions hasn't changed their resolve being Hindus.''" P. 123 ''Evolution of Hindu Nationalism - Icons of HMS, RSS & BJS'' By Sankara Narayanan T (2025)</ref> Adigal's writings had a profound impact on Subramania Ramanathan, the founder of the Self-Respect Movement, and on the Naicker but the latter only wanted pro-Tamil and castist societal changes, not promotion of Shaivism. Naicker would later break away from the party and form his own Dravidar Kazhagam, a title he copied from Adigal's Shaiv association (Podhunilak Kazhagam.) (His own pupil, Conjeevaram Natarajan Annadurai, would eventually disown him after he married his own adopted daughter, and Annadurai would leave his group.)
[[image:Alamelu.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Alamelu Mangai Thayarammal, a Brahmo Samaji, was co-founder of the party among 29 others (all men.)]]
The Hindu sentiment was definitely present in the JP. Many left after Naicker's hijacking. Important members bothered by Naicker's rhetoric apart from Rajan were Ananda Prasad Patro, Arunachalam Thamaraiselvam Panneerselvam, Muthiah Annamalai Chettiar, Ramasamy Kandasamy Shanmukham Chetty, and Subbarayalu Kumaraswami Reddiar. Chettiar even personally regularly donated to temple renovations, endowing temple lands or festivals, supporting pilgrimage facilities, and Hindu-managed schools. Rajan, the last leader of the JP, was the head-of-government of the Presidency, and was a big devotee a [[Ayyappan|Swami Ayyappa]]. Rajan even solemnized a marriage of a German couple converted to Hinduism in Coimbatore (Oct 31, 1962.) He further discouraged conversion of Dalits from Hinduism to another religion<ref>"''If by mass conversion you expect to achieve your object, you will be disappointed, because of a mere change of religion it will not give you all that you want.''" 
P. 147 ''Sir P. T. Rajan's Eighty Second Birthday Souvenir, 1973'' By P.T. Rajan and K. Paramasivam</ref> while encouraging caste-Hindus to better treat Dalits. His family had deep ties to the Meenakshi Amman Temple[https://maduraimeenakshi.hrce.tn.gov.in/] in Madurai, with his son (Palanivel Rajan), serving as a minister, and his daughter-in-law (Rukmani), serving as the first female chairperson of the temple's board of trustees. His predecessor Ramakrishna Ranga Rao denied that the JP was anti-Hindu and declared that it aimed to purify Hindu society from "''absurdities''" and return "''Hinduism greater and more glorious than it was in the past...''"<ref>"''As I understand it, the Self-Respect movement stands for certain great ideals to make Hinduism greater and more glorious than it was in the past, to rid it of all those absurdities which are the accretions of an unfortunate era of the past, and unite us in a solid federation so that all those who profess to follow the Hindu faith may feel that they are brethren following one of the most ancient and glorious religions of the world. No longer should the foreigner point his finger of scorn at this or that particular phase of Hinduism which belies its cosmopolitan tendency by inflicting personal hardship on classes or communities. If a few youths in their exuberant enthusiasm have been carried away beyond the bounds of Hinduism it will not do to fight shy of the new movements, but political wisdom and sagacity lie in taking them into our fold and guiding them aright along the paths of duty and rectitude.''" 
P. 289 ''The Indian Annual Register An Annual Digest of Public Affairs of India Recording the Nation's Activities Each Year in Matters Political, Economic, Industrial, Educational, Social, Etc · Volume 2'' By Nipendra Nath Mitra (1934)</ref> Alamelu Mangai Thayarammal, conferred 'Pandithai' title by Saiva Sabha in Palamcottah, was a JP co-founder [with 29 co-founders being men] who was a Brahmo Samaji, meaning the influence of the Hindu-based organizations wasn't insignificant. Paramasivan Subbarayan Gounder, while not technically a JP member, worked with it closely, and both he and his women's rights activist wife Kailash Radhabai Kulmud were Brahmos. It is also noteworthy that [[Ascetics|ascetic]] Swamiyar Kaivalyar who supported the party without being a member wrote pro-Shaiv material. Cattamanchi Ramalinga Reddy, an ex-member who formed his own party in 1923 was a close friend of Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, and he himself engaged with Hindu texts on a literary artistic level. As Hinduism isn't a scripture-dependent religion, some JP members like A.R. Mudaliar heavily criticized certain scriptures but were devout Hindus ([[Vaiśnava|Vaishnav]] in his case.) And while orthodox opposition was present, the majority of Indians, including religious leaders, supported reforms, like when Shankaracharya of Kanchi[https://www.kamakoti.org/] supported the "Hindu Religious Endowments Bill" (1921) even while voicing some concerns in within. Mentionable is that [[Shatata-Unnati#Female upliftment|Dr. Muthulakshmi Reddy]] wasn't part of the JP but it still nominated her in 1926 for the Madras Legislative Council to bring about positive changes.

==Impactful legacy==
The currents resulting from electrifying the establishments in the colonial era by activists, especially Bhave, Gandhi, Ramakrishna, Tagore, and Vivekanand, are still being felt. Humanitarians worldwide in the colonial era recognized those individuals in particular. Albert Schweitzer of France praised Tagore, Howard Thurman and Thomas Merton spoke positively about Sanatan spirituality in general, and Romain Rolland commended Ramakrishna and Vivekanand. Even international figures who changed the world scientifically and social scientifically recognized, like Albert Einstein revering Tagore and his Upanishadic-style monism, and Ernst Friedrich Schumacher exalting both Bhave and Tagore. (Schumacher was influenced by Buddhism as well, upon visiting Burma, and he founded 'Buddhist Economics'.)

And because [[Ārya Samudāy|Arya dharmas]], focus on the rights of all creatures, including animals, activists struggling to improve [[Animal rights#Influence upon Westerners|animals' lives too were impacted]] by Sanatan, Jain, and Bauddh thoughts on the topic.

One thing that Arya dharmas, particularly Sanatan Dharm, has been able to do is accommodate many viewpoints [provided that they converge at its foundation.] For example, even atheists like M.N. Roy have praised philosophical systems, such as Sankhya, Nyaya, and Vaishesik darshans believe they appreciate that their cosmologies delve into the natural world and don't treat it as maya. Likewise, Nobel Prize-winning physicist Erwin Schrödinger[https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1933/schrodinger/biographical/] used Hindu metaphysics to make sense of the bizarre subatomic behaviors discovered in quantum mechanics. Norwegian philosopher Arne Næss, heavily influenced by Gandhi, who founded the "Deep Ecology" movement in the 1970s, pointed directly to Sanatan ethics (mainly ahimsa) to argue against human destruction of the Earth. Leo Tolstoy, who refused to accept the Nobel[https://www.nobelprize.org/ceremonies/proclamation-sent-to-leo-tolstoy-after-the-1901-years-presentation-of-nobel-prizes/], had based much of his humanistic philosophies of anarcho-pacifism and anti-colonialism on the ''[[Thirukkural]]'' and Gandhism.

==Related articles==
*[[Women]]
*[[Women as Rishikas in the Vedas]]
*[[Worship of God as Mother]]

==External resources==
*[https://www.ijhsss.com/files/08.-ABHISEK-KARMAKAR_6813z4a4.pdf "Changing status of women in Indian politics (1917-1947): the role of civil society"], P. 42-45 ''International Journal of Humanities & Social Science Studies'' Volume-I, Issue-II (September 2014) By Abhisek Karmakar
*[https://www.besanthill.org/about/history-heritage/annie-besant/ Besant Hill School of Happy Valley in Ojai, California]
*[https://www.anniebesant.org Annie Besant Women's College in Hyderabad, Telangana]
*[https://www.aryasabha.mu/cultural-programme-arya-mahila-mandal-in-the-context-of-the-200th-birth-anniversary-of-swami-dayananda-saraswati/ Arya Mahila Mandal (Mauritius)]
*[https://www.thearyasamaj.org/ammkarolbagh Arya Mahila Mandal Karol Bagh]
*[https://vatikashaktipeeth.com/seven-agitations/women-awakening.html Vatika Shakti Peeth]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category: History]]
[[Category: Economics]]
[[Category: Societal altruism]]

Theology

2026-07-02T05:44:21Z

Himanshu Bhatt: /* References to 3 aspects of God */

{{Author|Himanshu Bhatt}}
[[Image:Vishnu making universes.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Vishnu]] depicted as God (in [[Vaiśnava|Vaiśnava]] sectarian context) as making and ending universes while being within them, demonstrating panentheism.]]
[[Image:Gayatri Ma.jpg|thumb|250px|The monotheistic prayer Gayatri Mantra personified as God, demonstrating [[monotheism]] in itself.
 
The [[mantra]] demonstrates henotheism when it is called Sarva-[[devata]] Svarupini ("''Universal Form of All Deities''.")]]
<blockquote>
“The Hindu religion is the only one of the world’s great faiths dedicated to the idea that the Cosmos itself undergoes an immense, indeed an infinite, number of deaths and rebirths. It is the only religion in which the time scales correspond to those of modern scientific [[cosmology]]. Its cycles run from our ordinary day and night to a day and night of Brahma, 8.64 billion years long. Longer than the age of the Earth or the Sun and about half the time since the Big Bang.” - Carl Sagan, ''Cosmos''
</blockquote>
Panentheism is the first and foremost theology of the Sanatan Dharm while henotheism and monotheism are secondary but they are all in conformity with each other. This is because while recognizing there is only One Supreme Being above all ([[Brahm]] or [[God]]), the immanence and transcendence of It is a doctrine that goes beyond the generic monotheism preached by other religions. While accepting there is One God above all, it does not enforce worshiping only The One. So it is monotheistic because it believes there is God, but also henotheistic because others worshipping It in another form is accepted as still worshiping the One God. Worship as polytheism (i.e., praying to ancestors) is acceptable being it does not reject The One but venerates others as well. Once a human attains Moksh, it is united with Brahm or Parmatma. Brahm is not confined to space and so is everywhere, including within ourselves. This principle is Ishavasyam. Individuals on the other hand are also connected to all that exists, and this is the [[Environmentalism#Aikatmyam|principle of aikatmyam]]. Because of this omnipresence, the central Hindu theology is panentheism. It is monotheist too because there is just one God above all other spirits. It is henotheist because, while Brahm is The Supreme, other beings worthy of worship exist, which may be pious humans or angels ([[Devatā|demi-gods]].) Hindu theology is often aptly termed monistic theism and even open monotheism by some scholars, but is not purely polytheistic as outsiders perceive it to be. [[Bhakti Marga|Worship (Bhakti Yoga]]) is one of the three yogas to attain Moksh.<ref>The other two are [[Gyāna Mārga|Gyāna Yoga]] and [[Karma Mārga|Karma Yoga]].</ref> Monotheism is known in [[Overview Of Scriptures|Hindu scriptures]] as ekantikvad, and some sects practice it strictly, such as the [[Arya]] Samaj, Mahima, and certain [[Śaiva]] (i.e., Viraśaiva, Alakhgir) and the Vaiśnava (i.e., Pushtimarga, Ekasarana) sampradays.

Hinduism has often been considered to be polytheistic because of one leading denomination, Smartism, which follows the [[Advaita]] philosophy of absolute monism, and includes worship of all kinds of personal forms of God. Absolute monists see one unity with all personal forms of God as different aspects of one Supreme Spirit, like a single beam of light separated into colors by a prism. Thus Smartas consider all personal forms of God as equal including Devi, Vishnu, Śiva, Ganesh and Skanda but generally limit the recognized forms to be six. Other denominations of Hinduism don't adhere to the Smarta viewpoint, but are quite unlike Western perceptions of monotheism. Additionally, like Judeo-Christian traditions which believe in angels, Hindus also believe in other less powerful entities, such as [[deva]]s.<ref name = hop1>{{cite book |title=THE RELIGIONS OF INDIA|author=Edward Washburn Hopkins|url=http://books.google.com/?id=Dj33XvXqJO8C |publisher= Jr. Ginn & Co |pages=204 |year= 1896 |editor=Morris Jastrow, |isbn=978-1-60303-143-1}}</ref>

Sometimes the orthodox members of religions interpret religions with a puritan mindset. An example is that many Christians believe any form of worship not including Jesus as being 'idol worship', while Muslims consider idol worship specifically practicing worship through statues but revering the black stone at the Kaaba and circumambulating Kaaba as not idolatry. [Within the Hindu community too prejudices exist among certain people but the general belief is that 'all religions lead to God'.] This leads to religions discrediting other religions. It is resulted in Hinduism being classified as 'pagan cults' and/or a 'polytheistic religion with no heaven'. The underlying principle of the divine is that it has a Supreme Soul (literally 'Parmatma'), making Hinduism monotheistic in belief. Because Hindus believe that Parmatma possesses the universe, which It also transcends, Hinduism believes in panentheism. And because of the principles 'all religions lead to God' and 'All God is One', and that God can be worshiped in those various ways in various forms, Hinduism believes in henotheism.

Contemporary Hinduism can be categorized into four major sects:
# [[Vaiśnava|Vaiśnavism]]
# [[Śaiva|Śaivism]]
# [[Śākta|Śaktism]]
# Smartism
Vaiśnavism, Śaivism, and Śaktism [[worship]] [[Narayan]], [[Śiva]] and [[Devi]] - the Divine Mother as the Supreme Being respectively or considering all [[Hindu]] [[deities]] as aspects of the Supreme Being or Brahm.<ref>See [[Advaita]], or impersonalism.</ref> Other minor sects such as [[Ganapatya]] and [[Surya|Saura]] focus on [[Ganesha|Ganesh]] and [[Surya]] as the Supreme.

==Nature of God==
:''See also: [[God#Nature of God|Nature of God]]'' [[Image:Durga Ma.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Durga|Durga Ma]] as depicted as God (in [[Shakta]] sectarian context), the God of gods, demonstrating henotheism.]]
[[Image:God in all beings.jpg|thumb|250px|God is considered [[Antaryamin]] (Inner Dweller) or [[Caitya-purusa|Chaitya Purush]] (Inner Being.) While God is omnipresent in inanimate objects too, it is Its presence within living beings that enables a relationship between humans and It, and for humans to attain [[Moksha|Moksh]]. (This is an image of God in [[Vaiśnava]] context.)]]
The One Above All is called Brahm and Parmatma in Sanatan Dharm. This [[acintya|Supreme Being is beyond imagination]] and experience, and as such, transcends the universe. The [[Darshana|darshanas (metaphysical worldviews)]] discuss this universe being prakriti which releases from either Brahm Itself or from human under the influence of ignorance (i.e., [[Maya Panchakam|Maya]].) Brahm is also believed by most Hindus to incarnate in various avataras, which may be to answer a prayer of a devotee, [[test]] a human, or promote spirituality (i.e., Krishna.)

Brahm or God Almighty is spoken of as being ''alaukika'' ("''beyond this world''.") This world is seen as prakriti (nature) which God created. This nature of this world is such that karmas cause beings to be possessed with defilements. God is tri-guṇatit, meaning It is transcendental to the modes of material nature.

God is:
#Sarvavyapin (omnipresent)
#Sarvajna (omniscient)
#Sarvaśaktiman (omnipotent)
#Akal (without beginning, and forever)
#Tri-gunatit (transcendent of the 3 modes of material nature)
The sarvavyapin aspect of God is such that it pervades everything, both material and spiritual, and is also called ''Ishavasyam'' ("''God present in all.''") Sarvajna means to know all, and this is an aspect often highlighted when speaking of Moksh, because salvation means Brahmgyana ("''to know Brahm''") or to acquire Brahmvidya. Sarvaśaktiman means the power of Brahm is such that there is nothing it cannot do, and no other power is greater. ''Akal'' means "''timeless''" and refers to the self-existent state (''swayambhu'') of God, and that it will exist forever. Tri-gunatit means to be transcendent of this material universe which is imperfect.

===Dualistic Energies of God===
This is an understanding of Brahm based on its energies in this universe. While Brahm is the Supreme above all, the God Almighty, it is said to apply two forms of energies in this world. This means that the energy which surrounds us in this material realm is different from that of the spiritual world (Moksh), as is the energy which is with our souls. This is spoken of in different sects and [[Darshana|darshans]]. For example, in the Śaiva sect, Śiva is said to be Brahm while his other half is Prakriti (the divine energy possessing this world.) In the [[Samkhya Yoga]] darshan too, Brahm (Purusha) has a counterpart referred to as Prakriti, which is the nature that surrounds us in this reality. In the ''Bhagvad Gita'' too, Krishna says that Brahm is the total energy while the energy here in this reality he calls ''Parmatma''. In Vaiśnavism, this is notion of the Gita is elaborated wherein the energy of Brahm present in this universe is Mahamaya (or hiraṇmaya-[[mahat]]-[[tattva]]), whereas in the spiritual one it is Yogamaya (or jivan śakti.) The material energy is impacted by the three modes of material nature whereas spiritual energy is not, which is why prakriti is eternal and mutable (parimaminitya), whereas Yogamaya is eternal and immutable (parinamnitya.) The total energy of Brahm is called swarup śakti.

Personification of God's two energies has been presented in some instances as well. In Śaiva context, Śiva represents the spiritual energy and Śakti Ma represents the material energy. In Vaiśnavism too, Brahm is Krishna or Narayan and his energy (both spiritual and material) is a female, usually portrayed as Vishnu's wife, Śri (''Mantramayi Kriya Śakti''.)

====References to 3 aspects of God====
[[Image:Trimurti.jpg|thumb|250px|God represented in a syncretist context as [[Trimurti]] ("''Triune God''"), showing [[Brahmā]], [[Vishnu]], and [[Mahesh]] as God in Its 3 aspects.]]
Because the energies in the universe have normally been considered to be dualistic, they, together with God's total energy in the spiritual real, would be 3 aspects of God. From this logic, many Hindu thinkers have believed there are 3 aspects of God we can come to the conclusion of. Various scriptures have written on the One Supreme Lord being characterized of 3 aspects, in Hinduism and in the [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]]. In a conversation mentioned in the ''Brihadaranyaka [[Upanishad|Upaniṣad]]''<Ref> Chapter 3, Part 9 of ''Brihadaranyaka Upaniṣad'' </ref> between [[Yajnavalkya]] and Vidaghdha, the latter asks how many Devas (gods) there are, to which the former replies 33, but Vidaghdha keeps asking, and before coming to the answer of a single 1 God, he had said there are 3 gods [which can be taken to mean that single God has 3 aspects.] No other story legitimizes 3 aspects of Brahm more than the one of the ''[[Rig Veda]]'' wherein Ka (an epithet of the unseen presence or Parabrahm) or Apo (primordial waters) produced the universal womb Hiranyagarbha (Prajapati) with Prajapati within the womb having come into being the "one divine spirit", and Agni (souls)[https://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10121.htm]

Parallel to the 3 aspects of Brahm is the the [[Vaiśnava#Pāñcharātra Āgama|Pāñchrātra]], which consists of 5 venerable forms of Narayan (para, vyuha, vibhava, [[arca]], and antaryamin), the 3 aspects which as para, vyuha, and antaryamin fall within the same categories as the classifications of Brahm do in many other analyses. The vibhava aspect of God is basically formed from one or 2 of the other aspects (i.e., avatara of vyuha and consist of antaryamin.) Arca refers to representative icons of God which are venerated, which are created by matter. In this analysis, the Pāñchrātra holds consistent with the triune characterization of God. Some schools of Śaivism too break down the aspects of God into 3, like Śiva being Parabrahm, Śakti being Aparabrahm, and Yamala being Tapas or Agni. The last is called Tapas or Agni normally, as it is imperishable and is the same energy as the soul (Yogamaya.) That is why it is also called Apām Napāt (''Child of Apo''.)

The "Ka Sukta" (aliases "Hiranyagarbha Sukta", "Prajapati Sukta") of the ''Rig Veda'' is one the most popular cosmogonies in the Arya dharmas. What has been overlooked are the triple aspects detailed within the hymn. In it, Apo (God as 'primordial waters'), which "''possesses generational fire''" (Agni), incubates the Hiranyagarbha (womb containing Prajapati, "''born Only-Lord of all created beings''"). In other words, it ambiguously states Apo is God in the highest form (i.e., Parabrahm), Prajapati this material universe's Aparabrahm, and Agni the life-giving spark within all creatures. (This can be likened to the Pāñchrātrik para, vyuha, and antaryamin.) The hymn goes further to state that [[Devatā#Divine Council|the Devanam or ''people who've taken the title of God'']] (i.e., Devtas on the Divine Council of 33) return to God, meaning that the Devtas are representatives of God on Earth but they are none of the 3 aspects of God and aren't of equal status to God either.

As the material energy is Mahamaya and spiritual (superior) energy is Yogamaya, these energies can also help break down the Vak (cosmic speech.) The ''Rig Veda'' itself declares, "''Vak resides in four quarters (pada). The wise Brahmins who possess insight know them all. Three quarters are hidden in secret and do not stir; human beings speak only the fourth quarter.''"<ref>''Rig Veda'' 1.164.45</ref> The first 3 aspects of Vak itself—para, pashyanti, and madhyama—are spiritual, while the last (Vaikhari) is material energy. Therefore, it can be presumed that this together with synthesizing the commonalities in the creation myths, that the Aparabrahm or Universe is the lowest form of Vak.

Below is a table summarizing and forming the connections between the trinity stated in various texts or beliefs.
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Derivation
! Heavenly Being
! All-Pervasive Being in Universe
! Inner Being
|-
!Vishwakarma Sukta (''Rig Veda'')
|Vishwakarma/Apo (Primordial Waters)/Garbha/Dhātar/Vidhātar/Sacrificial Seer<ref>ṛṣirhotā</ref>/Ascetic Father<ref>nyasīdatpitā</ref>/One Dev<ref>deva ekaḥ</ref>/Lord of Speech<ref>vācas patiṃ</ref>/One, Only One<ref>para ekamāhuḥ</ref>
|Universe
|
|-
!Ka Sukta (''Rig Veda'')
|Apo
|Hiranyagarbha (Prajapati)/Universe
|Agni
|-
!Vak Sukta (''Rig Veda'')
|Apsu (Primordial Waters<ref>Yonirapsvantaḥ</ref>)
|Universe
|Vak
|-
!Nasadiya Sukta (''Rig Veda'')
|Tad Ekam (That One)
|Sat (The Existent/Manifestation)/Universe
|Asat (The Non-Existent/Potentiality)
|-
!Aghamarṣaṇa Sukta (''Rig Veda'')
|Dhātar
|Sat (The Existent/Manifestation)/Ṛta (Cosmic Order) and Satya (Cosmic Truth)
|Tapas (Cosmic Heat)
|-
!Devāgāna Sukta (''Rig Veda'')
|Asur Ek/Brahmaṇaspati/Dev Ek
|Sat (The Existent/Manifestation)
|Vak
|-
!Purush Sukta (''Rig Veda'')
|Adhi Purush
|Virāj/Universe
|Vak/Purush (other souls)
|-
!''Bhagavad Gita''<ref> “''O best of the embodied souls, the physical manifestation that is constantly changing is called adhibhūta; the universal form of God, which presides over the celestial gods in this creation, is called adhidaiva; I, who dwell in the heart of every living being, am called Adhiyajña, or the Lord of all sacrifices.''” - [https://www.holy-bhagavad-gita.org/chapter/8/verse/4 ''Bhagvad Gita'' 8.4] </ref>
|Parabrahm
|Aparabrahm
|Parmatma<Ref> “''Within the body also resides the Supreme Lord. He is said to be the Witness, the Permitter, the Supporter, Transcendental Enjoyer, the ultimate Controller, and the Paramātmā (Supreme Soul).''” - [https://www.holy-bhagavad-gita.org/chapter/13/verse/23 ''Bhagvad Gita'' 13.23] </ref>
|-
!''Bhagavat Purana''
|Narayan
|Mahamaya
|Yogamaya
|-
!''Isha Upaniṣad'' 6-7
|Uttam [Purush]
|Kshar
|Akshar
|-
!''Katha Upaniṣad'' (1.3.10–11)
|Purush
|Avyaktam
|Mahat (Mahan [[Atma]])
|-
!''Mahānārāyan Upaniṣad'' 24
|Tvashtā
| -
| -
|-
!''Maitrāyaṇīya Upaniṣad''
|Brahmā
|Vishnu
|Mahesh
|-
!''Sams'aya-taducchedavādah''
|Manomaya Purush ([[Avyaya]])
|Vangmaya (Kshar)
|Pranamaya Purush (Akshar)
|-
!''Sasongko Jati''
|Principle of Lord<ref>Suksma Kawekas</ref>
|Director of Life<ref>Suksma Sejati</ref>
|Lord of Life<ref>Roh Suci</ref>
|-
!''Sāttvat Saṃhitā''
|Para
|Vyuha
|Antaryamin
|-
!''Swaminarayan Bhashyam'' / ''Vachanamrut''
|Parabrahm
|Aparabrahm
|Aksharbrahm
|-
!''Vijñāna Bhairava Tantra''
|Śiva
|Śakti
|Yamala
|-
!''[[Vayu]] [[Purana]]'' 1.2
|Purush
|Manifested Prakriti
|Unmanifested Prakriti
|-
!''[[Yoga]] Sutra'' 2.20
|Drashtā
|Pratyaya-anupashya
|Shuddha
|-
|}

===Formlessness===
{{Cquote|Knowing That which is soundless, touchless, formless, undecaying; also tasteless, odorless, and eternal; beginningless, endless and immutable; beyond the Unmanifested: (knowing That) man escapes from the mouth of death.|4=Katha Upaniṣad 3.15}}
 
Brahm has been written of to be either Nirguna (Parabrahm) and Shaguna (Aparabrahm), including being both. Nirguna refers to God without physical and personality attributes (i.e., a body) while Shaguna is the opposite. Worshiping God as either is fine. Brahm is believed to take vyuhas or emanations, especially to communicate with humans in the physical world (i.e., to provide revelations), and has been seen particularly in Vaiṣnavism as both heavenly and earthly incarnations. Avatars of Śiva, Ganesh, [[Durga]], and others have also been documented and worshipped. 
{{Cquote|Brahm has indeed has 2 two modes, formless as well as manifested.|4=Brihad-Aranyaka Upaniṣad 2.3.1}}
 
Nirguna bhakti was a popular method of worshipping in the medieval era in particular when several sects appeared. Worshipping Vishnu in the formless manner was practiced by Ramanand [[Sampraday]] and its succeeding sects, including Kabir Panth, Ravidas Panth, Satnam Panth, and others. Mahima Dharm was a peculiar Vaiśnava sect because it adheres only to the ''Bhagvat Purana'' and normally referred to Vishnu as ''Alakh'' or ''Sunya'' (“''Void''.”) [[Temples]] of this sect never include [[idols]] which are venerated because the heavenly Vishnu, God before the creation of all, is considered unmanifested. Some Śaiva sects too have practiced worship without an idol, denying that God (Śiva) has a form. These sects include Alakhgirs and Nath Panthis, both of whom call Śiva ''Alakh'' (“''Invisible''.”) Manikkavasagar was a well-known saint from the Bhakti era that worshipped Śiva as formless.<ref> ''Shiva in the City of Nectar: Fifty-four divine tales of Shiva in ancient India'' By Preetha Rajah Kannan </ref> Arulnanti was a another Śaiva theologian from southern India at the time.
 
{{Cquote|Although the Supreme Lord is described as having no hands and legs, He nonetheless accepts all sacrificial offerings.|4=Śvetāśvatara Upaniṣad 3.19}}
 
Temples wherein Brahm is worshipped as formless are known as ''Sunya Mandirs''. Most of these are Vaiśnava belonging to the Ekasarana, Mahima, and Satnami sects, but Śaiva sects of Brahmā Kumaris are notable. There are also temples of Vishnu, Śiva and other gods that don’t belong to a particular sect.
 
{{Cquote|The Entity who is one and without a second, and one without any colours; who has created the colourful quinquelemental world for reasons unknown with the help of His many powers; in whom this entire universe dissolves; is no other than Parama Puruśa. Let that Entity guide our intellect along the path of supreme righteousness. |4=Śvetāśvatara Upaniṣad 4.1.12}}

==Both Immanency and Transcendence of God (Panentheism)==
{{Cquote|I take refuge in that self-existent Being in Whom is this Universe, and Who is beyond this (differentiated Nature) as also beyond that (Undifferentiated.)|4=[https://vedabase.io/en/library/sb/8/3/3/ Bhagvata Purana 8.3.3]}}
 
Karl Krause coined the term 'panentheism' inspired by his readings on Hinduism.<ref> P. 170 ''The Oxford Handbook of Natural Theology'' By Russell Re Manning; ''Karl Krause (1781–1832) borrowed Indian ideas in formulating his own panentheist doctrine of God as a non-personal essence (Wesen) with which the world must eventually be reunited.''"</ref> In Sanskrit, this is called ''Ishavasyam'' or ''vibhudyatvad'' (“''doctrine of pervading and surpassing''.”) While pantheism equates the visible universe with God, panentheism declares that God is omnipresent in Its creation and transcends Its creation too. This means God is the visible universe and more. Heaven and hell may not be in this universe, but another wherein God is also omnipresent. It would make sense that if God is all-pervasive that we would be within It. In other words, everything is submerged or within God. Purusha [[Sukta]] states that The Supreme is both immanent and transcendent - "''Sa bhumin vishvato vritva atyatishthat dashangulam.''" Even when Hindus greet each other by saying "''Namaste''," it means "''I bow to God within you''," showing panentheism in the very greeting. The ''Kaṭha Upaniṣad'' 2.2.12-13 states, “''Whatever we see is a manifestation of [[Brahman]].''”<ref> “''sarvaṁ khalv idaṁ brahma taj jalā[[niti]] śānta upāsīta''” </ref> Satguru Sivaya Subramuniyaswami, said that "''Panentheism is the view that the universe is part of the being of God, as distinguished from pantheism (all-is-God doctrine"), which identifies God with the total reality. In contrast, panentheism holds that God pervades the world, but is also beyond it. He is immanent and transcendent, relative and Absolute. This embracing of opposites is called dipolar. For the panentheist, God is in all, and all is in God.''"

{{Cquote|It is you from whom this universe of forms emerges, and it is you within whom it stays. It is you in whom it finally disappears. |4=Vedasara Shivastotram}} 

Professor Charles Hartshorne in his discussion of panentheism discussed Hinduism in 1953. Professor Lorilai Biernacki considers Hinduism to be one of the most panentheistic traditions.[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/panentheism/] Other [[Ārya Samudāy]] dharmas have also been written on by scholars as panentheist - Christopher Key Chapple on Jainism, Geoffrey Samuel on Buddhism, William M. Reynolds on [[Sikhism]]<ref> P. 90 ''Expanding Curriculum Theory: Dis/positions and Lines of Flight'' By William M. Reynolds and ‎Julie A. Webber </ref>, Ernest Lee Tuveson on Hermeticism<ref>P. 255 ''Gnosis and Hermeticism from Antiquity to Modern Times'' By R. van den Broek </ref>, and Dirk Baltzly on Neoplatonism.

<blockquote>
"It is in the [[Vedas]] that we find for the first time not merely traces or indications of Pantheism, but Pantheism itself in its full growth and maturity." - Constance E. Plumptre<ref> ''General Sketch of the History of Pantheism: Volume 1'' By Constance E. Plumptre </ref>
</blockquote>
{{Cquote|This entire cosmic manifestation is pervaded by Me in My unmanifest form. All living beings dwell in Me, but I do not dwell in them.|4=[https://www.holy-bhagavad-gita.org/chapter/9/verse/4 Bhagvad Gita 9.24]}}
 
Ishavasyam is a term which demonstrates the omnipresent nature of Brahm, wherein It is everywhere and is transcendent of the objects it possesses. In a story from Krishna's life, once when Krishna was an infant he was suspected to have placed mud into his mouth. Yashoda then said, “''If you have not taken any mud, then open your mouth. I shall see for myself.''” Upon seeing in his mouth, she saw the universe (i.e., galaxies, starts. ) This one event shows how the universe itself is within God Almighty.
 
{{Cquote|The Supreme Lord walks and does not walk. He is far away, but He is very near as well. He is within everything, and yet He is outside of everything.|4=[https://vedabase.io/en/library/iso/5/ Isha Upaniṣad 5]}}
 
In the below verse, [[Yama]] is saying the Brahm is present in the inanimate and animate objects of the world.
{{Cquote|I am the food. I am the eater of food.|4=Taittiriya Upaniṣad 3.10.6}}
 
{{Cquote|He who, dwelling in all things,
Yet is other than all things, 
Whom all things do not know, 
Whose body all things are, 
Who controls all things from within, 
He is your soul, the Inner Controller, the Immortal.|4=Brihad-Aranyaka Upaniṣad 3.7.15}}
 
The verse below illustrates that God is the Complete Whole, meaning all-pervasive in this universe and yet, transcendent of it:
{{Cquote|God is perfect and complete, and because It is completely perfect, all emanations from It, such as this phenomenal world, are perfectly equipped as complete wholes. Whatever is produced of the Complete Whole is also complete in itself. Because It is the Complete Whole, even through so many complete units emanate from It, It remains the complete balance.|4=Isha Upaniṣad invocation}}
 
Mahatma Gandhi was very fond of quoting from this Upaniṣadic couplet:
{{Cquote|Whatever is ephemeral in this changing universe is Ishavasya (enveloped by Isha.)|4=Isha Upaniṣad}}
 
The omnipresence of Brahm is related to the interconnectedness of the soul (aikatmyam), because it is this relationship which also helps connect the soul to Brahm for achieving Moksh - realizing Aham Brahmasmi and tapping into the [[Antaryamin]] (Brahm within.)

{{Cquote|That microcosm [within you] is That Universe [outside of you], That Universe [outside of you] is that microcosm [within you.]<ref>Yat pinde tatha Brahmānde yatha Brahmande tatha pinde[https://www.yogapedia.com/definition/9326/yat-pinde-tat-brahmande]</ref>|4=Yajur Veda}}

This concept is mentioned as ''Pind Brahmand [[Nyaya]]. ''

==Oneness of God (Monotheism)==
[[Image:Surya with attendents.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Surya]] as God (in [[Saura]] sectarian context) being worshipped by his attendants and crowds of humans, demonstrating monotheism.]]
[[Image:Cosmic Vishnu.jpg|thumb|250px|Krishna too is sometimes depicted as comprising of the whole universe and to have his abodes outside of the universe (as stated in the ''[[Bhagavad Gita|Bhagvad Gita]]''), demonstrating panentheism.]]
[[Image:Cosmic Jina.jpg|thumb|250px|The whole universe in [[Jain Dharm|Jainism]] too is depicted as a person - referred to as 'Lok Purusha', demonstrating panentheism.]]
[[Image:Cosmic Buddha.jpg|thumb|250px|The whole universe in [[Bauddh Dharm|Buddhism]] too is sometimes depicted as a person, demonstrating panentheism.]]
''Brahm'' and ''Parmatma'' are the generic terms for The One Above All. The Sanskrit term for this is
''ekantikvad'' or ''ekamata.'' How Hindus have practiced monotheism is by worshiping Parmatma by worshiping It as an Ishta-Dev. Even the worship of solely Krishna as Parmatma or God Almighty by followers was referred to ''Ekantika [[Dharma]]'' and ''[[Ekayana]]''. The latter term was used also by Vaiśnavas of the [[Rudra]] Sampraday for worshipers of only Vishnu. Śaiva sects too have enforced monotheism, such as the Alakh Panth and Virasaivs. Monotheism in worship is enforced by a few sects but worshiping God Almighty along with others (demi-gods and ancestors) isn’t forbidden by most sects.

==Oneness of Deities (Henotheism)==
:''See also: [[Worship]], [[God#Oneness of God|Oneness of God]]''
<blockquote>
"This concept of God is panentheistic and even the Vedic theism is nothing but panentheism. It is very well expressed in philosophical hymns like ''[[Puruṣa]] sūkta'', ''Hiranyagarbha sūkta'' and even ''Nāsadīya sūkta''." - Sahebrao Genu Nigal<ref> P. 81 ''Vedic Philosophy of Values'' By Sahebrao Genu Nigal </ref>
</blockquote>It is understood that any kind of worship is accepted by The One Above All, regardless of name or form addressed in worship. The Sanskrit term for this is ''sarvekāntatva'' (“''state of all being a part of one''.”) Even a worshiper who is not Hindu and worships God [or a god] at their church or home, is worshiping God (only in a different way.) This particular viewpoint was so profound to modern scholars studying Hinduism that new terms had to be invented in English just to describe it - 'henotheism'. Then from 'henothenism' came another another term - 'kathenotheism' - meaning to worship 1 god at a time (while recognizing there may be more than a single divine being.) Then in 1828 German philosopher Karl Krause coined the term 'panentheism'.

 
{{Cquote|Of the eternals you are The Chief Eternal, of the sentients you are The Chief Sentient 
The One Chief of the many, that assembles and who is desirable 
Dark (unseeable) and present in the soul who is watching and unwavering 
That eternal peace is a guiding force [within]|4=Katha Upaniṣad 2.2.13<ref> Nityo nityanam cetanas cetananam 
eko bahunam yo vidadhati kaman 
tam atma-stham ye ’nupasyanti dhiras 
tesham shantih sasvati netaresam</ref>}}

 
Even the earlier Mandalas of ''[[Rig Veda]]''<ref>Ṛgveda books 1 and 9</ref> which contain hymns dedicated to devas, are thought to have a tendency toward monotheism.<ref>Macdonell, Arthur Anthony. Vedic Mythology. Forgotten Books (May 23, 2012). P. 17. ISBN 1440094365.</ref> Often quoted isolated pada of the ''Ṛig Veda''<ref>Ṛgveda 1.164.46</ref> states (trans. Ralph T.H. Griffith):

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! English
! Sanskrit
|-
|
{{Cquote|
:They call him Indra, Mitra, Varuṇa, Agni, and he is heavenly nobly-winged Garutmān.
:To what is One, sages give many a title they call it Agni, Yama, Mātariśvan.}}
|
{{Cquote|
:Indraṃ mitraṃ varuṇamaghnimāhuratho divyaḥ sa suparṇo gharutmān
:ekaṃ sad viprā bahudhā vadantyaghniṃ yamaṃ mātariśvānamāhuḥ}}
|-
|}

Further, the ''Rig Veda'' states, “There is only one God, [[worship]] Him“<Ref> Ṛg Veda, 6.45.16 </ref> and “Do not worship any one beside Him“<ref> Ṛg Veda 8.1.1 </ref>. Recognizing that there is a Supreme God above any other divinities is seen in the Vaiśnava mantra “Dev devaya namo nama” and Śaiva mantra “Aum nama Shivay sarvaya deva devaya vai namaha,” both of which proclaim their respective Supreme as the “God of gods.”
 
{{Cquote|Patiṁ patīnāṁ paramaṁ parastāt|4=Śvetāśvatara Upaniṣad 6.7}}
 
The ''[[Brahma Samhitā]]''<ref>Brahma Samhitā 5.45</ref> declares, ''Lord Vishnu is milk; Lord Śiva is yogurt''. Other aspects of God are expansions or aspects of Vishnu or Śiva which is detailed in various [[Purānas]]. Vaiṣnavites, like other Hindus, have tolerance for other beliefs because [[Krishna]], an [[avatara]] of Vishnu, said so in the Gitā. Krishna says:
{{Cquote|Whatever deity or form a devotee worships, I make his or her faith steady. However, their wishes are only granted by Me alone."<ref>Gitā 7.21-22</ref>|4=Bhagvad Gita 7.21-22}}
Krishna also says in the Gitā:
{{Cquote|O [[Arjuna]], even those devotees who worship other lesser [[deities]] e.g., devas, with faith, they also worship Me, but in an improper way because I am the Supreme Being. I alone am the enjoyer of all sacrificial services (Seva, [[Yajna]]) and Lord of the universe."<ref>Gitā 9.23</ref>|4=[https://www.holy-bhagavad-gita.org/chapter/9/verse/3 Bhagvad Gita 9.23]}}
 
The theology of henotheism also applies to the treating of ancestors or other beings as venerable. Because divinity is extended to them by many Hindus, it does not mean that there is a violation of the belief in a One God Above All, but that piety is offered to them in respect.
 
{{Cquote|The Lord of lords is Supreme and beyond them (deities.)|4=Śvetāśvatara Upaniṣad 6.7}}

===Smarta view===
The system prevalent in Hinduism is defined by the Smartha philosophy; this theory allows for the veneration of numerous deities, but on the understanding that all of them are but manifestation of the one divine power.<ref>It is a belief sometimes called kathenotheism.</ref> That ultimate [[divinity]] is termed Brahm or Atman and is believed to have no specific form, name or attribute.<ref>{{cite book
| author = Sivaya Subramuniyaswami
| url = http://books.google.com/?id=EWlHPAkjBKUC&pg=PA425
| title = Dancing with Siva: Hinduism's Contemporary Catechism
| publisher = Himalayan Academy Publications
| year = 2004
| isbn = 0-945497-96-2}}</ref> Only a Smartha, or follower of the [[Advaita Vedanta|Advaita]] philosophy, would have no problem worshiping every imaginable deity with equal veneration; as the view is that all names and forms of deities are merely manifestations of the same God. Other Hindu sects such as [[Vaiśnavism]] and Śaivism conform more closely to a Western understanding of what a monotheistic faith is. For instance, a Vaiṣnavite considers Vishnu as being the one and only true God, an attitude that resonates with that of the [[Abrahamic religions]]. However, it is [[Advaita]] philosophy that defines the Smartha sect of mainstream Hinduism, and imparts to Indic spiritual and religious traditions their renowned liberalism.

===Swaminarayan view===
[[Swami Sahajananda]], founder of the Swaminarayan Sampraday, said in verse 115 of its scripture, “''[[Śikśapatri]] said, ‘[[Sri Krishna]] Bhagvan and Sri Krishna Bhagvan's incarnations alone are worthy of meditation. Similarly, Sri Krishna Bhagvan's images are worthy. And men or [[devas]], even if they are devotees of Sri Krishna Bhagvan or Brahmvetta,<ref>It is knower of [[divinity]].</ref> They are still not worthy of meditation and thus one should not meditate upon them.’''"

The ''[[Brahma Samhitā]]''<ref>It means ''Brahma Samhitā'' 5.45</ref> declares, Lord Vishnu is milk; [[Śiva|Lord Śiva]] is yogurt.<ref>http://vedabase.net/bs/5/45/en Sri Bramha Samhita 5.45</ref> Followers of Swaminaryan are [[Vaiṣnavas]], but differ from the viewpoint attested by Gaudiya Vaiṣnavas who emphasize Śiva as a subordinate demigod expansion of Krishna. For example, Swaminaryan states:
<ref>[http://www.swaminarayanwales.org.uk/Shikshapatri/shikshapatridetails.asp?shlockcode=85 Shree Swaminarayan Temple Cardiff - Scriptures - Shikshapatri]</ref>
{{Cquote|And the oneness of Narayan and Śiva should be understood, as the Vedas have described both to be Brahmarupa (or form of Brahm, i.e., Saguna Brahm), thus indicating that Vishnu and Śiva are different forms of the one and same God. And that [[Ishvara]] is Sri Krishna Bhagvan,<ref> (Sri Swaminarayan Bhagvan</ref> who is supreme [[Para Brahman|Parabrahm]], [[Purushottama|Purushottam]], our [[Ishta-deva]]<ref>It means principal deity.</ref> worthy of worship, and the cause of all incarnations.|4=Shikshapatri 47.84.108}}

===Vivekanandian view===
According to the speech of [[Swami Vivekananda]] in Chicago during 1906, the monotheism of Hindu is not only for Hindu. It can effective for every human living on the earth. The verse,

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! English
! Sanskrit
|-
|{{Cquote|
:It means the rain water fallen from the sky go to the ocean, the same worship of every deity goes to only one God." (Here in this verse God is mentioned as Keshav (one of the name of Krishna). It doesn't matter, you are Hindu or not.
:Every worship goes to that God.}}
|{{Cquote|
:akāsāt patitaM toyam yathā gacchati sāgaram
:sarvadeva namaskārān kesavam prati gacchati}}
|-
|}

==Relation Between Brahm and Individuals==
Sanatan Dharm is essentially to understand the relationship between the Self and self, which is why the phrases "''Aham Brahmasmi''" and "''Ayamatma Brahm''", both of which mean, "''I am part of the Supreme''."

==Upaniṣad Era==
In the time period that the [[Upaniṣads]] were written, worship of gods within Hindus is turning into worship of primarily one god. The ''Chāndogya [[Upaniṣad]]'' states,
{{Cquote|God is only one, not a second.“|4=Chāndogya [[Upaniṣad]] Ch. 6.2.1}}
 
The ''Rudra Upaniṣad'' from the ''[[Atharva]] Shiras Upaniṣad'' reads of Rudra declaring himself as Brahm, and describing his attributes. The text also reads:
{{Cquote|O Rudra, O Ishana, O Maheshwara, O Mahadeva, O lord, for thou art Parabrahm, the one and only god!<Ref> P. 443 ''Researches Into the Nature and Affinity of Ancient and Hindu Mythology'' By Vans Kennedy </ref>}}

==Bhakti movement==
:''See also: [[The Hindu Renaissance#Medieval Renaissance|Bhakti movement]], [[Bhakti]], [[Bhakti Marga|Bhakti Yoga]]''
Krishnaism is one notable instance of Vaiṣnava monotheism popularized in the [[Bhakti movement]]. Krishnaism refers to Krishna with the title ''Svayam Bhagvan'', meaning 'Lord Himself' and it is used exclusively to designate Krishna as the Supreme Lord.<ref name=Gupta20071>Gupra, 2007, p.36 note 9.</ref> Certain other [[Sampradaya|traditions]] of Hinduism consider Krishna to be the source of all emanations,<ref name = jsn>''[[Bhagwan Swaminarayan]] bicentenary commemoration volume, 1781-1981.'' p. 154: ...Shri [[Vallabhacharya]] [and] Shri Swaminarayan...Both of them designate the highest reality as Krishna, who is both the highest avatara and also the source of other avataras. To quote R. Kaladhar Bhatt in this context. "In this transcendental devotion (Nirguna [[Bhakti]]), the sole Deity and only" is Krishna. [http://books.google.com/books?id=_Q0YAAAAIAAJ&q=Avatara+Swaminarayan+Krishna+origina%3B&dq=Avatara+Swaminarayan+Krishna+origina%3B New Dimensions in Vedanta Philosophy - Page 154], Sahajā[[nanda]], [http://books.google.com/books?q=+subject:%22Vedanta%22 Vedanta]. 1981</ref> and the source of Vishnu himself or to be the same as [[Narayana|Narayan]].<ref name = "Delmonico2004">{{cite journal
| author = Delmonico, N.
| year = 2004
| title = The History Of Indic Monotheism And Modern Chaitanya Vaishnavism
| journal = The Hare Krishna Movement: the Postcharismatic Fate of a Religious Transplant
| url = http://books.google.com/?id=mBMxPdgrBhoC&pg=PA31&dq=Vaisnava+monotheism
| accessdate = 2008-04-12
| publisher = Columbia University Press
| isbn = 978-0-231-12256-6
}}</ref><ref name = "Elkman1986">{{cite book
| author = Elkman, S.M.
| coauthors = Gosvami, J.
| year = 1986
| title = Jiva Gosvamin's Tattvasandarbha: A Study on the Philosophical and Sectarian Development of the Gaudiya Vaishnava Movement
| publisher = Motilal Banarsidass Pub
| isbn =

}}</ref><ref name = Dimock1989>{{cite book
| author = Dimock Jr, E.C.
| coauthors = Dimock, E.C.
| year = 1989
| title = The Place of the Hidden Moon: Erotic Mysticism in the Vaisnava-Sahajiya Cult of Bengal
| publisher = University Of Chicago Press
| isbn =

}} [http://books.google.com/books?id=EAYa1BtUTm0C&pg=PA132&dq=Svayam+bhagavan&sig=jcyEA-4tyPoddQmWg-FnYKDBgEY page 132]
</ref> The term is seldom used to refer to other forms of Krishna and/or Vishnu within the context of certain religious texts such as the ''[[Bhagvata Purāṇa|Bhagvata Purāṇa]]''.

Though Krishna is recognized as ''Svayam Bhagvan'' by many,<ref name = "RKm">{{cite book
|author=Mepathur Narayana Bhattatiri
|title=Narayaneeyam-Bhagavata, Condensed Edition
|publisher=Sri Ramakrishna Math
|location=
|year=2003
|pages=
|isbn=81-7120-419-8
|oclc=
|doi=
|accessdate=
}}pp.234-239</ref> he is also perceived and understood from an eclectic assortment of perspectives and viewpoints.<ref name=Mahony1987>{{cite journal
| author = Mahony, W.K.
| year = 1987
| title = Perspectives on Krishna's Various Personalities
| journal = History of Religions
| volume = 26
| issue = 3
| pages = 333–335
| accessdate = 2008-04-12
| doi = 10.1086/463085
| jstor=1062381
}}</ref> When Krishna is recognized to be ''Svayam Bhagvan'', it can be understood that this is the belief of Gaudiya Vaiṣnavism,<ref name=Kennedy1925>{{cite book
| author = Kennedy, M.T.
| year = 1925
| title = The Chaitanya Movement: A Study of the Vaiṣnavism of Bengal
| publisher = H. Milford, Oxford university press
| isbn =

}}</ref> the Vallabha Sampradaya,<ref name = "flood">{{cite book
| author = Flood, Gavin D.
| authorlink = Gavin Flood
| title = An introduction to Hinduism
| publisher = Cambridge University Press
| location = Cambridge, UK
| year = 1996
| isbn = 0-521-43878-0
| url = http://books.google.com/?id=KpIWhKnYmF0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=gavin+flood
| accessdate = 2008-04-21
| page = 341
}}"Early [[Vaiṣnava]] worship focuses on three deities who become fused together, namely Vasudeva-Krishna, Krishna-Gopala and Narayana, who in turn all become identified with Vishnu. Put simply, Vasudeva-Krishna and Krishna-Gopala were worshiped by groups generally referred to as Bhagvatas, while Narayana was worshiped by the Pancaratra sect."</ref> and the [[Nimbarka Sampradaya]], where Krishna is accepted to be the source of all other manifestations and the source of Vishnu himself. This belief is drawn primarily from the famous statement of the Bhagvatam<ref name=Gupta2007/>:<ref name = Rosen>''Essential [[Hinduism]]'' S. Rosen, 2006, Greenwood Publishing Group [http://books.google.com/books?id=VlhX1h135DMC&pg=PA124&dq=Krishna+is+the+original+Personality+of+Godhead&client=firefox-a&sig=2Yojs3j3lTcocPQ7RaIqBnpLrq0 p.124] ISBN 0-275-99006-0</ref>
 
{{Cquote|All of the descents and incarnations are either plenary portions or portions of the plenary portions of the Lord, but Lord Śrī Krishna is the original Personality of Godhead.|4=Srimad Bhagvatam<ref>Śrimad Bhagvatam1.3.28</ref>}}
 
Vaiṣnavism is one of the earliest implicit manifestations of monotheism in the traditions of Vedas. ''Svayam Bhagvān'' is a [[Sanskrit]] term for the original deity of the Supreme God worshiped across many traditions of the Vaiṣnavism as the source of all, the monotheistic absolute Deity.<ref name=Delmonico2004>{{cite journal
| author = Delmonico, N.
| year = 2004
| title = The History Of Indic Monotheism And Modern Chaitanya Vaishnavism
| journal = The Hare Krishna Movement: the Postcharismatic Fate of a Religious Transplant
| url = http://books.google.com/?id=mBMxPdgrBhoC&pg=PA31&dq=Vaisnava+monotheism
| accessdate = 2008-04-12
| publisher = Columbia University Press
| isbn = 978-0-231-12256-6
}}</ref><ref name = "Elkman1986">{{cite book
| author = Elkman, S.M.
| coauthors = Gosvami, J.
| year = 1986
| title = Jiva Gosvamin's Tattvasandarbha: A Study on the Philosophical and Sectarian Development of the Gaudiya Vaisnava Movement
| publisher = Motilal Banarsidass Pub
| isbn =
}}</ref>
<ref name = "Klostermaier1974">{{cite journal
| author = Klostermaier, K.
| year = 1974
| title = The Bhaktirasamrtasindhubindu of Visvanatha Cakravartin
| journal = Journal of the American Oriental Society
| volume = 94
| issue = 1
| pages = 96–107
| accessdate = 2008-04-12
| doi = 10.2307/599733
| jstor = 599733
| publisher = American Oriental Society
}}
</ref> Within [[Hinduism]], Krishna is worshiped from a variety of perspectives.<ref name=Mahony1987>{{cite journal
| author = Mahony, W.K.
| year = 1987
| title = Perspectives on Krishna's Various Personalities
| journal = History of Religions
| volume = 26
| issue = 3
| pages = 333–335
| accessdate = 2008-04-12
| jstor=1062381
| doi=10.1086/463085
}}</ref> However, the Svayam Bhagvan concept refers to the Supreme Being of the Orthodox Gaudiya Vaiṣnavism,<ref name=Kennedy1925>{{cite book
| author = Kennedy, M.T.
| year = 1925
| title = The Chaitanya Movement: A Study of the Vaiṣnavism of Bengal
| publisher = H. Milford, Oxford university press
| isbn =
}}</ref> the Vallabha Sampradaya and the [[Nimbarka]] Sampradaya, where Krishna is worshiped as the source of all other avataras (including Vishnu).<ref name=Ojha1978>{{cite book
| author = Ojha, P.N.
| year = 1978
| title = Aspects of Medieval Indian Society and Culture
| publisher = BR Pub. Corp.; New Delhi: DK Publishers' Distributors
| isbn =
}}</ref>
<ref>[http://srimadbhagavatam.com/1/3/28/en1 ''Bhag'' 1.3.28] Chapter 3: Krishna Is the Source of All Incarnations</ref>
<ref name = McDaniel>See McDaniel, June, ''"Folk Vaishnavism and Thākur Pañcāyat: Life and status among village Krishna statues"'' in {{Harvnb|Beck|2005|p=39}}</ref> A distinguishing feature of the Vaisnava teachings is that God, Krishna or Vishnu,<ref name="Elkman1986"/> is a real person and His variegated creation is also real.<ref name="Elkman1986"/><ref name= Thomson>{{cite journal
| author = Richard Thompson, Ph. D.
| year = December 1994
| title = Reflections on the Relation Between Religion and Modern Rationalism
| url = http://www.iskcon.com/icj/1_2/12thompson.html
| accessdate = 2008-04-12
}}</ref>

Krishna worshiped in Vaiṣnava religion as the Supreme came into being as soon as all creatures came into existence. [[Brahma]] was the first Vaiṣnava. In Gaudiya Vaiṣnavism, Śiva Mahadeva is also a Vaiṣnava; in Śaivism, by contrast, Śiva is the supreme God. The ancient Prajapaties are all Vaiṣnavas. [[Narada]] who is the born child of Brahma, is a Vaiṣnava. Thus pure monotheistic Vaiṣnava religion began with the beginning of history.<ref name="Thomson"/> In the recent times man arrived once again at the instinctive monotheism of the Aryans and Vaiṣnavas.<ref name=Dalmia-luderitz1992>{{cite journal
| author = Dalmia-luderitz, V.
| year = 1992
| title = Hariscandra of Banaras and the reassessment of Vaisnava bhakti in the late nineteenth century
| journal = Devotional Literature in South Asia: Current Research, 1985-8
| url = http://books.google.com/?id=BE40dp6SCFUC&pg=PA281&dq=Vaisnava+monotheism
| accessdate = 2008-04-12
| publisher = Cambridge University Press
| isbn = 978-0-521-41311-4
}}</ref>

A different viewpoint, opposing this theological concept, is the concept of Krishna as an ''avatara'' of Narayan or Vishnu. However, although its is usual to speak of Vishnu as the source of the avataras, this is only one of the names of god of Vaiṣnavism, who is also known as Vishnu to some Vaiṣnava, Narayan to some, Vasudeva, or any of the other Vaiśnava persons, and behind each of those names there is a divine figure with attributed supremacy in Vaisnavism.<ref name = Krishna4>
{{Harvnb|Matchett|2000|p=4}}</ref> The theological interpretation of ''Svayam Bhagvān'' differs with each tradition and the translated from the Sanskrit language, the term literary means "[[Bhagvan]] Himself" or "directly Bhagvan".<ref name=Gupta2007/> Gaudiya Vaiṣnava tradition often translates it within its perspective as ''primeval Lord'' or ''original Personality of Godhead'', but also considers the terms such as ''Supreme Personality of Godhead'' and ''Supreme God'' as an equivalent to the term ''Svayam Bhagvan'', and may also choose to apply these terms to Vishnu, Narayan and many of their associated avatars.<ref> name=Knapp2005>{{cite book
| author = Knapp, S.
| year = 2005
| title = The Heart of Hinduism: The Eastern Path to Freedom, Empowerment and Illumination -
| publisher = iUniverse
| isbn =</ref>

"Krishna is the primeval Lord, the original Personality of Godhead, so He can expand Himself into unlimited forms with all potencies."<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=a2KPChj7lTwC&pg=PA161 page 161]</ref><ref name= ICJKnott>{{cite journal
| author = Dr. Kim Knott,
| year = 1993
| title = Contemporary Theological Trends In The Hare Krishna Movement: A Theology of Religions
| url = http://www.iskcon.com/icj/1_1/knott.html
| accessdate = 2008-04-12
}}..."''[[Bhakti]]'', the highest path, was that of surrender to [[Lord Krishna]], the way of pure devotional service to the Supreme Personality of Godhead".</ref>
Others have translated it simply as "the Lord Himself".<ref name="KK">{{cite book |author=K. Klostermaier |title=The Charles Strong Trust Lectures, 1972-1984 |publisher=Brill Academic Pub |location= |year=1997 |isbn=90-04-07863-0 |quote= For his worshippers he is not an avatara in the usual sense, but Svayam Bhagvan, the Lord himself.|url= http://books.google.com/?id=F_0UAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA109&dq=Svayam+bhagavan |accessdate= |page=206 | others = Crotty, Robert B.}} p.109 Klaus Klostermaier translates it simply as "the Lord Himself"</ref> Followers of Vishnu-centered sampradayas of Vaiṣnavism rarely address this term, but believe that it refers to their belief that Krishna is among the highest and fullest of all ''avatars''<ref name = Pal1958>{{cite book
| author = [[Bipin]] Chandra Pal
| year = 1964, 132 pages
| title = Shree Krishna: Letters Written to a Christian Friend
| publisher = Yugayatri/New India Printing
& Publishing Co.
| quote = First edition published in 1938 under the title of 'Europe asks: who is Shree Krishna'.
| isbn =</ref>

Sri Krishna stands at the top of this series. He is therefore called by his votaries as Purna Avatara or the highest and fullest incarnation of the Lord. and is considered to be the "''paripurna avatara''", complete in all respects and the same as the original.<ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://www.tirumala.org/sapthagiri/122002/purana.htm
|title=Sapthagiri
|publisher=www.tirumala.org
|accessdate=2008-05-03
|last=
|first=
}}</ref> Parashara Maharishi, [[Vyāsa]]'s father had devoted the largest [[Aṅṣa]]<ref>It means part.</ref> in ''[[Vishnu Purāṇa]]'' to the description of Sri Krishna Avatara the ''Paripoorna Avatara''. And according to Lord Krishna's own instructions ''upadeṣa'', "he who knows the secrets of His (Krishna's) Janma<ref>It means birth.</ref> and [[Karma]]<ref>It means actions.</ref> will not remain in [[saṅsāra]]<ref>''punar janma naiti-maam eti''.</ref> and attain Him after leaving the mortal coil."<ref>Bhagvad Gita 4.9</ref> [[Parāsara]] Maharishi ends up [[Añṣa]] 5 with a phalashruti in an identical vein (''Vishnu Purāna''<ref>Vishnu Purāna 5.38.94</ref>.)

The prime supporters of the Krishna-centered theology, Gaudiya Vaiṣnavas and followers of the Vallabha [[Sampradāya]] Nimbarka Samprā[[daya]], use the ''[[Gopala Tapani Upaniṣad]]'',<ref>{{cite book |author=B. V. Tripurari |title=Gopala-tapani Upaniṣad |publisher=Audarya Press |location= |year=2004 |pages= |isbn=1-932771-12-3 }}</ref> ''[[Vedanta Sutras]]''<ref name=Gupta2007/> and other Hindu scriptures such as the ''Bhagvata Purāna'' and the ''[[Brahma Vaivarta Purāna]]'', among others, to support their view that Krishna is indeed the ''Svayam Bhagvan''. This belief was summarized by the 16th century author [[Jiva Goswami]] in some of his works, such as ''Krishna-sandarbha''.<ref name=Gupta2007>{{cite book
| author = Gupta, Ravi M.
| coauthors =
| year = 2007
| title = Caitanya Vaisnava Vedanta of Jiva Gosvami
| publisher = Routledge
| isbn = 0-415-40548-3
}}</ref><ref name=Gupta2004>{{cite book
| author = Gupta, Ravi M.
| coauthors =
| year = 2004
| title = Caitanya Vaisnava Vedanta: Acintyabhedabheda in Jiva Gosvami's Catursutri tika
| publisher = University Of Oxford
| isbn =

}}</ref> While Krishna himself if mentioned in one of the earliest texts of Vedic literature - ''Rig Veda''.<ref>
Sunil Kumar Bhattacharya ''Krishna-cult in Indian Art''. 1996
M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd. ISBN 81-7533-001-5 p.126: "According to (D.R.Bhadarkar), the word Krishna referred to in the expression 'Krishna-drapsah' in the Ṛgveda, denotes the very same Krishna".</ref>

In the sixth book of the [[Hindu epic]] ''[[Mahābhārata]]'', the Bhishma Parva<ref>It is better known as the ''[[Bhagavad Gitā|Bhagvad Gitā]]''.</ref> Krishna offers numerous quotations that reaffirm the belief that he himself is the ''Svayam Bhagvan''. Verse [http://www.asitis.com/7/7.html 7.7] of the ''[[Bhagavad Gitā|Bhagvad Gitā]]'', is often used to support the opinion that Krishna himself is the ''Svayam Bhagvan'', and that no impersonal form of Brahm supersedes his existence, as it is a common view that ''Bhagvad Gitā'' was propounding Krishna-theism before first major proponents of [[Advaita Vedanta|monism of the Smarta school]].<ref name = "IST">{{cite book
|author=
|authorlink=
|editor = S. Devadas Pillai
|others=
|title=Indian Sociology Through Ghurye: A Dictionary
|edition=
|language=
|publisher=South Asia Books
|location=Columbia, Mo
|year=1997
|origyear=
|quote=
|isbn=81-7154-807-5
|oclc=
|doi=
|url=http://books.google.com/?id=P3uD22Ghqs4C&pg=PA283
|accessdate=
|page=403
}}</ref>

==Related Articles==
*[[Cosmogony]]
*[[Cosmology]]
*[[Darshana]]
*[[Divinity]]
*[[Brahm]]
*[[God]]
*[[Devatā]]
*[[Deities]]
*[[Worship]]
*[[Murti Puja]]

==External Resources==
*[http://enlightened-spirituality.org/panentheism.html "Panentheism and the Reality of God"] By Timothy Conway, Ph.D. (Published: October 2, 2015)
*[https://www.academia.edu/19511326/Panentheism_and_Hindu_Tantra_Abhinavagupta_s_Grammatical_Cosmology “Panentheism and Hindu Tantra: Abhinavagupta’s Grammatical Cosmology”] By Loriliai Biernacki

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

[[Category:Theology]]
[[Category:Hindu philosophical concepts]]
[[Category:Forms of worship]]

Theology

2026-07-02T05:27:38Z

Himanshu Bhatt:

{{Author|Himanshu Bhatt}}
[[Image:Vishnu making universes.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Vishnu]] depicted as God (in [[Vaiśnava|Vaiśnava]] sectarian context) as making and ending universes while being within them, demonstrating panentheism.]]
[[Image:Gayatri Ma.jpg|thumb|250px|The monotheistic prayer Gayatri Mantra personified as God, demonstrating [[monotheism]] in itself.
 
The [[mantra]] demonstrates henotheism when it is called Sarva-[[devata]] Svarupini ("''Universal Form of All Deities''.")]]
<blockquote>
“The Hindu religion is the only one of the world’s great faiths dedicated to the idea that the Cosmos itself undergoes an immense, indeed an infinite, number of deaths and rebirths. It is the only religion in which the time scales correspond to those of modern scientific [[cosmology]]. Its cycles run from our ordinary day and night to a day and night of Brahma, 8.64 billion years long. Longer than the age of the Earth or the Sun and about half the time since the Big Bang.” - Carl Sagan, ''Cosmos''
</blockquote>
Panentheism is the first and foremost theology of the Sanatan Dharm while henotheism and monotheism are secondary but they are all in conformity with each other. This is because while recognizing there is only One Supreme Being above all ([[Brahm]] or [[God]]), the immanence and transcendence of It is a doctrine that goes beyond the generic monotheism preached by other religions. While accepting there is One God above all, it does not enforce worshiping only The One. So it is monotheistic because it believes there is God, but also henotheistic because others worshipping It in another form is accepted as still worshiping the One God. Worship as polytheism (i.e., praying to ancestors) is acceptable being it does not reject The One but venerates others as well. Once a human attains Moksh, it is united with Brahm or Parmatma. Brahm is not confined to space and so is everywhere, including within ourselves. This principle is Ishavasyam. Individuals on the other hand are also connected to all that exists, and this is the [[Environmentalism#Aikatmyam|principle of aikatmyam]]. Because of this omnipresence, the central Hindu theology is panentheism. It is monotheist too because there is just one God above all other spirits. It is henotheist because, while Brahm is The Supreme, other beings worthy of worship exist, which may be pious humans or angels ([[Devatā|demi-gods]].) Hindu theology is often aptly termed monistic theism and even open monotheism by some scholars, but is not purely polytheistic as outsiders perceive it to be. [[Bhakti Marga|Worship (Bhakti Yoga]]) is one of the three yogas to attain Moksh.<ref>The other two are [[Gyāna Mārga|Gyāna Yoga]] and [[Karma Mārga|Karma Yoga]].</ref> Monotheism is known in [[Overview Of Scriptures|Hindu scriptures]] as ekantikvad, and some sects practice it strictly, such as the [[Arya]] Samaj, Mahima, and certain [[Śaiva]] (i.e., Viraśaiva, Alakhgir) and the Vaiśnava (i.e., Pushtimarga, Ekasarana) sampradays.

Hinduism has often been considered to be polytheistic because of one leading denomination, Smartism, which follows the [[Advaita]] philosophy of absolute monism, and includes worship of all kinds of personal forms of God. Absolute monists see one unity with all personal forms of God as different aspects of one Supreme Spirit, like a single beam of light separated into colors by a prism. Thus Smartas consider all personal forms of God as equal including Devi, Vishnu, Śiva, Ganesh and Skanda but generally limit the recognized forms to be six. Other denominations of Hinduism don't adhere to the Smarta viewpoint, but are quite unlike Western perceptions of monotheism. Additionally, like Judeo-Christian traditions which believe in angels, Hindus also believe in other less powerful entities, such as [[deva]]s.<ref name = hop1>{{cite book |title=THE RELIGIONS OF INDIA|author=Edward Washburn Hopkins|url=http://books.google.com/?id=Dj33XvXqJO8C |publisher= Jr. Ginn & Co |pages=204 |year= 1896 |editor=Morris Jastrow, |isbn=978-1-60303-143-1}}</ref>

Sometimes the orthodox members of religions interpret religions with a puritan mindset. An example is that many Christians believe any form of worship not including Jesus as being 'idol worship', while Muslims consider idol worship specifically practicing worship through statues but revering the black stone at the Kaaba and circumambulating Kaaba as not idolatry. [Within the Hindu community too prejudices exist among certain people but the general belief is that 'all religions lead to God'.] This leads to religions discrediting other religions. It is resulted in Hinduism being classified as 'pagan cults' and/or a 'polytheistic religion with no heaven'. The underlying principle of the divine is that it has a Supreme Soul (literally 'Parmatma'), making Hinduism monotheistic in belief. Because Hindus believe that Parmatma possesses the universe, which It also transcends, Hinduism believes in panentheism. And because of the principles 'all religions lead to God' and 'All God is One', and that God can be worshiped in those various ways in various forms, Hinduism believes in henotheism.

Contemporary Hinduism can be categorized into four major sects:
# [[Vaiśnava|Vaiśnavism]]
# [[Śaiva|Śaivism]]
# [[Śākta|Śaktism]]
# Smartism
Vaiśnavism, Śaivism, and Śaktism [[worship]] [[Narayan]], [[Śiva]] and [[Devi]] - the Divine Mother as the Supreme Being respectively or considering all [[Hindu]] [[deities]] as aspects of the Supreme Being or Brahm.<ref>See [[Advaita]], or impersonalism.</ref> Other minor sects such as [[Ganapatya]] and [[Surya|Saura]] focus on [[Ganesha|Ganesh]] and [[Surya]] as the Supreme.

==Nature of God==
:''See also: [[God#Nature of God|Nature of God]]'' [[Image:Durga Ma.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Durga|Durga Ma]] as depicted as God (in [[Shakta]] sectarian context), the God of gods, demonstrating henotheism.]]
[[Image:God in all beings.jpg|thumb|250px|God is considered [[Antaryamin]] (Inner Dweller) or [[Caitya-purusa|Chaitya Purush]] (Inner Being.) While God is omnipresent in inanimate objects too, it is Its presence within living beings that enables a relationship between humans and It, and for humans to attain [[Moksha|Moksh]]. (This is an image of God in [[Vaiśnava]] context.)]]
The One Above All is called Brahm and Parmatma in Sanatan Dharm. This [[acintya|Supreme Being is beyond imagination]] and experience, and as such, transcends the universe. The [[Darshana|darshanas (metaphysical worldviews)]] discuss this universe being prakriti which releases from either Brahm Itself or from human under the influence of ignorance (i.e., [[Maya Panchakam|Maya]].) Brahm is also believed by most Hindus to incarnate in various avataras, which may be to answer a prayer of a devotee, [[test]] a human, or promote spirituality (i.e., Krishna.)

Brahm or God Almighty is spoken of as being ''alaukika'' ("''beyond this world''.") This world is seen as prakriti (nature) which God created. This nature of this world is such that karmas cause beings to be possessed with defilements. God is tri-guṇatit, meaning It is transcendental to the modes of material nature.

God is:
#Sarvavyapin (omnipresent)
#Sarvajna (omniscient)
#Sarvaśaktiman (omnipotent)
#Akal (without beginning, and forever)
#Tri-gunatit (transcendent of the 3 modes of material nature)
The sarvavyapin aspect of God is such that it pervades everything, both material and spiritual, and is also called ''Ishavasyam'' ("''God present in all.''") Sarvajna means to know all, and this is an aspect often highlighted when speaking of Moksh, because salvation means Brahmgyana ("''to know Brahm''") or to acquire Brahmvidya. Sarvaśaktiman means the power of Brahm is such that there is nothing it cannot do, and no other power is greater. ''Akal'' means "''timeless''" and refers to the self-existent state (''swayambhu'') of God, and that it will exist forever. Tri-gunatit means to be transcendent of this material universe which is imperfect.

===Dualistic Energies of God===
This is an understanding of Brahm based on its energies in this universe. While Brahm is the Supreme above all, the God Almighty, it is said to apply two forms of energies in this world. This means that the energy which surrounds us in this material realm is different from that of the spiritual world (Moksh), as is the energy which is with our souls. This is spoken of in different sects and [[Darshana|darshans]]. For example, in the Śaiva sect, Śiva is said to be Brahm while his other half is Prakriti (the divine energy possessing this world.) In the [[Samkhya Yoga]] darshan too, Brahm (Purusha) has a counterpart referred to as Prakriti, which is the nature that surrounds us in this reality. In the ''Bhagvad Gita'' too, Krishna says that Brahm is the total energy while the energy here in this reality he calls ''Parmatma''. In Vaiśnavism, this is notion of the Gita is elaborated wherein the energy of Brahm present in this universe is Mahamaya (or hiraṇmaya-[[mahat]]-[[tattva]]), whereas in the spiritual one it is Yogamaya (or jivan śakti.) The material energy is impacted by the three modes of material nature whereas spiritual energy is not, which is why prakriti is eternal and mutable (parimaminitya), whereas Yogamaya is eternal and immutable (parinamnitya.) The total energy of Brahm is called swarup śakti.

Personification of God's two energies has been presented in some instances as well. In Śaiva context, Śiva represents the spiritual energy and Śakti Ma represents the material energy. In Vaiśnavism too, Brahm is Krishna or Narayan and his energy (both spiritual and material) is a female, usually portrayed as Vishnu's wife, Śri (''Mantramayi Kriya Śakti''.)

====References to 3 aspects of God====
[[Image:Trimurti.jpg|thumb|250px|God represented in a syncretist context as [[Trimurti]] ("''Triune God''"), showing [[Brahmā]], [[Vishnu]], and [[Mahesh]] as God in Its 3 aspects.]]
Because the energies in the universe have normally been considered to be dualistic, they, together with God's total energy in the spiritual real, would be 3 aspects of God. From this logic, many Hindu thinkers have believed there are 3 aspects of God we can come to the conclusion of. Various scriptures have written on the One Supreme Lord being characterized of 3 aspects, in Hinduism and in the [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]]. In a conversation mentioned in the ''Brihadaranyaka [[Upanishad|Upaniṣad]]''<Ref> Chapter 3, Part 9 of ''Brihadaranyaka Upaniṣad'' </ref> between [[Yajnavalkya]] and Vidaghdha, the latter asks how many Devas (gods) there are, to which the former replies 33, but Vidaghdha keeps asking, and before coming to the answer of a single 1 God, he had said there are 3 gods [which can be taken to mean that single God has 3 aspects.] No other story legitimizes 3 aspects of Brahm more than the one of the ''[[Rig Veda]]]] wherein Ka (an epithet of the unseen presence or Parabrahm) or Apo (primordial waters) produced the universal womb Hiranyagarbha (Prajapati) with Prajapati within the womb having come into being the "one divine spirit", and Agni (souls)[https://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10121.htm]

Parallel to the 3 aspects of Brahm is the the [[Vaiśnava#Pāñcharātra Āgama|Pāñchrātra]], which consists of 5 venerable forms of Narayan (para, vyuha, vibhava, [[arca]], and antaryamin), the 3 aspects which as para, vyuha, and antaryamin fall within the same categories as the classifications of Brahm do in many other analyses. The vibhava aspect of God is basically formed from one or 2 of the other aspects (i.e., avatara of vyuha and consist of antaryamin.) Arca refers to representative icons of God which are venerated, which are created by matter. In this analysis, the Pāñchrātra holds consistent with the triune characterization of God. Some schools of Śaivism too break down the aspects of God into 3, like Śiva being Parabrahm, Śakti being Aparabrahm, and Yamala being Tapas or Agni. The last is called Tapas or Agni normally, as it is imperishable and is the same energy as the soul (Yogamaya.) That is why it is also called Apām Napāt (''Child of Apo''.)

The "Ka Sukta" (aliases "Hiranyagarbha Sukta", "Prajapati Sukta") of the ''Rig Veda'' is one the most popular cosmogonies in the Arya dharmas. What has been overlooked are the triple aspects detailed within the hymn. In it, Apo (God as 'primordial waters'), which "''possesses generational fire''" (Agni), incubates the Hiranyagarbha (womb containing Prajapati, "''born Only-Lord of all created beings''"). In other words, it ambiguously states Apo is God in the highest form (i.e., Parabrahm), Prajapati this material universe's Aparabrahm, and Agni the life-giving spark within all creatures. (This can be likened to the Pāñchrātrik para, vyuha, and antaryamin.) The hymn goes further to state that [[Devatā#Divine Council|the Devanam or ''people who've taken the title of God'']] (i.e., Devtas on the Divine Council of 33) return to God, meaning that the Devtas are representatives of God on Earth but they are none of the 3 aspects of God and aren't of equal status to God either.

As the material energy is Mahamaya and spiritual (superior) energy is Yogamaya, these energies can also help break down the Vak (cosmic speech.) The ''Rig Veda'' itself declares, "''Vak resides in four quarters (pada). The wise Brahmins who possess insight know them all. Three quarters are hidden in secret and do not stir; human beings speak only the fourth quarter.''"<ref>''Rig Veda'' 1.164.45</ref> The first 3 aspects of Vak itself—para, pashyanti, and madhyama—are spiritual, while the last (Vaikhari) is material energy. Therefore, it can be presumed that this together with synthesizing the commonalities in the creation myths, that the Aparabrahm or Universe is the lowest form of Vak.

Below is a table summarizing and forming the connections between the trinity stated in various texts or beliefs.
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Derivation
! Heavenly Being
! All-Pervasive Being in Universe
! Inner Being
|-
!Vishwakarma Sukta (''Rig Veda'')
|Vishwakarma/Apo (Primordial Waters)/Garbha/Dhātar/Vidhātar/Sacrificial Seer<ref>ṛṣirhotā</ref>/Ascetic Father<ref>nyasīdatpitā</ref>/One Dev<ref>deva ekaḥ</ref>/Lord of Speech<ref>vācas patiṃ</ref>/One, Only One<ref>para ekamāhuḥ</ref>
|Universe
|
|-
!Ka Sukta (''Rig Veda'')
|Apo
|Hiranyagarbha (Prajapati)/Universe
|Agni
|-
!Vak Sukta (''Rig Veda'')
|Apsu (Primordial Waters<ref>Yonirapsvantaḥ</ref>)
|Universe
|Vak
|-
!Nasadiya Sukta (''Rig Veda'')
|Tad Ekam (That One)
|Sat (The Existent/Manifestation)/Universe
|Asat (The Non-Existent/Potentiality)
|-
!Aghamarṣaṇa Sukta (''Rig Veda'')
|Dhātar
|Sat (The Existent/Manifestation)/Ṛta (Cosmic Order) and Satya (Cosmic Truth)
|Tapas (Cosmic Heat)
|-
!Devāgāna Sukta (''Rig Veda'')
|Asur Ek/Brahmaṇaspati/Dev Ek
|Sat (The Existent/Manifestation)
|Vak
|-
!Purush Sukta (''Rig Veda'')
|Adhi Purush
|Virāj/Universe
|Vak/Purush (other souls)
|-
!''Bhagavad Gita''<ref> “''O best of the embodied souls, the physical manifestation that is constantly changing is called adhibhūta; the universal form of God, which presides over the celestial gods in this creation, is called adhidaiva; I, who dwell in the heart of every living being, am called Adhiyajña, or the Lord of all sacrifices.''” - [https://www.holy-bhagavad-gita.org/chapter/8/verse/4 ''Bhagvad Gita'' 8.4] </ref>
|Parabrahm
|Aparabrahm
|Parmatma<Ref> “''Within the body also resides the Supreme Lord. He is said to be the Witness, the Permitter, the Supporter, Transcendental Enjoyer, the ultimate Controller, and the Paramātmā (Supreme Soul).''” - [https://www.holy-bhagavad-gita.org/chapter/13/verse/23 ''Bhagvad Gita'' 13.23] </ref>
|-
!''Bhagavat Purana''
|Narayan
|Mahamaya
|Yogamaya
|-
!''Isha Upaniṣad'' 6-7
|Uttam [Purush]
|Kshar
|Akshar
|-
!''Katha Upaniṣad'' (1.3.10–11)
|Purush
|Avyaktam
|Mahat (Mahan [[Atma]])
|-
!''Mahānārāyan Upaniṣad'' 24
|Tvashtā
| -
| -
|-
!''Maitrāyaṇīya Upaniṣad''
|Brahmā
|Vishnu
|Mahesh
|-
!''Sams'aya-taducchedavādah''
|Manomaya Purush ([[Avyaya]])
|Vangmaya (Kshar)
|Pranamaya Purush (Akshar)
|-
!''Sasongko Jati''
|Principle of Lord<ref>Suksma Kawekas</ref>
|Director of Life<ref>Suksma Sejati</ref>
|Lord of Life<ref>Roh Suci</ref>
|-
!''Sāttvat Saṃhitā''
|Para
|Vyuha
|Antaryamin
|-
!''Swaminarayan Bhashyam'' / ''Vachanamrut''
|Parabrahm
|Aparabrahm
|Aksharbrahm
|-
!''Vijñāna Bhairava Tantra''
|Śiva
|Śakti
|Yamala
|-
!''[[Vayu]] [[Purana]]'' 1.2
|Purush
|Manifested Prakriti
|Unmanifested Prakriti
|-
!''[[Yoga]] Sutra'' 2.20
|Drashtā
|Pratyaya-anupashya
|Shuddha
|-
|}

===Formlessness===
{{Cquote|Knowing That which is soundless, touchless, formless, undecaying; also tasteless, odorless, and eternal; beginningless, endless and immutable; beyond the Unmanifested: (knowing That) man escapes from the mouth of death.|4=Katha Upaniṣad 3.15}}
 
Brahm has been written of to be either Nirguna (Parabrahm) and Shaguna (Aparabrahm), including being both. Nirguna refers to God without physical and personality attributes (i.e., a body) while Shaguna is the opposite. Worshiping God as either is fine. Brahm is believed to take vyuhas or emanations, especially to communicate with humans in the physical world (i.e., to provide revelations), and has been seen particularly in Vaiṣnavism as both heavenly and earthly incarnations. Avatars of Śiva, Ganesh, [[Durga]], and others have also been documented and worshipped. 
{{Cquote|Brahm has indeed has 2 two modes, formless as well as manifested.|4=Brihad-Aranyaka Upaniṣad 2.3.1}}
 
Nirguna bhakti was a popular method of worshipping in the medieval era in particular when several sects appeared. Worshipping Vishnu in the formless manner was practiced by Ramanand [[Sampraday]] and its succeeding sects, including Kabir Panth, Ravidas Panth, Satnam Panth, and others. Mahima Dharm was a peculiar Vaiśnava sect because it adheres only to the ''Bhagvat Purana'' and normally referred to Vishnu as ''Alakh'' or ''Sunya'' (“''Void''.”) [[Temples]] of this sect never include [[idols]] which are venerated because the heavenly Vishnu, God before the creation of all, is considered unmanifested. Some Śaiva sects too have practiced worship without an idol, denying that God (Śiva) has a form. These sects include Alakhgirs and Nath Panthis, both of whom call Śiva ''Alakh'' (“''Invisible''.”) Manikkavasagar was a well-known saint from the Bhakti era that worshipped Śiva as formless.<ref> ''Shiva in the City of Nectar: Fifty-four divine tales of Shiva in ancient India'' By Preetha Rajah Kannan </ref> Arulnanti was a another Śaiva theologian from southern India at the time.
 
{{Cquote|Although the Supreme Lord is described as having no hands and legs, He nonetheless accepts all sacrificial offerings.|4=Śvetāśvatara Upaniṣad 3.19}}
 
Temples wherein Brahm is worshipped as formless are known as ''Sunya Mandirs''. Most of these are Vaiśnava belonging to the Ekasarana, Mahima, and Satnami sects, but Śaiva sects of Brahmā Kumaris are notable. There are also temples of Vishnu, Śiva and other gods that don’t belong to a particular sect.
 
{{Cquote|The Entity who is one and without a second, and one without any colours; who has created the colourful quinquelemental world for reasons unknown with the help of His many powers; in whom this entire universe dissolves; is no other than Parama Puruśa. Let that Entity guide our intellect along the path of supreme righteousness. |4=Śvetāśvatara Upaniṣad 4.1.12}}

==Both Immanency and Transcendence of God (Panentheism)==
{{Cquote|I take refuge in that self-existent Being in Whom is this Universe, and Who is beyond this (differentiated Nature) as also beyond that (Undifferentiated.)|4=[https://vedabase.io/en/library/sb/8/3/3/ Bhagvata Purana 8.3.3]}}
 
Karl Krause coined the term 'panentheism' inspired by his readings on Hinduism.<ref> P. 170 ''The Oxford Handbook of Natural Theology'' By Russell Re Manning; ''Karl Krause (1781–1832) borrowed Indian ideas in formulating his own panentheist doctrine of God as a non-personal essence (Wesen) with which the world must eventually be reunited.''"</ref> In Sanskrit, this is called ''Ishavasyam'' or ''vibhudyatvad'' (“''doctrine of pervading and surpassing''.”) While pantheism equates the visible universe with God, panentheism declares that God is omnipresent in Its creation and transcends Its creation too. This means God is the visible universe and more. Heaven and hell may not be in this universe, but another wherein God is also omnipresent. It would make sense that if God is all-pervasive that we would be within It. In other words, everything is submerged or within God. Purusha [[Sukta]] states that The Supreme is both immanent and transcendent - "''Sa bhumin vishvato vritva atyatishthat dashangulam.''" Even when Hindus greet each other by saying "''Namaste''," it means "''I bow to God within you''," showing panentheism in the very greeting. The ''Kaṭha Upaniṣad'' 2.2.12-13 states, “''Whatever we see is a manifestation of [[Brahman]].''”<ref> “''sarvaṁ khalv idaṁ brahma taj jalā[[niti]] śānta upāsīta''” </ref> Satguru Sivaya Subramuniyaswami, said that "''Panentheism is the view that the universe is part of the being of God, as distinguished from pantheism (all-is-God doctrine"), which identifies God with the total reality. In contrast, panentheism holds that God pervades the world, but is also beyond it. He is immanent and transcendent, relative and Absolute. This embracing of opposites is called dipolar. For the panentheist, God is in all, and all is in God.''"

{{Cquote|It is you from whom this universe of forms emerges, and it is you within whom it stays. It is you in whom it finally disappears. |4=Vedasara Shivastotram}} 

Professor Charles Hartshorne in his discussion of panentheism discussed Hinduism in 1953. Professor Lorilai Biernacki considers Hinduism to be one of the most panentheistic traditions.[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/panentheism/] Other [[Ārya Samudāy]] dharmas have also been written on by scholars as panentheist - Christopher Key Chapple on Jainism, Geoffrey Samuel on Buddhism, William M. Reynolds on [[Sikhism]]<ref> P. 90 ''Expanding Curriculum Theory: Dis/positions and Lines of Flight'' By William M. Reynolds and ‎Julie A. Webber </ref>, Ernest Lee Tuveson on Hermeticism<ref>P. 255 ''Gnosis and Hermeticism from Antiquity to Modern Times'' By R. van den Broek </ref>, and Dirk Baltzly on Neoplatonism.

<blockquote>
"It is in the [[Vedas]] that we find for the first time not merely traces or indications of Pantheism, but Pantheism itself in its full growth and maturity." - Constance E. Plumptre<ref> ''General Sketch of the History of Pantheism: Volume 1'' By Constance E. Plumptre </ref>
</blockquote>
{{Cquote|This entire cosmic manifestation is pervaded by Me in My unmanifest form. All living beings dwell in Me, but I do not dwell in them.|4=[https://www.holy-bhagavad-gita.org/chapter/9/verse/4 Bhagvad Gita 9.24]}}
 
Ishavasyam is a term which demonstrates the omnipresent nature of Brahm, wherein It is everywhere and is transcendent of the objects it possesses. In a story from Krishna's life, once when Krishna was an infant he was suspected to have placed mud into his mouth. Yashoda then said, “''If you have not taken any mud, then open your mouth. I shall see for myself.''” Upon seeing in his mouth, she saw the universe (i.e., galaxies, starts. ) This one event shows how the universe itself is within God Almighty.
 
{{Cquote|The Supreme Lord walks and does not walk. He is far away, but He is very near as well. He is within everything, and yet He is outside of everything.|4=[https://vedabase.io/en/library/iso/5/ Isha Upaniṣad 5]}}
 
In the below verse, [[Yama]] is saying the Brahm is present in the inanimate and animate objects of the world.
{{Cquote|I am the food. I am the eater of food.|4=Taittiriya Upaniṣad 3.10.6}}
 
{{Cquote|He who, dwelling in all things,
Yet is other than all things, 
Whom all things do not know, 
Whose body all things are, 
Who controls all things from within, 
He is your soul, the Inner Controller, the Immortal.|4=Brihad-Aranyaka Upaniṣad 3.7.15}}
 
The verse below illustrates that God is the Complete Whole, meaning all-pervasive in this universe and yet, transcendent of it:
{{Cquote|God is perfect and complete, and because It is completely perfect, all emanations from It, such as this phenomenal world, are perfectly equipped as complete wholes. Whatever is produced of the Complete Whole is also complete in itself. Because It is the Complete Whole, even through so many complete units emanate from It, It remains the complete balance.|4=Isha Upaniṣad invocation}}
 
Mahatma Gandhi was very fond of quoting from this Upaniṣadic couplet:
{{Cquote|Whatever is ephemeral in this changing universe is Ishavasya (enveloped by Isha.)|4=Isha Upaniṣad}}
 
The omnipresence of Brahm is related to the interconnectedness of the soul (aikatmyam), because it is this relationship which also helps connect the soul to Brahm for achieving Moksh - realizing Aham Brahmasmi and tapping into the [[Antaryamin]] (Brahm within.)

{{Cquote|That microcosm [within you] is That Universe [outside of you], That Universe [outside of you] is that microcosm [within you.]<ref>Yat pinde tatha Brahmānde yatha Brahmande tatha pinde[https://www.yogapedia.com/definition/9326/yat-pinde-tat-brahmande]</ref>|4=Yajur Veda}}

This concept is mentioned as ''Pind Brahmand [[Nyaya]]. ''

==Oneness of God (Monotheism)==
[[Image:Surya with attendents.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Surya]] as God (in [[Saura]] sectarian context) being worshipped by his attendants and crowds of humans, demonstrating monotheism.]]
[[Image:Cosmic Vishnu.jpg|thumb|250px|Krishna too is sometimes depicted as comprising of the whole universe and to have his abodes outside of the universe (as stated in the ''[[Bhagavad Gita|Bhagvad Gita]]''), demonstrating panentheism.]]
[[Image:Cosmic Jina.jpg|thumb|250px|The whole universe in [[Jain Dharm|Jainism]] too is depicted as a person - referred to as 'Lok Purusha', demonstrating panentheism.]]
[[Image:Cosmic Buddha.jpg|thumb|250px|The whole universe in [[Bauddh Dharm|Buddhism]] too is sometimes depicted as a person, demonstrating panentheism.]]
''Brahm'' and ''Parmatma'' are the generic terms for The One Above All. The Sanskrit term for this is
''ekantikvad'' or ''ekamata.'' How Hindus have practiced monotheism is by worshiping Parmatma by worshiping It as an Ishta-Dev. Even the worship of solely Krishna as Parmatma or God Almighty by followers was referred to ''Ekantika [[Dharma]]'' and ''[[Ekayana]]''. The latter term was used also by Vaiśnavas of the [[Rudra]] Sampraday for worshipers of only Vishnu. Śaiva sects too have enforced monotheism, such as the Alakh Panth and Virasaivs. Monotheism in worship is enforced by a few sects but worshiping God Almighty along with others (demi-gods and ancestors) isn’t forbidden by most sects.

==Oneness of Deities (Henotheism)==
:''See also: [[Worship]], [[God#Oneness of God|Oneness of God]]''
<blockquote>
"This concept of God is panentheistic and even the Vedic theism is nothing but panentheism. It is very well expressed in philosophical hymns like ''[[Puruṣa]] sūkta'', ''Hiranyagarbha sūkta'' and even ''Nāsadīya sūkta''." - Sahebrao Genu Nigal<ref> P. 81 ''Vedic Philosophy of Values'' By Sahebrao Genu Nigal </ref>
</blockquote>It is understood that any kind of worship is accepted by The One Above All, regardless of name or form addressed in worship. The Sanskrit term for this is ''sarvekāntatva'' (“''state of all being a part of one''.”) Even a worshiper who is not Hindu and worships God [or a god] at their church or home, is worshiping God (only in a different way.) This particular viewpoint was so profound to modern scholars studying Hinduism that new terms had to be invented in English just to describe it - 'henotheism'. Then from 'henothenism' came another another term - 'kathenotheism' - meaning to worship 1 god at a time (while recognizing there may be more than a single divine being.) Then in 1828 German philosopher Karl Krause coined the term 'panentheism'.

 
{{Cquote|Of the eternals you are The Chief Eternal, of the sentients you are The Chief Sentient 
The One Chief of the many, that assembles and who is desirable 
Dark (unseeable) and present in the soul who is watching and unwavering 
That eternal peace is a guiding force [within]|4=Katha Upaniṣad 2.2.13<ref> Nityo nityanam cetanas cetananam 
eko bahunam yo vidadhati kaman 
tam atma-stham ye ’nupasyanti dhiras 
tesham shantih sasvati netaresam</ref>}}

 
Even the earlier Mandalas of ''[[Rig Veda]]''<ref>Ṛgveda books 1 and 9</ref> which contain hymns dedicated to devas, are thought to have a tendency toward monotheism.<ref>Macdonell, Arthur Anthony. Vedic Mythology. Forgotten Books (May 23, 2012). P. 17. ISBN 1440094365.</ref> Often quoted isolated pada of the ''Ṛig Veda''<ref>Ṛgveda 1.164.46</ref> states (trans. Ralph T.H. Griffith):

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! English
! Sanskrit
|-
|
{{Cquote|
:They call him Indra, Mitra, Varuṇa, Agni, and he is heavenly nobly-winged Garutmān.
:To what is One, sages give many a title they call it Agni, Yama, Mātariśvan.}}
|
{{Cquote|
:Indraṃ mitraṃ varuṇamaghnimāhuratho divyaḥ sa suparṇo gharutmān
:ekaṃ sad viprā bahudhā vadantyaghniṃ yamaṃ mātariśvānamāhuḥ}}
|-
|}

Further, the ''Rig Veda'' states, “There is only one God, [[worship]] Him“<Ref> Ṛg Veda, 6.45.16 </ref> and “Do not worship any one beside Him“<ref> Ṛg Veda 8.1.1 </ref>. Recognizing that there is a Supreme God above any other divinities is seen in the Vaiśnava mantra “Dev devaya namo nama” and Śaiva mantra “Aum nama Shivay sarvaya deva devaya vai namaha,” both of which proclaim their respective Supreme as the “God of gods.”
 
{{Cquote|Patiṁ patīnāṁ paramaṁ parastāt|4=Śvetāśvatara Upaniṣad 6.7}}
 
The ''[[Brahma Samhitā]]''<ref>Brahma Samhitā 5.45</ref> declares, ''Lord Vishnu is milk; Lord Śiva is yogurt''. Other aspects of God are expansions or aspects of Vishnu or Śiva which is detailed in various [[Purānas]]. Vaiṣnavites, like other Hindus, have tolerance for other beliefs because [[Krishna]], an [[avatara]] of Vishnu, said so in the Gitā. Krishna says:
{{Cquote|Whatever deity or form a devotee worships, I make his or her faith steady. However, their wishes are only granted by Me alone."<ref>Gitā 7.21-22</ref>|4=Bhagvad Gita 7.21-22}}
Krishna also says in the Gitā:
{{Cquote|O [[Arjuna]], even those devotees who worship other lesser [[deities]] e.g., devas, with faith, they also worship Me, but in an improper way because I am the Supreme Being. I alone am the enjoyer of all sacrificial services (Seva, [[Yajna]]) and Lord of the universe."<ref>Gitā 9.23</ref>|4=[https://www.holy-bhagavad-gita.org/chapter/9/verse/3 Bhagvad Gita 9.23]}}
 
The theology of henotheism also applies to the treating of ancestors or other beings as venerable. Because divinity is extended to them by many Hindus, it does not mean that there is a violation of the belief in a One God Above All, but that piety is offered to them in respect.
 
{{Cquote|The Lord of lords is Supreme and beyond them (deities.)|4=Śvetāśvatara Upaniṣad 6.7}}

===Smarta view===
The system prevalent in Hinduism is defined by the Smartha philosophy; this theory allows for the veneration of numerous deities, but on the understanding that all of them are but manifestation of the one divine power.<ref>It is a belief sometimes called kathenotheism.</ref> That ultimate [[divinity]] is termed Brahm or Atman and is believed to have no specific form, name or attribute.<ref>{{cite book
| author = Sivaya Subramuniyaswami
| url = http://books.google.com/?id=EWlHPAkjBKUC&pg=PA425
| title = Dancing with Siva: Hinduism's Contemporary Catechism
| publisher = Himalayan Academy Publications
| year = 2004
| isbn = 0-945497-96-2}}</ref> Only a Smartha, or follower of the [[Advaita Vedanta|Advaita]] philosophy, would have no problem worshiping every imaginable deity with equal veneration; as the view is that all names and forms of deities are merely manifestations of the same God. Other Hindu sects such as [[Vaiśnavism]] and Śaivism conform more closely to a Western understanding of what a monotheistic faith is. For instance, a Vaiṣnavite considers Vishnu as being the one and only true God, an attitude that resonates with that of the [[Abrahamic religions]]. However, it is [[Advaita]] philosophy that defines the Smartha sect of mainstream Hinduism, and imparts to Indic spiritual and religious traditions their renowned liberalism.

===Swaminarayan view===
[[Swami Sahajananda]], founder of the Swaminarayan Sampraday, said in verse 115 of its scripture, “''[[Śikśapatri]] said, ‘[[Sri Krishna]] Bhagvan and Sri Krishna Bhagvan's incarnations alone are worthy of meditation. Similarly, Sri Krishna Bhagvan's images are worthy. And men or [[devas]], even if they are devotees of Sri Krishna Bhagvan or Brahmvetta,<ref>It is knower of [[divinity]].</ref> They are still not worthy of meditation and thus one should not meditate upon them.’''"

The ''[[Brahma Samhitā]]''<ref>It means ''Brahma Samhitā'' 5.45</ref> declares, Lord Vishnu is milk; [[Śiva|Lord Śiva]] is yogurt.<ref>http://vedabase.net/bs/5/45/en Sri Bramha Samhita 5.45</ref> Followers of Swaminaryan are [[Vaiṣnavas]], but differ from the viewpoint attested by Gaudiya Vaiṣnavas who emphasize Śiva as a subordinate demigod expansion of Krishna. For example, Swaminaryan states:
<ref>[http://www.swaminarayanwales.org.uk/Shikshapatri/shikshapatridetails.asp?shlockcode=85 Shree Swaminarayan Temple Cardiff - Scriptures - Shikshapatri]</ref>
{{Cquote|And the oneness of Narayan and Śiva should be understood, as the Vedas have described both to be Brahmarupa (or form of Brahm, i.e., Saguna Brahm), thus indicating that Vishnu and Śiva are different forms of the one and same God. And that [[Ishvara]] is Sri Krishna Bhagvan,<ref> (Sri Swaminarayan Bhagvan</ref> who is supreme [[Para Brahman|Parabrahm]], [[Purushottama|Purushottam]], our [[Ishta-deva]]<ref>It means principal deity.</ref> worthy of worship, and the cause of all incarnations.|4=Shikshapatri 47.84.108}}

===Vivekanandian view===
According to the speech of [[Swami Vivekananda]] in Chicago during 1906, the monotheism of Hindu is not only for Hindu. It can effective for every human living on the earth. The verse,

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! English
! Sanskrit
|-
|{{Cquote|
:It means the rain water fallen from the sky go to the ocean, the same worship of every deity goes to only one God." (Here in this verse God is mentioned as Keshav (one of the name of Krishna). It doesn't matter, you are Hindu or not.
:Every worship goes to that God.}}
|{{Cquote|
:akāsāt patitaM toyam yathā gacchati sāgaram
:sarvadeva namaskārān kesavam prati gacchati}}
|-
|}

==Relation Between Brahm and Individuals==
Sanatan Dharm is essentially to understand the relationship between the Self and self, which is why the phrases "''Aham Brahmasmi''" and "''Ayamatma Brahm''", both of which mean, "''I am part of the Supreme''."

==Upaniṣad Era==
In the time period that the [[Upaniṣads]] were written, worship of gods within Hindus is turning into worship of primarily one god. The ''Chāndogya [[Upaniṣad]]'' states,
{{Cquote|God is only one, not a second.“|4=Chāndogya [[Upaniṣad]] Ch. 6.2.1}}
 
The ''Rudra Upaniṣad'' from the ''[[Atharva]] Shiras Upaniṣad'' reads of Rudra declaring himself as Brahm, and describing his attributes. The text also reads:
{{Cquote|O Rudra, O Ishana, O Maheshwara, O Mahadeva, O lord, for thou art Parabrahm, the one and only god!<Ref> P. 443 ''Researches Into the Nature and Affinity of Ancient and Hindu Mythology'' By Vans Kennedy </ref>}}

==Bhakti movement==
:''See also: [[The Hindu Renaissance#Medieval Renaissance|Bhakti movement]], [[Bhakti]], [[Bhakti Marga|Bhakti Yoga]]''
Krishnaism is one notable instance of Vaiṣnava monotheism popularized in the [[Bhakti movement]]. Krishnaism refers to Krishna with the title ''Svayam Bhagvan'', meaning 'Lord Himself' and it is used exclusively to designate Krishna as the Supreme Lord.<ref name=Gupta20071>Gupra, 2007, p.36 note 9.</ref> Certain other [[Sampradaya|traditions]] of Hinduism consider Krishna to be the source of all emanations,<ref name = jsn>''[[Bhagwan Swaminarayan]] bicentenary commemoration volume, 1781-1981.'' p. 154: ...Shri [[Vallabhacharya]] [and] Shri Swaminarayan...Both of them designate the highest reality as Krishna, who is both the highest avatara and also the source of other avataras. To quote R. Kaladhar Bhatt in this context. "In this transcendental devotion (Nirguna [[Bhakti]]), the sole Deity and only" is Krishna. [http://books.google.com/books?id=_Q0YAAAAIAAJ&q=Avatara+Swaminarayan+Krishna+origina%3B&dq=Avatara+Swaminarayan+Krishna+origina%3B New Dimensions in Vedanta Philosophy - Page 154], Sahajā[[nanda]], [http://books.google.com/books?q=+subject:%22Vedanta%22 Vedanta]. 1981</ref> and the source of Vishnu himself or to be the same as [[Narayana|Narayan]].<ref name = "Delmonico2004">{{cite journal
| author = Delmonico, N.
| year = 2004
| title = The History Of Indic Monotheism And Modern Chaitanya Vaishnavism
| journal = The Hare Krishna Movement: the Postcharismatic Fate of a Religious Transplant
| url = http://books.google.com/?id=mBMxPdgrBhoC&pg=PA31&dq=Vaisnava+monotheism
| accessdate = 2008-04-12
| publisher = Columbia University Press
| isbn = 978-0-231-12256-6
}}</ref><ref name = "Elkman1986">{{cite book
| author = Elkman, S.M.
| coauthors = Gosvami, J.
| year = 1986
| title = Jiva Gosvamin's Tattvasandarbha: A Study on the Philosophical and Sectarian Development of the Gaudiya Vaishnava Movement
| publisher = Motilal Banarsidass Pub
| isbn =

}}</ref><ref name = Dimock1989>{{cite book
| author = Dimock Jr, E.C.
| coauthors = Dimock, E.C.
| year = 1989
| title = The Place of the Hidden Moon: Erotic Mysticism in the Vaisnava-Sahajiya Cult of Bengal
| publisher = University Of Chicago Press
| isbn =

}} [http://books.google.com/books?id=EAYa1BtUTm0C&pg=PA132&dq=Svayam+bhagavan&sig=jcyEA-4tyPoddQmWg-FnYKDBgEY page 132]
</ref> The term is seldom used to refer to other forms of Krishna and/or Vishnu within the context of certain religious texts such as the ''[[Bhagvata Purāṇa|Bhagvata Purāṇa]]''.

Though Krishna is recognized as ''Svayam Bhagvan'' by many,<ref name = "RKm">{{cite book
|author=Mepathur Narayana Bhattatiri
|title=Narayaneeyam-Bhagavata, Condensed Edition
|publisher=Sri Ramakrishna Math
|location=
|year=2003
|pages=
|isbn=81-7120-419-8
|oclc=
|doi=
|accessdate=
}}pp.234-239</ref> he is also perceived and understood from an eclectic assortment of perspectives and viewpoints.<ref name=Mahony1987>{{cite journal
| author = Mahony, W.K.
| year = 1987
| title = Perspectives on Krishna's Various Personalities
| journal = History of Religions
| volume = 26
| issue = 3
| pages = 333–335
| accessdate = 2008-04-12
| doi = 10.1086/463085
| jstor=1062381
}}</ref> When Krishna is recognized to be ''Svayam Bhagvan'', it can be understood that this is the belief of Gaudiya Vaiṣnavism,<ref name=Kennedy1925>{{cite book
| author = Kennedy, M.T.
| year = 1925
| title = The Chaitanya Movement: A Study of the Vaiṣnavism of Bengal
| publisher = H. Milford, Oxford university press
| isbn =

}}</ref> the Vallabha Sampradaya,<ref name = "flood">{{cite book
| author = Flood, Gavin D.
| authorlink = Gavin Flood
| title = An introduction to Hinduism
| publisher = Cambridge University Press
| location = Cambridge, UK
| year = 1996
| isbn = 0-521-43878-0
| url = http://books.google.com/?id=KpIWhKnYmF0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=gavin+flood
| accessdate = 2008-04-21
| page = 341
}}"Early [[Vaiṣnava]] worship focuses on three deities who become fused together, namely Vasudeva-Krishna, Krishna-Gopala and Narayana, who in turn all become identified with Vishnu. Put simply, Vasudeva-Krishna and Krishna-Gopala were worshiped by groups generally referred to as Bhagvatas, while Narayana was worshiped by the Pancaratra sect."</ref> and the [[Nimbarka Sampradaya]], where Krishna is accepted to be the source of all other manifestations and the source of Vishnu himself. This belief is drawn primarily from the famous statement of the Bhagvatam<ref name=Gupta2007/>:<ref name = Rosen>''Essential [[Hinduism]]'' S. Rosen, 2006, Greenwood Publishing Group [http://books.google.com/books?id=VlhX1h135DMC&pg=PA124&dq=Krishna+is+the+original+Personality+of+Godhead&client=firefox-a&sig=2Yojs3j3lTcocPQ7RaIqBnpLrq0 p.124] ISBN 0-275-99006-0</ref>
 
{{Cquote|All of the descents and incarnations are either plenary portions or portions of the plenary portions of the Lord, but Lord Śrī Krishna is the original Personality of Godhead.|4=Srimad Bhagvatam<ref>Śrimad Bhagvatam1.3.28</ref>}}
 
Vaiṣnavism is one of the earliest implicit manifestations of monotheism in the traditions of Vedas. ''Svayam Bhagvān'' is a [[Sanskrit]] term for the original deity of the Supreme God worshiped across many traditions of the Vaiṣnavism as the source of all, the monotheistic absolute Deity.<ref name=Delmonico2004>{{cite journal
| author = Delmonico, N.
| year = 2004
| title = The History Of Indic Monotheism And Modern Chaitanya Vaishnavism
| journal = The Hare Krishna Movement: the Postcharismatic Fate of a Religious Transplant
| url = http://books.google.com/?id=mBMxPdgrBhoC&pg=PA31&dq=Vaisnava+monotheism
| accessdate = 2008-04-12
| publisher = Columbia University Press
| isbn = 978-0-231-12256-6
}}</ref><ref name = "Elkman1986">{{cite book
| author = Elkman, S.M.
| coauthors = Gosvami, J.
| year = 1986
| title = Jiva Gosvamin's Tattvasandarbha: A Study on the Philosophical and Sectarian Development of the Gaudiya Vaisnava Movement
| publisher = Motilal Banarsidass Pub
| isbn =
}}</ref>
<ref name = "Klostermaier1974">{{cite journal
| author = Klostermaier, K.
| year = 1974
| title = The Bhaktirasamrtasindhubindu of Visvanatha Cakravartin
| journal = Journal of the American Oriental Society
| volume = 94
| issue = 1
| pages = 96–107
| accessdate = 2008-04-12
| doi = 10.2307/599733
| jstor = 599733
| publisher = American Oriental Society
}}
</ref> Within [[Hinduism]], Krishna is worshiped from a variety of perspectives.<ref name=Mahony1987>{{cite journal
| author = Mahony, W.K.
| year = 1987
| title = Perspectives on Krishna's Various Personalities
| journal = History of Religions
| volume = 26
| issue = 3
| pages = 333–335
| accessdate = 2008-04-12
| jstor=1062381
| doi=10.1086/463085
}}</ref> However, the Svayam Bhagvan concept refers to the Supreme Being of the Orthodox Gaudiya Vaiṣnavism,<ref name=Kennedy1925>{{cite book
| author = Kennedy, M.T.
| year = 1925
| title = The Chaitanya Movement: A Study of the Vaiṣnavism of Bengal
| publisher = H. Milford, Oxford university press
| isbn =
}}</ref> the Vallabha Sampradaya and the [[Nimbarka]] Sampradaya, where Krishna is worshiped as the source of all other avataras (including Vishnu).<ref name=Ojha1978>{{cite book
| author = Ojha, P.N.
| year = 1978
| title = Aspects of Medieval Indian Society and Culture
| publisher = BR Pub. Corp.; New Delhi: DK Publishers' Distributors
| isbn =
}}</ref>
<ref>[http://srimadbhagavatam.com/1/3/28/en1 ''Bhag'' 1.3.28] Chapter 3: Krishna Is the Source of All Incarnations</ref>
<ref name = McDaniel>See McDaniel, June, ''"Folk Vaishnavism and Thākur Pañcāyat: Life and status among village Krishna statues"'' in {{Harvnb|Beck|2005|p=39}}</ref> A distinguishing feature of the Vaisnava teachings is that God, Krishna or Vishnu,<ref name="Elkman1986"/> is a real person and His variegated creation is also real.<ref name="Elkman1986"/><ref name= Thomson>{{cite journal
| author = Richard Thompson, Ph. D.
| year = December 1994
| title = Reflections on the Relation Between Religion and Modern Rationalism
| url = http://www.iskcon.com/icj/1_2/12thompson.html
| accessdate = 2008-04-12
}}</ref>

Krishna worshiped in Vaiṣnava religion as the Supreme came into being as soon as all creatures came into existence. [[Brahma]] was the first Vaiṣnava. In Gaudiya Vaiṣnavism, Śiva Mahadeva is also a Vaiṣnava; in Śaivism, by contrast, Śiva is the supreme God. The ancient Prajapaties are all Vaiṣnavas. [[Narada]] who is the born child of Brahma, is a Vaiṣnava. Thus pure monotheistic Vaiṣnava religion began with the beginning of history.<ref name="Thomson"/> In the recent times man arrived once again at the instinctive monotheism of the Aryans and Vaiṣnavas.<ref name=Dalmia-luderitz1992>{{cite journal
| author = Dalmia-luderitz, V.
| year = 1992
| title = Hariscandra of Banaras and the reassessment of Vaisnava bhakti in the late nineteenth century
| journal = Devotional Literature in South Asia: Current Research, 1985-8
| url = http://books.google.com/?id=BE40dp6SCFUC&pg=PA281&dq=Vaisnava+monotheism
| accessdate = 2008-04-12
| publisher = Cambridge University Press
| isbn = 978-0-521-41311-4
}}</ref>

A different viewpoint, opposing this theological concept, is the concept of Krishna as an ''avatara'' of Narayan or Vishnu. However, although its is usual to speak of Vishnu as the source of the avataras, this is only one of the names of god of Vaiṣnavism, who is also known as Vishnu to some Vaiṣnava, Narayan to some, Vasudeva, or any of the other Vaiśnava persons, and behind each of those names there is a divine figure with attributed supremacy in Vaisnavism.<ref name = Krishna4>
{{Harvnb|Matchett|2000|p=4}}</ref> The theological interpretation of ''Svayam Bhagvān'' differs with each tradition and the translated from the Sanskrit language, the term literary means "[[Bhagvan]] Himself" or "directly Bhagvan".<ref name=Gupta2007/> Gaudiya Vaiṣnava tradition often translates it within its perspective as ''primeval Lord'' or ''original Personality of Godhead'', but also considers the terms such as ''Supreme Personality of Godhead'' and ''Supreme God'' as an equivalent to the term ''Svayam Bhagvan'', and may also choose to apply these terms to Vishnu, Narayan and many of their associated avatars.<ref> name=Knapp2005>{{cite book
| author = Knapp, S.
| year = 2005
| title = The Heart of Hinduism: The Eastern Path to Freedom, Empowerment and Illumination -
| publisher = iUniverse
| isbn =</ref>

"Krishna is the primeval Lord, the original Personality of Godhead, so He can expand Himself into unlimited forms with all potencies."<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=a2KPChj7lTwC&pg=PA161 page 161]</ref><ref name= ICJKnott>{{cite journal
| author = Dr. Kim Knott,
| year = 1993
| title = Contemporary Theological Trends In The Hare Krishna Movement: A Theology of Religions
| url = http://www.iskcon.com/icj/1_1/knott.html
| accessdate = 2008-04-12
}}..."''[[Bhakti]]'', the highest path, was that of surrender to [[Lord Krishna]], the way of pure devotional service to the Supreme Personality of Godhead".</ref>
Others have translated it simply as "the Lord Himself".<ref name="KK">{{cite book |author=K. Klostermaier |title=The Charles Strong Trust Lectures, 1972-1984 |publisher=Brill Academic Pub |location= |year=1997 |isbn=90-04-07863-0 |quote= For his worshippers he is not an avatara in the usual sense, but Svayam Bhagvan, the Lord himself.|url= http://books.google.com/?id=F_0UAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA109&dq=Svayam+bhagavan |accessdate= |page=206 | others = Crotty, Robert B.}} p.109 Klaus Klostermaier translates it simply as "the Lord Himself"</ref> Followers of Vishnu-centered sampradayas of Vaiṣnavism rarely address this term, but believe that it refers to their belief that Krishna is among the highest and fullest of all ''avatars''<ref name = Pal1958>{{cite book
| author = [[Bipin]] Chandra Pal
| year = 1964, 132 pages
| title = Shree Krishna: Letters Written to a Christian Friend
| publisher = Yugayatri/New India Printing
& Publishing Co.
| quote = First edition published in 1938 under the title of 'Europe asks: who is Shree Krishna'.
| isbn =</ref>

Sri Krishna stands at the top of this series. He is therefore called by his votaries as Purna Avatara or the highest and fullest incarnation of the Lord. and is considered to be the "''paripurna avatara''", complete in all respects and the same as the original.<ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://www.tirumala.org/sapthagiri/122002/purana.htm
|title=Sapthagiri
|publisher=www.tirumala.org
|accessdate=2008-05-03
|last=
|first=
}}</ref> Parashara Maharishi, [[Vyāsa]]'s father had devoted the largest [[Aṅṣa]]<ref>It means part.</ref> in ''[[Vishnu Purāṇa]]'' to the description of Sri Krishna Avatara the ''Paripoorna Avatara''. And according to Lord Krishna's own instructions ''upadeṣa'', "he who knows the secrets of His (Krishna's) Janma<ref>It means birth.</ref> and [[Karma]]<ref>It means actions.</ref> will not remain in [[saṅsāra]]<ref>''punar janma naiti-maam eti''.</ref> and attain Him after leaving the mortal coil."<ref>Bhagvad Gita 4.9</ref> [[Parāsara]] Maharishi ends up [[Añṣa]] 5 with a phalashruti in an identical vein (''Vishnu Purāna''<ref>Vishnu Purāna 5.38.94</ref>.)

The prime supporters of the Krishna-centered theology, Gaudiya Vaiṣnavas and followers of the Vallabha [[Sampradāya]] Nimbarka Samprā[[daya]], use the ''[[Gopala Tapani Upaniṣad]]'',<ref>{{cite book |author=B. V. Tripurari |title=Gopala-tapani Upaniṣad |publisher=Audarya Press |location= |year=2004 |pages= |isbn=1-932771-12-3 }}</ref> ''[[Vedanta Sutras]]''<ref name=Gupta2007/> and other Hindu scriptures such as the ''Bhagvata Purāna'' and the ''[[Brahma Vaivarta Purāna]]'', among others, to support their view that Krishna is indeed the ''Svayam Bhagvan''. This belief was summarized by the 16th century author [[Jiva Goswami]] in some of his works, such as ''Krishna-sandarbha''.<ref name=Gupta2007>{{cite book
| author = Gupta, Ravi M.
| coauthors =
| year = 2007
| title = Caitanya Vaisnava Vedanta of Jiva Gosvami
| publisher = Routledge
| isbn = 0-415-40548-3
}}</ref><ref name=Gupta2004>{{cite book
| author = Gupta, Ravi M.
| coauthors =
| year = 2004
| title = Caitanya Vaisnava Vedanta: Acintyabhedabheda in Jiva Gosvami's Catursutri tika
| publisher = University Of Oxford
| isbn =

}}</ref> While Krishna himself if mentioned in one of the earliest texts of Vedic literature - ''Rig Veda''.<ref>
Sunil Kumar Bhattacharya ''Krishna-cult in Indian Art''. 1996
M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd. ISBN 81-7533-001-5 p.126: "According to (D.R.Bhadarkar), the word Krishna referred to in the expression 'Krishna-drapsah' in the Ṛgveda, denotes the very same Krishna".</ref>

In the sixth book of the [[Hindu epic]] ''[[Mahābhārata]]'', the Bhishma Parva<ref>It is better known as the ''[[Bhagavad Gitā|Bhagvad Gitā]]''.</ref> Krishna offers numerous quotations that reaffirm the belief that he himself is the ''Svayam Bhagvan''. Verse [http://www.asitis.com/7/7.html 7.7] of the ''[[Bhagavad Gitā|Bhagvad Gitā]]'', is often used to support the opinion that Krishna himself is the ''Svayam Bhagvan'', and that no impersonal form of Brahm supersedes his existence, as it is a common view that ''Bhagvad Gitā'' was propounding Krishna-theism before first major proponents of [[Advaita Vedanta|monism of the Smarta school]].<ref name = "IST">{{cite book
|author=
|authorlink=
|editor = S. Devadas Pillai
|others=
|title=Indian Sociology Through Ghurye: A Dictionary
|edition=
|language=
|publisher=South Asia Books
|location=Columbia, Mo
|year=1997
|origyear=
|quote=
|isbn=81-7154-807-5
|oclc=
|doi=
|url=http://books.google.com/?id=P3uD22Ghqs4C&pg=PA283
|accessdate=
|page=403
}}</ref>

==Related Articles==
*[[Cosmogony]]
*[[Cosmology]]
*[[Darshana]]
*[[Divinity]]
*[[Brahm]]
*[[God]]
*[[Devatā]]
*[[Deities]]
*[[Worship]]
*[[Murti Puja]]

==External Resources==
*[http://enlightened-spirituality.org/panentheism.html "Panentheism and the Reality of God"] By Timothy Conway, Ph.D. (Published: October 2, 2015)
*[https://www.academia.edu/19511326/Panentheism_and_Hindu_Tantra_Abhinavagupta_s_Grammatical_Cosmology “Panentheism and Hindu Tantra: Abhinavagupta’s Grammatical Cosmology”] By Loriliai Biernacki

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

[[Category:Theology]]
[[Category:Hindu philosophical concepts]]
[[Category:Forms of worship]]

Theology

2026-07-02T05:23:28Z

Himanshu Bhatt: added the link to the Divine Council and made some other minor changes

{{Author|Himanshu Bhatt}}
[[Image:Vishnu making universes.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Vishnu]] depicted as God (in [[Vaiśnava|Vaiśnava]] sectarian context) as making and ending universes while being within them, demonstrating panentheism.]]
[[Image:Gayatri Ma.jpg|thumb|250px|The monotheistic prayer [[Gayatri Mantra]] personified as God, demonstrating [[monotheism]] in itself.
 
The [[mantra]] demonstrates henotheism when it is called Sarva-[[devata]] Svarupini ("''Universal Form of All Deities''.")]]
<blockquote>
“The Hindu religion is the only one of the world’s great faiths dedicated to the idea that the Cosmos itself undergoes an immense, indeed an infinite, number of deaths and rebirths. It is the only religion in which the time scales correspond to those of modern scientific [[cosmology]]. Its cycles run from our ordinary day and night to a day and night of Brahma, 8.64 billion years long. Longer than the age of the Earth or the Sun and about half the time since the Big Bang.” - Carl Sagan, ''Cosmos''
</blockquote>
Panentheism is the first and foremost theology of the Sanatan Dharm while henotheism and monotheism are secondary but they are all in conformity with each other. This is because while recognizing there is only One Supreme Being above all ([[Brahm]] or [[God]]), the immanence and transcendence of It is a doctrine that goes beyond the generic monotheism preached by other religions. While accepting there is One God above all, it does not enforce worshiping only The One. So it is monotheistic because it believes there is God, but also henotheistic because others worshipping It in another form is accepted as still worshiping the One God. Worship as polytheism (i.e., praying to ancestors) is acceptable being it does not reject The One but venerates others as well. Once a human attains Moksh, it is united with Brahm or Parmatma. Brahm is not confined to space and so is everywhere, including within ourselves. This principle is Ishavasyam. Individuals on the other hand are also connected to all that exists, and this is the principle of aikatmyam. Because of this omnipresence, the central Hindu theology is panentheism. It is monotheist too because there is just one God above all other spirits. It is henotheist because, while Brahm is The Supreme, other beings worthy of worship exist, which may be pious humans or angels ([[Devatā|demi-gods]].) Hindu theology is often aptly termed monistic theism and even open monotheism by some scholars, but is not purely polytheistic as outsiders perceive it to be. [[Bhakti Mārga|Worship (Bhakti Yoga]]) is one of the three yogas to attain Moksh.<ref>The other two are [[Gyāna Mārga|Gyāna Yoga]] and [[Karma Mārga|Karma Yoga]].</ref> Monotheism is known in [[Śastras|Hindu scriptures]] as ekantikvad, and some sects practice it strictly, such as the [[Arya]] Samaj, Mahima, and certain [[Śaiva]] (i.e., Viraśaiva, Alakhgir) and the Vaiśnava (i.e., Pushtimarga, Ekasarana) sampradays.

Hinduism has often been considered to be polytheistic because of one leading denomination, Smartism, which follows the [[Advaita]] philosophy of absolute monism, and includes worship of all kinds of personal forms of God. Absolute monists see one unity with all personal forms of God as different aspects of one Supreme Spirit, like a single beam of light separated into colors by a prism. Thus Smartas consider all personal forms of God as equal including Devi, Vishnu, Śiva, Ganesh and Skanda but generally limit the recognized forms to be six. Other denominations of Hinduism don't adhere to the Smarta viewpoint, but are quite unlike Western perceptions of monotheism. Additionally, like Judeo-Christian traditions which believe in angels, Hindus also believe in other less powerful entities, such as [[deva]]s.<ref name = hop1>{{cite book |title=THE RELIGIONS OF INDIA|author=Edward Washburn Hopkins|url=http://books.google.com/?id=Dj33XvXqJO8C |publisher= Jr. Ginn & Co |pages=204 |year= 1896 |editor=Morris Jastrow, |isbn=978-1-60303-143-1}}</ref>

Sometimes the orthodox members of religions interpret religions with a puritan mindset. An example is that many Christians believe any form of worship not including Jesus as being 'idol worship', while Muslims consider idol worship specifically practicing worship through statues but revering the black stone at the Kaaba and circumambulating Kaaba as not idolatry. [Within the Hindu community too prejudices exist among certain people but the general belief is that 'all religions lead to God'.] This leads to religions discrediting other religions. It is resulted in Hinduism being classified as 'pagan cults' and/or a 'polytheistic religion with no heaven'. The underlying principle of the divine is that it has a Supreme Soul (literally 'Parmatma'), making Hinduism monotheistic in belief. Because Hindus believe that Parmatma possesses the universe, which It also transcends, Hinduism believes in panentheism. And because of the principles 'all religions lead to God' and 'All God is One', and that God can be worshiped in those various ways in various forms, Hinduism believes in henotheism.

Contemporary Hinduism can be categorized into four major sects:
# [[Vaiśnava|Vaiśnavism]]
# [[Śaiva|Śaivism]]
# [[Śākta|Śaktism]]
# Smartism
Vaiśnavism, Śaivism, and Śaktism [[worship]] [[Narayan]], [[Śiva]] and [[Devi]] - the Divine Mother as the Supreme Being respectively or considering all [[Hindu]] [[deities]] as aspects of the Supreme Being or Brahm.<ref>See [[Advaita]], or impersonalism.</ref> Other minor sects such as [[Ganapatya]] and [[Surya|Saura]] focus on [[Ganesha|Ganesh]] and [[Surya]] as the Supreme.

==Nature of God==
:''See also: [[God#Nature of God|Nature of God]]'' [[Image:Durga Ma.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Durga|Durga Ma]] as depicted as God (in [[Shakta]] sectarian context), the God of gods, demonstrating henotheism.]]
[[Image:God in all beings.jpg|thumb|250px|God is considered [[Antaryamin]] (Inner Dweller) or [[Caitya-purusa|Chaitya Purush]] (Inner Being.) While God is omnipresent in inanimate objects too, it is Its presence within living beings that enables a relationship between humans and It, and for humans to attain [[Moksha|Moksh]]. (This is an image of God in [[Vaiśnava]] context.)]]
The One Above All is called Brahm and Parmatma in Sanatan Dharm. This [[acintya|Supreme Being is beyond imagination]] and experience, and as such, transcends the universe. The [[Darshana|darshanas (metaphysical worldviews)]] discuss this universe being prakriti which releases from either Brahm Itself or from human under the influence of ignorance (i.e., [[Maya Panchakam|Maya]].) Brahm is also believed by most Hindus to incarnate in various avataras, which may be to answer a prayer of a devotee, [[test]] a human, or promote spirituality (i.e., Krishna.)

Brahm or God Almighty is spoken of as being ''alaukika'' ("''beyond this world''.") This world is seen as prakriti (nature) which God created. This nature of this world is such that karmas cause beings to be possessed with defilements. God is tri-guṇatit, meaning It is transcendental to the modes of material nature.

God is:
#Sarvavyapin (omnipresent)
#Sarvajna (omniscient)
#Sarvaśaktiman (omnipotent)
#Akal (without beginning, and forever)
#Tri-gunatit (transcendent of the 3 modes of material nature)
The sarvavyapin aspect of God is such that it pervades everything, both material and spiritual, and is also called ''Ishavasyam'' ("''God present in all.''") Sarvajna means to know all, and this is an aspect often highlighted when speaking of Moksh, because salvation means Brahmgyana ("''to know Brahm''") or to acquire Brahmvidya. Sarvaśaktiman means the power of Brahm is such that there is nothing it cannot do, and no other power is greater. ''Akal'' means "''timeless''" and refers to the self-existent state (''swayambhu'') of God, and that it will exist forever. Tri-gunatit means to be transcendent of this material universe which is imperfect.

===Dualistic Energies of God===
This is an understanding of Brahm based on its energies in this universe. While Brahm is the Supreme above all, the God Almighty, it is said to apply two forms of energies in this world. This means that the energy which surrounds us in this material realm is different from that of the spiritual world (Moksh), as is the energy which is with our souls. This is spoken of in different sects and [[Darshana|darshans]]. For example, in the Śaiva sect, Śiva is said to be Brahm while his other half is Prakriti (the divine energy possessing this world.) In the [[Samkhya Yoga]] darshan too, Brahm (Purusha) has a counterpart referred to as Prakriti, which is the nature that surrounds us in this reality. In the ''Bhagvad Gita'' too, Krishna says that Brahm is the total energy while the energy here in this reality he calls ''Parmatma''. In Vaiśnavism, this is notion of the Gita is elaborated wherein the energy of Brahm present in this universe is Mahamaya (or hiraṇmaya-[[mahat]]-[[tattva]]), whereas in the spiritual one it is Yogamaya (or jivan śakti.) The material energy is impacted by the three modes of material nature whereas spiritual energy is not, which is why prakriti is eternal and mutable (parimaminitya), whereas Yogamaya is eternal and immutable (parinamnitya.) The total energy of Brahm is called swarup śakti.

Personification of God's two energies has been presented in some instances as well. In Śaiva context, Śiva represents the spiritual energy and Śakti Ma represents the material energy. In Vaiśnavism too, Brahm is Krishna or Narayan and his energy (both spiritual and material) is a female, usually portrayed as Vishnu's wife, Śri (''Mantramayi Kriya Śakti''.)

====References to 3 aspects of God====
[[Image:Trimurti.jpg|thumb|250px|God represented in a syncretist context as [[Trimurti]] ("''Triune God''"), showing [[Brahmā]], [[Vishnu]], and [[Mahesh]] as God in Its 3 aspects.]]
Because the energies in the universe have normally been considered to be dualistic, they, together with God's total energy in the spiritual real, would be 3 aspects of God. From this logic, many Hindu thinkers have believed there are 3 aspects of God we can come to the conclusion of. Various scriptures have written on the One Supreme Lord being characterized of 3 aspects, in Hinduism and in the [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]]. In a conversation mentioned in the ''Brihadaranyaka [[Upanishad|Upaniṣad]]''<Ref> Chapter 3, Part 9 of ''Brihadaranyaka Upaniṣad'' </ref> between [[Yajnavalkya]] and Vidaghdha, the latter asks how many Devas (gods) there are, to which the former replies 33, but Vidaghdha keeps asking, and before coming to the answer of a single 1 God, he had said there are 3 gods [which can be taken to mean that single God has 3 aspects.] No other story legitimizes 3 aspects of Brahm more than the one of the ''[[Rig Veda]]]] wherein Ka (an epithet of the unseen presence or Parabrahm) or Apo (primordial waters) produced the universal womb Hiranyagarbha (Prajapati) with Prajapati within the womb having come into being the "one divine spirit", and Agni (souls)[https://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10121.htm]

Parallel to the 3 aspects of Brahm is the the [[Vaiśnava#Pāñcharātra Āgama|Pāñchrātra]], which consists of 5 venerable forms of Narayan (para, vyuha, vibhava, [[arca]], and antaryamin), the 3 aspects which as para, vyuha, and antaryamin fall within the same categories as the classifications of Brahm do in many other analyses. The vibhava aspect of God is basically formed from one or 2 of the other aspects (i.e., avatara of vyuha and consist of antaryamin.) Arca refers to representative icons of God which are venerated, which are created by matter. In this analysis, the Pāñchrātra holds consistent with the triune characterization of God. Some schools of Śaivism too break down the aspects of God into 3, like Śiva being Parabrahm, Śakti being Aparabrahm, and Yamala being Tapas or Agni. The last is called Tapas or Agni normally, as it is imperishable and is the same energy as the soul (Yogamaya.) That is why it is also called Apām Napāt (''Child of Apo''.)

The "Ka Sukta" (aliases "Hiranyagarbha Sukta", "Prajapati Sukta") of the ''Rig Veda'' is one the most popular cosmogonies in the Arya dharmas. What has been overlooked are the triple aspects detailed within the hymn. In it, Apo (God as 'primordial waters'), which "''possesses generational fire''" (Agni), incubates the Hiranyagarbha (womb containing Prajapati, "''born Only-Lord of all created beings''"). In other words, it ambiguously states Apo is God in the highest form (i.e., Parabrahm), Prajapati this material universe's Aparabrahm, and Agni the life-giving spark within all creatures. (This can be likened to the Pāñchrātrik para, vyuha, and antaryamin.) The hymn goes further to state that [[Devatā#Divine Council|the Devanam or ''people who've taken the title of God'']] (i.e., Devtas on the Divine Council of 33) return to God, meaning that the Devtas are representatives of God on Earth but they are none of the 3 aspects of God and aren't of equal status to God either.

As the material energy is Mahamaya and spiritual (superior) energy is Yogamaya, these energies can also help break down the Vak (cosmic speech.) The ''Rig Veda'' itself declares, "''Vak resides in four quarters (pada). The wise Brahmins who possess insight know them all. Three quarters are hidden in secret and do not stir; human beings speak only the fourth quarter.''"<ref>''Rig Veda'' 1.164.45</ref> The first 3 aspects of Vak itself—para, pashyanti, and madhyama—are spiritual, while the last (Vaikhari) is material energy. Therefore, it can be presumed that this together with synthesizing the commonalities in the creation myths, that the Aparabrahm or Universe is the lowest form of Vak.

Below is a table summarizing and forming the connections between the trinity stated in various texts or beliefs.
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Derivation
! Heavenly Being
! All-Pervasive Being in Universe
! Inner Being
|-
!Vishwakarma Sukta (''Rig Veda'')
|Vishwakarma/Apo (Primordial Waters)/Garbha/Dhātar/Vidhātar/Sacrificial Seer<ref>ṛṣirhotā</ref>/Ascetic Father<ref>nyasīdatpitā</ref>/One Dev<ref>deva ekaḥ</ref>/Lord of Speech<ref>vācas patiṃ</ref>/One, Only One<ref>para ekamāhuḥ</ref>
|Universe
|
|-
!Ka Sukta (''Rig Veda'')
|Apo
|Hiranyagarbha (Prajapati)/Universe
|Agni
|-
!Vak Sukta (''Rig Veda'')
|Apsu (Primordial Waters<ref>Yonirapsvantaḥ</ref>)
|Universe
|Vak
|-
!Nasadiya Sukta (''Rig Veda'')
|Tad Ekam (That One)
|Sat (The Existent/Manifestation)/Universe
|Asat (The Non-Existent/Potentiality)
|-
!Aghamarṣaṇa Sukta (''Rig Veda'')
|Dhātar
|Sat (The Existent/Manifestation)/Ṛta (Cosmic Order) and Satya (Cosmic Truth)
|Tapas (Cosmic Heat)
|-
!Devāgāna Sukta (''Rig Veda'')
|Asur Ek/Brahmaṇaspati/Dev Ek
|Sat (The Existent/Manifestation)
|Vak
|-
!Purush Sukta (''Rig Veda'')
|Adhi Purush
|Virāj/Universe
|Vak/Purush (other souls)
|-
!''Bhagavad Gita''<ref> “''O best of the embodied souls, the physical manifestation that is constantly changing is called adhibhūta; the universal form of God, which presides over the celestial gods in this creation, is called adhidaiva; I, who dwell in the heart of every living being, am called Adhiyajña, or the Lord of all sacrifices.''” - [https://www.holy-bhagavad-gita.org/chapter/8/verse/4 ''Bhagvad Gita'' 8.4] </ref>
|Parabrahm
|Aparabrahm
|Parmatma<Ref> “''Within the body also resides the Supreme Lord. He is said to be the Witness, the Permitter, the Supporter, Transcendental Enjoyer, the ultimate Controller, and the Paramātmā (Supreme Soul).''” - [https://www.holy-bhagavad-gita.org/chapter/13/verse/23 ''Bhagvad Gita'' 13.23] </ref>
|-
!''Bhagavat Purana''
|Narayan
|Mahamaya
|Yogamaya
|-
!''Isha Upaniṣad'' 6-7
|Uttam [Purush]
|Kshar
|Akshar
|-
!''Katha Upaniṣad'' (1.3.10–11)
|Purush
|Avyaktam
|Mahat (Mahan [[Atma]])
|-
!''Mahānārāyan Upaniṣad'' 24
|Tvashtā
| -
| -
|-
!''Maitrāyaṇīya Upaniṣad''
|Brahmā
|Vishnu
|Mahesh
|-
!''Sams'aya-taducchedavādah''
|Manomaya Purush ([[Avyaya]])
|Vangmaya (Kshar)
|Pranamaya Purush (Akshar)
|-
!''Sasongko Jati''
|Principle of Lord<ref>Suksma Kawekas</ref>
|Director of Life<ref>Suksma Sejati</ref>
|Lord of Life<ref>Roh Suci</ref>
|-
!''Sāttvat Saṃhitā''
|Para
|Vyuha
|Antaryamin
|-
!''Swaminarayan Bhashyam'' / ''Vachanamrut''
|Parabrahm
|Aparabrahm
|Aksharbrahm
|-
!''Vijñāna Bhairava Tantra''
|Śiva
|Śakti
|Yamala
|-
!''[[Vayu]] [[Purana]]'' 1.2
|Purush
|Manifested Prakriti
|Unmanifested Prakriti
|-
!''[[Yoga]] Sutra'' 2.20
|Drashtā
|Pratyaya-anupashya
|Shuddha
|-
|}

===Formlessness===
{{Cquote|Knowing That which is soundless, touchless, formless, undecaying; also tasteless, odorless, and eternal; beginningless, endless and immutable; beyond the Unmanifested: (knowing That) man escapes from the mouth of death.|4=Katha Upaniṣad 3.15}}
 
Brahm has been written of to be either Nirguna (Parabrahm) and Shaguna (Aparabrahm), including being both. Nirguna refers to God without physical and personality attributes (i.e., a body) while Shaguna is the opposite. Worshiping God as either is fine. Brahm is believed to take vyuhas or emanations, especially to communicate with humans in the physical world (i.e., to provide revelations), and has been seen particularly in Vaiṣnavism as both heavenly and earthly incarnations. Avatars of Śiva, Ganesh, [[Durga]], and others have also been documented and worshipped. 
{{Cquote|Brahm has indeed has 2 two modes, formless as well as manifested.|4=Brihad-Aranyaka Upaniṣad 2.3.1}}
 
Nirguna bhakti was a popular method of worshipping in the medieval era in particular when several sects appeared. Worshipping Vishnu in the formless manner was practiced by Ramanand [[Sampraday]] and its succeeding sects, including Kabir Panth, Ravidas Panth, Satnam Panth, and others. Mahima Dharm was a peculiar Vaiśnava sect because it adheres only to the ''Bhagvat Purana'' and normally referred to Vishnu as ''Alakh'' or ''Sunya'' (“''Void''.”) [[Temples]] of this sect never include [[idols]] which are venerated because the heavenly Vishnu, God before the creation of all, is considered unmanifested. Some Śaiva sects too have practiced worship without an idol, denying that God (Śiva) has a form. These sects include Alakhgirs and Nath Panthis, both of whom call Śiva ''Alakh'' (“''Invisible''.”) Manikkavasagar was a well-known saint from the Bhakti era that worshipped Śiva as formless.<ref> ''Shiva in the City of Nectar: Fifty-four divine tales of Shiva in ancient India'' By Preetha Rajah Kannan </ref> Arulnanti was a another Śaiva theologian from southern India at the time.
 
{{Cquote|Although the Supreme Lord is described as having no hands and legs, He nonetheless accepts all sacrificial offerings.|4=Śvetāśvatara Upaniṣad 3.19}}
 
Temples wherein Brahm is worshipped as formless are known as ''Sunya Mandirs''. Most of these are Vaiśnava belonging to the Ekasarana, Mahima, and Satnami sects, but Śaiva sects of Brahmā Kumaris are notable. There are also temples of Vishnu, Śiva and other gods that don’t belong to a particular sect.
 
{{Cquote|The Entity who is one and without a second, and one without any colours; who has created the colourful quinquelemental world for reasons unknown with the help of His many powers; in whom this entire universe dissolves; is no other than Parama Puruśa. Let that Entity guide our intellect along the path of supreme righteousness. |4=Śvetāśvatara Upaniṣad 4.1.12}}

==Both Immanency and Transcendence of God (Panentheism)==
{{Cquote|I take refuge in that self-existent Being in Whom is this Universe, and Who is beyond this (differentiated Nature) as also beyond that (Undifferentiated.)|4=[https://vedabase.io/en/library/sb/8/3/3/ Bhagvata Purana 8.3.3]}}
 
Karl Krause coined the term 'panentheism' inspired by his readings on Hinduism.<ref> P. 170 ''The Oxford Handbook of Natural Theology'' By Russell Re Manning; ''Karl Krause (1781–1832) borrowed Indian ideas in formulating his own panentheist doctrine of God as a non-personal essence (Wesen) with which the world must eventually be reunited.''"</ref> In Sanskrit, this is called ''Ishavasyam'' or ''vibhudyatvad'' (“''doctrine of pervading and surpassing''.”) While pantheism equates the visible universe with God, panentheism declares that God is omnipresent in Its creation and transcends Its creation too. This means God is the visible universe and more. Heaven and hell may not be in this universe, but another wherein God is also omnipresent. It would make sense that if God is all-pervasive that we would be within It. In other words, everything is submerged or within God. Purusha [[Sukta]] states that The Supreme is both immanent and transcendent - "''Sa bhumin vishvato vritva atyatishthat dashangulam.''" Even when Hindus greet each other by saying "''Namaste''," it means "''I bow to God within you''," showing panentheism in the very greeting. The ''Kaṭha Upaniṣad'' 2.2.12-13 states, “''Whatever we see is a manifestation of [[Brahman]].''”<ref> “''sarvaṁ khalv idaṁ brahma taj jalā[[niti]] śānta upāsīta''” </ref> Satguru Sivaya Subramuniyaswami, said that "''Panentheism is the view that the universe is part of the being of God, as distinguished from pantheism (all-is-God doctrine"), which identifies God with the total reality. In contrast, panentheism holds that God pervades the world, but is also beyond it. He is immanent and transcendent, relative and Absolute. This embracing of opposites is called dipolar. For the panentheist, God is in all, and all is in God.''"

{{Cquote|It is you from whom this universe of forms emerges, and it is you within whom it stays. It is you in whom it finally disappears. |4=Vedasara Shivastotram}} 

Professor Charles Hartshorne in his discussion of panentheism discussed Hinduism in 1953. Professor Lorilai Biernacki considers Hinduism to be one of the most panentheistic traditions.[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/panentheism/] Other [[Ārya Samudāy]] dharmas have also been written on by scholars as panentheist - Christopher Key Chapple on Jainism, Geoffrey Samuel on Buddhism, William M. Reynolds on [[Sikhism]]<ref> P. 90 ''Expanding Curriculum Theory: Dis/positions and Lines of Flight'' By William M. Reynolds and ‎Julie A. Webber </ref>, Ernest Lee Tuveson on Hermeticism<ref>P. 255 ''Gnosis and Hermeticism from Antiquity to Modern Times'' By R. van den Broek </ref>, and Dirk Baltzly on Neoplatonism.

<blockquote>
"It is in the [[Vedas]] that we find for the first time not merely traces or indications of Pantheism, but Pantheism itself in its full growth and maturity." - Constance E. Plumptre<ref> ''General Sketch of the History of Pantheism: Volume 1'' By Constance E. Plumptre </ref>
</blockquote>
{{Cquote|This entire cosmic manifestation is pervaded by Me in My unmanifest form. All living beings dwell in Me, but I do not dwell in them.|4=[https://www.holy-bhagavad-gita.org/chapter/9/verse/4 Bhagvad Gita 9.24]}}
 
Ishavasyam is a term which demonstrates the omnipresent nature of Brahm, wherein It is everywhere and is transcendent of the objects it possesses. In a story from Krishna's life, once when Krishna was an infant he was suspected to have placed mud into his mouth. Yashoda then said, “''If you have not taken any mud, then open your mouth. I shall see for myself.''” Upon seeing in his mouth, she saw the universe (i.e., galaxies, starts. ) This one event shows how the universe itself is within God Almighty.
 
{{Cquote|The Supreme Lord walks and does not walk. He is far away, but He is very near as well. He is within everything, and yet He is outside of everything.|4=[https://vedabase.io/en/library/iso/5/ Isha Upaniṣad 5]}}
 
In the below verse, [[Yama]] is saying the Brahm is present in the inanimate and animate objects of the world.
{{Cquote|I am the food. I am the eater of food.|4=Taittiriya Upaniṣad 3.10.6}}
 
{{Cquote|He who, dwelling in all things,
Yet is other than all things, 
Whom all things do not know, 
Whose body all things are, 
Who controls all things from within, 
He is your soul, the Inner Controller, the Immortal.|4=Brihad-Aranyaka Upaniṣad 3.7.15}}
 
The verse below illustrates that God is the Complete Whole, meaning all-pervasive in this universe and yet, transcendent of it:
{{Cquote|God is perfect and complete, and because It is completely perfect, all emanations from It, such as this phenomenal world, are perfectly equipped as complete wholes. Whatever is produced of the Complete Whole is also complete in itself. Because It is the Complete Whole, even through so many complete units emanate from It, It remains the complete balance.|4=Isha Upaniṣad invocation}}
 
Mahatma Gandhi was very fond of quoting from this Upaniṣadic couplet:
{{Cquote|Whatever is ephemeral in this changing universe is Ishavasya (enveloped by Isha.)|4=Isha Upaniṣad}}
 
The omnipresence of Brahm is related to the interconnectedness of the soul (aikatmyam), because it is this relationship which also helps connect the soul to Brahm for achieving Moksh - realizing Aham Brahmasmi and tapping into the [[Antaryamin]] (Brahm within.)

{{Cquote|That microcosm [within you] is That Universe [outside of you], That Universe [outside of you] is that microcosm [within you.]<ref>Yat pinde tatha Brahmānde yatha Brahmande tatha pinde[https://www.yogapedia.com/definition/9326/yat-pinde-tat-brahmande]</ref>|4=Yajur Veda}}

This concept is mentioned as ''Pind Brahmand [[Nyaya]]. ''

==Oneness of God (Monotheism)==
[[Image:Surya with attendents.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Surya]] as God (in [[Saura]] sectarian context) being worshipped by his attendants and crowds of humans, demonstrating monotheism.]]
[[Image:Cosmic Vishnu.jpg|thumb|250px|Krishna too is sometimes depicted as comprising of the whole universe and to have his abodes outside of the universe (as stated in the ''[[Bhagavad Gita|Bhagvad Gita]]''), demonstrating panentheism.]]
[[Image:Cosmic Jina.jpg|thumb|250px|The whole universe in [[Jain Dharm|Jainism]] too is depicted as a person - referred to as 'Lok Purusha', demonstrating panentheism.]]
[[Image:Cosmic Buddha.jpg|thumb|250px|The whole universe in [[Bauddh Dharm|Buddhism]] too is sometimes depicted as a person, demonstrating panentheism.]]
''Brahm'' and ''Parmatma'' are the generic terms for The One Above All. The Sanskrit term for this is
''ekantikvad'' or ''ekamata.'' How Hindus have practiced monotheism is by worshiping Parmatma by worshiping It as an Ishta-Dev. Even the worship of solely Krishna as Parmatma or God Almighty by followers was referred to ''Ekantika [[Dharma]]'' and ''[[Ekayana]]''. The latter term was used also by Vaiśnavas of the [[Rudra]] Sampraday for worshipers of only Vishnu. Śaiva sects too have enforced monotheism, such as the Alakh Panth and Virasaivs. Monotheism in worship is enforced by a few sects but worshiping God Almighty along with others (demi-gods and ancestors) isn’t forbidden by most sects.

==Oneness of Deities (Henotheism)==
:''See also: [[Worship]], [[God#Oneness of God|Oneness of God]]''
<blockquote>
"This concept of God is panentheistic and even the Vedic theism is nothing but panentheism. It is very well expressed in philosophical hymns like ''[[Puruṣa]] sūkta'', ''Hiranyagarbha sūkta'' and even ''Nāsadīya sūkta''." - Sahebrao Genu Nigal<ref> P. 81 ''Vedic Philosophy of Values'' By Sahebrao Genu Nigal </ref>
</blockquote>It is understood that any kind of worship is accepted by The One Above All, regardless of name or form addressed in worship. The Sanskrit term for this is ''sarvekāntatva'' (“''state of all being a part of one''.”) Even a worshiper who is not Hindu and worships God [or a god] at their church or home, is worshiping God (only in a different way.) This particular viewpoint was so profound to modern scholars studying Hinduism that new terms had to be invented in English just to describe it - 'henotheism'. Then from 'henothenism' came another another term - 'kathenotheism' - meaning to worship 1 god at a time (while recognizing there may be more than a single divine being.) Then in 1828 German philosopher Karl Krause coined the term 'panentheism'.

 
{{Cquote|Of the eternals you are The Chief Eternal, of the sentients you are The Chief Sentient 
The One Chief of the many, that assembles and who is desirable 
Dark (unseeable) and present in the soul who is watching and unwavering 
That eternal peace is a guiding force [within]|4=Katha Upaniṣad 2.2.13<ref> Nityo nityanam cetanas cetananam 
eko bahunam yo vidadhati kaman 
tam atma-stham ye ’nupasyanti dhiras 
tesham shantih sasvati netaresam</ref>}}

 
Even the earlier Mandalas of ''[[Rig Veda]]''<ref>Ṛgveda books 1 and 9</ref> which contain hymns dedicated to devas, are thought to have a tendency toward monotheism.<ref>Macdonell, Arthur Anthony. Vedic Mythology. Forgotten Books (May 23, 2012). P. 17. ISBN 1440094365.</ref> Often quoted isolated pada of the ''Ṛig Veda''<ref>Ṛgveda 1.164.46</ref> states (trans. Ralph T.H. Griffith):

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! English
! Sanskrit
|-
|
{{Cquote|
:They call him Indra, Mitra, Varuṇa, Agni, and he is heavenly nobly-winged Garutmān.
:To what is One, sages give many a title they call it Agni, Yama, Mātariśvan.}}
|
{{Cquote|
:Indraṃ mitraṃ varuṇamaghnimāhuratho divyaḥ sa suparṇo gharutmān
:ekaṃ sad viprā bahudhā vadantyaghniṃ yamaṃ mātariśvānamāhuḥ}}
|-
|}

Further, the ''Rig Veda'' states, “There is only one God, [[worship]] Him“<Ref> Ṛg Veda, 6.45.16 </ref> and “Do not worship any one beside Him“<ref> Ṛg Veda 8.1.1 </ref>. Recognizing that there is a Supreme God above any other divinities is seen in the Vaiśnava mantra “Dev devaya namo nama” and Śaiva mantra “Aum nama Shivay sarvaya deva devaya vai namaha,” both of which proclaim their respective Supreme as the “God of gods.”
 
{{Cquote|Patiṁ patīnāṁ paramaṁ parastāt|4=Śvetāśvatara Upaniṣad 6.7}}
 
The ''[[Brahma Samhitā]]''<ref>Brahma Samhitā 5.45</ref> declares, ''Lord Vishnu is milk; Lord Śiva is yogurt''. Other aspects of God are expansions or aspects of Vishnu or Śiva which is detailed in various [[Purānas]]. Vaiṣnavites, like other Hindus, have tolerance for other beliefs because [[Krishna]], an [[avatara]] of Vishnu, said so in the Gitā. Krishna says:
{{Cquote|Whatever deity or form a devotee worships, I make his or her faith steady. However, their wishes are only granted by Me alone."<ref>Gitā 7.21-22</ref>|4=Bhagvad Gita 7.21-22}}
Krishna also says in the Gitā:
{{Cquote|O [[Arjuna]], even those devotees who worship other lesser [[deities]] e.g., devas, with faith, they also worship Me, but in an improper way because I am the Supreme Being. I alone am the enjoyer of all sacrificial services (Seva, [[Yajna]]) and Lord of the universe."<ref>Gitā 9.23</ref>|4=[https://www.holy-bhagavad-gita.org/chapter/9/verse/3 Bhagvad Gita 9.23]}}
 
The theology of henotheism also applies to the treating of ancestors or other beings as venerable. Because divinity is extended to them by many Hindus, it does not mean that there is a violation of the belief in a One God Above All, but that piety is offered to them in respect.
 
{{Cquote|The Lord of lords is Supreme and beyond them (deities.)|4=Śvetāśvatara Upaniṣad 6.7}}

===Smarta view===
The system prevalent in Hinduism is defined by the Smartha philosophy; this theory allows for the veneration of numerous deities, but on the understanding that all of them are but manifestation of the one divine power.<ref>It is a belief sometimes called kathenotheism.</ref> That ultimate [[divinity]] is termed Brahm or Atman and is believed to have no specific form, name or attribute.<ref>{{cite book
| author = Sivaya Subramuniyaswami
| url = http://books.google.com/?id=EWlHPAkjBKUC&pg=PA425
| title = Dancing with Siva: Hinduism's Contemporary Catechism
| publisher = Himalayan Academy Publications
| year = 2004
| isbn = 0-945497-96-2}}</ref> Only a Smartha, or follower of the [[Advaita Vedanta|Advaita]] philosophy, would have no problem worshiping every imaginable deity with equal veneration; as the view is that all names and forms of deities are merely manifestations of the same God. Other Hindu sects such as [[Vaiśnavism]] and Śaivism conform more closely to a Western understanding of what a monotheistic faith is. For instance, a Vaiṣnavite considers Vishnu as being the one and only true God, an attitude that resonates with that of the [[Abrahamic religions]]. However, it is [[Advaita]] philosophy that defines the Smartha sect of mainstream Hinduism, and imparts to Indic spiritual and religious traditions their renowned liberalism.

===Swaminarayan view===
[[Swami Sahajananda]], founder of the Swaminarayan Sampraday, said in verse 115 of its scripture, “''[[Śikśapatri]] said, ‘[[Sri Krishna]] Bhagvan and Sri Krishna Bhagvan's incarnations alone are worthy of meditation. Similarly, Sri Krishna Bhagvan's images are worthy. And men or [[devas]], even if they are devotees of Sri Krishna Bhagvan or Brahmvetta,<ref>It is knower of [[divinity]].</ref> They are still not worthy of meditation and thus one should not meditate upon them.’''"

The ''[[Brahma Samhitā]]''<ref>It means ''Brahma Samhitā'' 5.45</ref> declares, Lord Vishnu is milk; [[Śiva|Lord Śiva]] is yogurt.<ref>http://vedabase.net/bs/5/45/en Sri Bramha Samhita 5.45</ref> Followers of Swaminaryan are [[Vaiṣnavas]], but differ from the viewpoint attested by Gaudiya Vaiṣnavas who emphasize Śiva as a subordinate demigod expansion of Krishna. For example, Swaminaryan states:
<ref>[http://www.swaminarayanwales.org.uk/Shikshapatri/shikshapatridetails.asp?shlockcode=85 Shree Swaminarayan Temple Cardiff - Scriptures - Shikshapatri]</ref>
{{Cquote|And the oneness of Narayan and Śiva should be understood, as the Vedas have described both to be Brahmarupa (or form of Brahm, i.e., Saguna Brahm), thus indicating that Vishnu and Śiva are different forms of the one and same God. And that [[Ishvara]] is Sri Krishna Bhagvan,<ref> (Sri Swaminarayan Bhagvan</ref> who is supreme [[Para Brahman|Parabrahm]], [[Purushottama|Purushottam]], our [[Ishta-deva]]<ref>It means principal deity.</ref> worthy of worship, and the cause of all incarnations.|4=Shikshapatri 47.84.108}}

===Vivekanandian view===
According to the speech of [[Swami Vivekananda]] in Chicago during 1906, the monotheism of Hindu is not only for Hindu. It can effective for every human living on the earth. The verse,

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! English
! Sanskrit
|-
|{{Cquote|
:It means the rain water fallen from the sky go to the ocean, the same worship of every deity goes to only one God." (Here in this verse God is mentioned as Keshav (one of the name of Krishna). It doesn't matter, you are Hindu or not.
:Every worship goes to that God.}}
|{{Cquote|
:akāsāt patitaM toyam yathā gacchati sāgaram
:sarvadeva namaskārān kesavam prati gacchati}}
|-
|}

==Relation Between Brahm and Individuals==
Sanatan Dharm is essentially to understand the relationship between the Self and self, which is why the phrases "''Aham Brahmasmi''" and "''Ayamatma Brahm''", both of which mean, "''I am part of the Supreme''."

==Upaniṣad Era==
In the time period that the [[Upaniṣads]] were written, worship of gods within Hindus is turning into worship of primarily one god. The ''Chāndogya [[Upaniṣad]]'' states,
{{Cquote|God is only one, not a second.“|4=Chāndogya [[Upaniṣad]] Ch. 6.2.1}}
 
The ''Rudra Upaniṣad'' from the ''[[Atharva]] Shiras Upaniṣad'' reads of Rudra declaring himself as Brahm, and describing his attributes. The text also reads:
{{Cquote|O Rudra, O Ishana, O Maheshwara, O Mahadeva, O lord, for thou art Parabrahm, the one and only god!<Ref> P. 443 ''Researches Into the Nature and Affinity of Ancient and Hindu Mythology'' By Vans Kennedy </ref>}}

==Bhakti movement==
:''See also: [[The Hindu Renaissance#Medieval Renaissance|Bhakti movement]], [[Bhakti]], [[Bhakti Marga|Bhakti Yoga]]''
Krishnaism is one notable instance of Vaiṣnava monotheism popularized in the [[Bhakti movement]]. Krishnaism refers to Krishna with the title ''Svayam Bhagvan'', meaning 'Lord Himself' and it is used exclusively to designate Krishna as the Supreme Lord.<ref name=Gupta20071>Gupra, 2007, p.36 note 9.</ref> Certain other [[Sampradaya|traditions]] of Hinduism consider Krishna to be the source of all emanations,<ref name = jsn>''[[Bhagwan Swaminarayan]] bicentenary commemoration volume, 1781-1981.'' p. 154: ...Shri [[Vallabhacharya]] [and] Shri Swaminarayan...Both of them designate the highest reality as Krishna, who is both the highest avatara and also the source of other avataras. To quote R. Kaladhar Bhatt in this context. "In this transcendental devotion (Nirguna [[Bhakti]]), the sole Deity and only" is Krishna. [http://books.google.com/books?id=_Q0YAAAAIAAJ&q=Avatara+Swaminarayan+Krishna+origina%3B&dq=Avatara+Swaminarayan+Krishna+origina%3B New Dimensions in Vedanta Philosophy - Page 154], Sahajā[[nanda]], [http://books.google.com/books?q=+subject:%22Vedanta%22 Vedanta]. 1981</ref> and the source of Vishnu himself or to be the same as [[Narayana|Narayan]].<ref name = "Delmonico2004">{{cite journal
| author = Delmonico, N.
| year = 2004
| title = The History Of Indic Monotheism And Modern Chaitanya Vaishnavism
| journal = The Hare Krishna Movement: the Postcharismatic Fate of a Religious Transplant
| url = http://books.google.com/?id=mBMxPdgrBhoC&pg=PA31&dq=Vaisnava+monotheism
| accessdate = 2008-04-12
| publisher = Columbia University Press
| isbn = 978-0-231-12256-6
}}</ref><ref name = "Elkman1986">{{cite book
| author = Elkman, S.M.
| coauthors = Gosvami, J.
| year = 1986
| title = Jiva Gosvamin's Tattvasandarbha: A Study on the Philosophical and Sectarian Development of the Gaudiya Vaishnava Movement
| publisher = Motilal Banarsidass Pub
| isbn =

}}</ref><ref name = Dimock1989>{{cite book
| author = Dimock Jr, E.C.
| coauthors = Dimock, E.C.
| year = 1989
| title = The Place of the Hidden Moon: Erotic Mysticism in the Vaisnava-Sahajiya Cult of Bengal
| publisher = University Of Chicago Press
| isbn =

}} [http://books.google.com/books?id=EAYa1BtUTm0C&pg=PA132&dq=Svayam+bhagavan&sig=jcyEA-4tyPoddQmWg-FnYKDBgEY page 132]
</ref> The term is seldom used to refer to other forms of Krishna and/or Vishnu within the context of certain religious texts such as the ''[[Bhagvata Purāṇa|Bhagvata Purāṇa]]''.

Though Krishna is recognized as ''Svayam Bhagvan'' by many,<ref name = "RKm">{{cite book
|author=Mepathur Narayana Bhattatiri
|title=Narayaneeyam-Bhagavata, Condensed Edition
|publisher=Sri Ramakrishna Math
|location=
|year=2003
|pages=
|isbn=81-7120-419-8
|oclc=
|doi=
|accessdate=
}}pp.234-239</ref> he is also perceived and understood from an eclectic assortment of perspectives and viewpoints.<ref name=Mahony1987>{{cite journal
| author = Mahony, W.K.
| year = 1987
| title = Perspectives on Krishna's Various Personalities
| journal = History of Religions
| volume = 26
| issue = 3
| pages = 333–335
| accessdate = 2008-04-12
| doi = 10.1086/463085
| jstor=1062381
}}</ref> When Krishna is recognized to be ''Svayam Bhagvan'', it can be understood that this is the belief of Gaudiya Vaiṣnavism,<ref name=Kennedy1925>{{cite book
| author = Kennedy, M.T.
| year = 1925
| title = The Chaitanya Movement: A Study of the Vaiṣnavism of Bengal
| publisher = H. Milford, Oxford university press
| isbn =

}}</ref> the Vallabha Sampradaya,<ref name = "flood">{{cite book
| author = Flood, Gavin D.
| authorlink = Gavin Flood
| title = An introduction to Hinduism
| publisher = Cambridge University Press
| location = Cambridge, UK
| year = 1996
| isbn = 0-521-43878-0
| url = http://books.google.com/?id=KpIWhKnYmF0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=gavin+flood
| accessdate = 2008-04-21
| page = 341
}}"Early [[Vaiṣnava]] worship focuses on three deities who become fused together, namely Vasudeva-Krishna, Krishna-Gopala and Narayana, who in turn all become identified with Vishnu. Put simply, Vasudeva-Krishna and Krishna-Gopala were worshiped by groups generally referred to as Bhagvatas, while Narayana was worshiped by the Pancaratra sect."</ref> and the [[Nimbarka Sampradaya]], where Krishna is accepted to be the source of all other manifestations and the source of Vishnu himself. This belief is drawn primarily from the famous statement of the Bhagvatam<ref name=Gupta2007/>:<ref name = Rosen>''Essential [[Hinduism]]'' S. Rosen, 2006, Greenwood Publishing Group [http://books.google.com/books?id=VlhX1h135DMC&pg=PA124&dq=Krishna+is+the+original+Personality+of+Godhead&client=firefox-a&sig=2Yojs3j3lTcocPQ7RaIqBnpLrq0 p.124] ISBN 0-275-99006-0</ref>
 
{{Cquote|All of the descents and incarnations are either plenary portions or portions of the plenary portions of the Lord, but Lord Śrī Krishna is the original Personality of Godhead.|4=Srimad Bhagvatam<ref>Śrimad Bhagvatam1.3.28</ref>}}
 
Vaiṣnavism is one of the earliest implicit manifestations of monotheism in the traditions of Vedas. ''Svayam Bhagvān'' is a [[Sanskrit]] term for the original deity of the Supreme God worshiped across many traditions of the Vaiṣnavism as the source of all, the monotheistic absolute Deity.<ref name=Delmonico2004>{{cite journal
| author = Delmonico, N.
| year = 2004
| title = The History Of Indic Monotheism And Modern Chaitanya Vaishnavism
| journal = The Hare Krishna Movement: the Postcharismatic Fate of a Religious Transplant
| url = http://books.google.com/?id=mBMxPdgrBhoC&pg=PA31&dq=Vaisnava+monotheism
| accessdate = 2008-04-12
| publisher = Columbia University Press
| isbn = 978-0-231-12256-6
}}</ref><ref name = "Elkman1986">{{cite book
| author = Elkman, S.M.
| coauthors = Gosvami, J.
| year = 1986
| title = Jiva Gosvamin's Tattvasandarbha: A Study on the Philosophical and Sectarian Development of the Gaudiya Vaisnava Movement
| publisher = Motilal Banarsidass Pub
| isbn =
}}</ref>
<ref name = "Klostermaier1974">{{cite journal
| author = Klostermaier, K.
| year = 1974
| title = The Bhaktirasamrtasindhubindu of Visvanatha Cakravartin
| journal = Journal of the American Oriental Society
| volume = 94
| issue = 1
| pages = 96–107
| accessdate = 2008-04-12
| doi = 10.2307/599733
| jstor = 599733
| publisher = American Oriental Society
}}
</ref> Within [[Hinduism]], Krishna is worshiped from a variety of perspectives.<ref name=Mahony1987>{{cite journal
| author = Mahony, W.K.
| year = 1987
| title = Perspectives on Krishna's Various Personalities
| journal = History of Religions
| volume = 26
| issue = 3
| pages = 333–335
| accessdate = 2008-04-12
| jstor=1062381
| doi=10.1086/463085
}}</ref> However, the Svayam Bhagvan concept refers to the Supreme Being of the Orthodox Gaudiya Vaiṣnavism,<ref name=Kennedy1925>{{cite book
| author = Kennedy, M.T.
| year = 1925
| title = The Chaitanya Movement: A Study of the Vaiṣnavism of Bengal
| publisher = H. Milford, Oxford university press
| isbn =
}}</ref> the Vallabha Sampradaya and the [[Nimbarka]] Sampradaya, where Krishna is worshiped as the source of all other avataras (including Vishnu).<ref name=Ojha1978>{{cite book
| author = Ojha, P.N.
| year = 1978
| title = Aspects of Medieval Indian Society and Culture
| publisher = BR Pub. Corp.; New Delhi: DK Publishers' Distributors
| isbn =
}}</ref>
<ref>[http://srimadbhagavatam.com/1/3/28/en1 ''Bhag'' 1.3.28] Chapter 3: Krishna Is the Source of All Incarnations</ref>
<ref name = McDaniel>See McDaniel, June, ''"Folk Vaishnavism and Thākur Pañcāyat: Life and status among village Krishna statues"'' in {{Harvnb|Beck|2005|p=39}}</ref> A distinguishing feature of the Vaisnava teachings is that God, Krishna or Vishnu,<ref name="Elkman1986"/> is a real person and His variegated creation is also real.<ref name="Elkman1986"/><ref name= Thomson>{{cite journal
| author = Richard Thompson, Ph. D.
| year = December 1994
| title = Reflections on the Relation Between Religion and Modern Rationalism
| url = http://www.iskcon.com/icj/1_2/12thompson.html
| accessdate = 2008-04-12
}}</ref>

Krishna worshiped in Vaiṣnava religion as the Supreme came into being as soon as all creatures came into existence. [[Brahma]] was the first Vaiṣnava. In Gaudiya Vaiṣnavism, Śiva Mahadeva is also a Vaiṣnava; in Śaivism, by contrast, Śiva is the supreme God. The ancient Prajapaties are all Vaiṣnavas. [[Narada]] who is the born child of Brahma, is a Vaiṣnava. Thus pure monotheistic Vaiṣnava religion began with the beginning of history.<ref name="Thomson"/> In the recent times man arrived once again at the instinctive monotheism of the Aryans and Vaiṣnavas.<ref name=Dalmia-luderitz1992>{{cite journal
| author = Dalmia-luderitz, V.
| year = 1992
| title = Hariscandra of Banaras and the reassessment of Vaisnava bhakti in the late nineteenth century
| journal = Devotional Literature in South Asia: Current Research, 1985-8
| url = http://books.google.com/?id=BE40dp6SCFUC&pg=PA281&dq=Vaisnava+monotheism
| accessdate = 2008-04-12
| publisher = Cambridge University Press
| isbn = 978-0-521-41311-4
}}</ref>

A different viewpoint, opposing this theological concept, is the concept of Krishna as an ''avatara'' of Narayan or Vishnu. However, although its is usual to speak of Vishnu as the source of the avataras, this is only one of the names of god of Vaiṣnavism, who is also known as Vishnu to some Vaiṣnava, Narayan to some, Vasudeva, or any of the other Vaiśnava persons, and behind each of those names there is a divine figure with attributed supremacy in Vaisnavism.<ref name = Krishna4>
{{Harvnb|Matchett|2000|p=4}}</ref> The theological interpretation of ''Svayam Bhagvān'' differs with each tradition and the translated from the Sanskrit language, the term literary means "[[Bhagvan]] Himself" or "directly Bhagvan".<ref name=Gupta2007/> Gaudiya Vaiṣnava tradition often translates it within its perspective as ''primeval Lord'' or ''original Personality of Godhead'', but also considers the terms such as ''Supreme Personality of Godhead'' and ''Supreme God'' as an equivalent to the term ''Svayam Bhagvan'', and may also choose to apply these terms to Vishnu, Narayan and many of their associated avatars.<ref> name=Knapp2005>{{cite book
| author = Knapp, S.
| year = 2005
| title = The Heart of Hinduism: The Eastern Path to Freedom, Empowerment and Illumination -
| publisher = iUniverse
| isbn =</ref>

"Krishna is the primeval Lord, the original Personality of Godhead, so He can expand Himself into unlimited forms with all potencies."<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=a2KPChj7lTwC&pg=PA161 page 161]</ref><ref name= ICJKnott>{{cite journal
| author = Dr. Kim Knott,
| year = 1993
| title = Contemporary Theological Trends In The Hare Krishna Movement: A Theology of Religions
| url = http://www.iskcon.com/icj/1_1/knott.html
| accessdate = 2008-04-12
}}..."''[[Bhakti]]'', the highest path, was that of surrender to [[Lord Krishna]], the way of pure devotional service to the Supreme Personality of Godhead".</ref>
Others have translated it simply as "the Lord Himself".<ref name="KK">{{cite book |author=K. Klostermaier |title=The Charles Strong Trust Lectures, 1972-1984 |publisher=Brill Academic Pub |location= |year=1997 |isbn=90-04-07863-0 |quote= For his worshippers he is not an avatara in the usual sense, but Svayam Bhagvan, the Lord himself.|url= http://books.google.com/?id=F_0UAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA109&dq=Svayam+bhagavan |accessdate= |page=206 | others = Crotty, Robert B.}} p.109 Klaus Klostermaier translates it simply as "the Lord Himself"</ref> Followers of Vishnu-centered sampradayas of Vaiṣnavism rarely address this term, but believe that it refers to their belief that Krishna is among the highest and fullest of all ''avatars''<ref name = Pal1958>{{cite book
| author = [[Bipin]] Chandra Pal
| year = 1964, 132 pages
| title = Shree Krishna: Letters Written to a Christian Friend
| publisher = Yugayatri/New India Printing
& Publishing Co.
| quote = First edition published in 1938 under the title of 'Europe asks: who is Shree Krishna'.
| isbn =</ref>

Sri Krishna stands at the top of this series. He is therefore called by his votaries as Purna Avatara or the highest and fullest incarnation of the Lord. and is considered to be the "''paripurna avatara''", complete in all respects and the same as the original.<ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://www.tirumala.org/sapthagiri/122002/purana.htm
|title=Sapthagiri
|publisher=www.tirumala.org
|accessdate=2008-05-03
|last=
|first=
}}</ref> Parashara Maharishi, [[Vyāsa]]'s father had devoted the largest [[Aṅṣa]]<ref>It means part.</ref> in ''[[Vishnu Purāṇa]]'' to the description of Sri Krishna Avatara the ''Paripoorna Avatara''. And according to Lord Krishna's own instructions ''upadeṣa'', "he who knows the secrets of His (Krishna's) Janma<ref>It means birth.</ref> and [[Karma]]<ref>It means actions.</ref> will not remain in [[saṅsāra]]<ref>''punar janma naiti-maam eti''.</ref> and attain Him after leaving the mortal coil."<ref>Bhagvad Gita 4.9</ref> [[Parāsara]] Maharishi ends up [[Añṣa]] 5 with a phalashruti in an identical vein (''Vishnu Purāna''<ref>Vishnu Purāna 5.38.94</ref>.)

The prime supporters of the Krishna-centered theology, Gaudiya Vaiṣnavas and followers of the Vallabha [[Sampradāya]] Nimbarka Samprā[[daya]], use the ''[[Gopala Tapani Upaniṣad]]'',<ref>{{cite book |author=B. V. Tripurari |title=Gopala-tapani Upaniṣad |publisher=Audarya Press |location= |year=2004 |pages= |isbn=1-932771-12-3 }}</ref> ''[[Vedanta Sutras]]''<ref name=Gupta2007/> and other Hindu scriptures such as the ''Bhagvata Purāna'' and the ''[[Brahma Vaivarta Purāna]]'', among others, to support their view that Krishna is indeed the ''Svayam Bhagvan''. This belief was summarized by the 16th century author [[Jiva Goswami]] in some of his works, such as ''Krishna-sandarbha''.<ref name=Gupta2007>{{cite book
| author = Gupta, Ravi M.
| coauthors =
| year = 2007
| title = Caitanya Vaisnava Vedanta of Jiva Gosvami
| publisher = Routledge
| isbn = 0-415-40548-3
}}</ref><ref name=Gupta2004>{{cite book
| author = Gupta, Ravi M.
| coauthors =
| year = 2004
| title = Caitanya Vaisnava Vedanta: Acintyabhedabheda in Jiva Gosvami's Catursutri tika
| publisher = University Of Oxford
| isbn =

}}</ref> While Krishna himself if mentioned in one of the earliest texts of Vedic literature - ''Rig Veda''.<ref>
Sunil Kumar Bhattacharya ''Krishna-cult in Indian Art''. 1996
M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd. ISBN 81-7533-001-5 p.126: "According to (D.R.Bhadarkar), the word Krishna referred to in the expression 'Krishna-drapsah' in the Ṛgveda, denotes the very same Krishna".</ref>

In the sixth book of the [[Hindu epic]] ''[[Mahābhārata]]'', the Bhishma Parva<ref>It is better known as the ''[[Bhagavad Gitā|Bhagvad Gitā]]''.</ref> Krishna offers numerous quotations that reaffirm the belief that he himself is the ''Svayam Bhagvan''. Verse [http://www.asitis.com/7/7.html 7.7] of the ''[[Bhagavad Gitā|Bhagvad Gitā]]'', is often used to support the opinion that Krishna himself is the ''Svayam Bhagvan'', and that no impersonal form of Brahm supersedes his existence, as it is a common view that ''Bhagvad Gitā'' was propounding Krishna-theism before first major proponents of [[Advaita Vedanta|monism of the Smarta school]].<ref name = "IST">{{cite book
|author=
|authorlink=
|editor = S. Devadas Pillai
|others=
|title=Indian Sociology Through Ghurye: A Dictionary
|edition=
|language=
|publisher=South Asia Books
|location=Columbia, Mo
|year=1997
|origyear=
|quote=
|isbn=81-7154-807-5
|oclc=
|doi=
|url=http://books.google.com/?id=P3uD22Ghqs4C&pg=PA283
|accessdate=
|page=403
}}</ref>

==Related Articles==
*[[Cosmogony]]
*[[Cosmology]]
*[[Darshana]]
*[[Divinity]]
*[[Brahm]]
*[[God]]
*[[Devatā]]
*[[Deities]]
*[[Worship]]
*[[Murti Puja]]

==External Resources==
*[http://enlightened-spirituality.org/panentheism.html "Panentheism and the Reality of God"] By Timothy Conway, Ph.D. (Published: October 2, 2015)
*[https://www.academia.edu/19511326/Panentheism_and_Hindu_Tantra_Abhinavagupta_s_Grammatical_Cosmology “Panentheism and Hindu Tantra: Abhinavagupta’s Grammatical Cosmology”] By Loriliai Biernacki

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

[[Category:Theology]]
[[Category:Hindu philosophical concepts]]
[[Category:Forms of worship]]

Theology

2026-07-02T05:18:47Z

Himanshu Bhatt: /* References to 3 aspects of God */

{{Author|Himanshu Bhatt}}
[[Image:Vishnu making universes.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Vishnu]] depicted as God (in [[Vaiśnava|Vaiśnava]] sectarian context) as making and ending universes while being within them, demonstrating panentheism.]]
[[Image:Gayatri Ma.jpg|thumb|250px|The monotheistic prayer [[Gayatri Mantra]] personified as God, demonstrating [[monotheism]] in itself.
 
The [[mantra]] demonstrates henotheism when it is called Sarva-[[devata]] Svarupini ("''Universal Form of All Deities''.")]]
<blockquote>
“The Hindu religion is the only one of the world’s great faiths dedicated to the idea that the Cosmos itself undergoes an immense, indeed an infinite, number of deaths and rebirths. It is the only religion in which the time scales correspond to those of modern scientific [[cosmology]]. Its cycles run from our ordinary day and night to a day and night of Brahma, 8.64 billion years long. Longer than the age of the Earth or the Sun and about half the time since the Big Bang.” - Carl Sagan, ''Cosmos''
</blockquote>
Panentheism is the first and foremost theology of the Sanatan Dharm while henotheism and monotheism are secondary but they are all in conformity with each other. This is because while recognizing there is only One Supreme Being above all ([[Brahm]] or [[God]]), the immanence and transcendence of It is a doctrine that goes beyond the generic monotheism preached by other religions. While accepting there is One God above all, it does not enforce worshiping only The One. So it is monotheistic because it believes there is God, but also henotheistic because others worshipping It in another form is accepted as still worshiping the One God. Worship as polytheism (i.e., praying to ancestors) is acceptable being it does not reject The One but venerates others as well. Once a human attains Moksh, it is united with Brahm or Parmatma. Brahm is not confined to space and so is everywhere, including within ourselves. This principle is Ishavasyam. Individuals on the other hand are also connected to all that exists, and this is the principle of aikatmyam. Because of this omnipresence, the central Hindu theology is panentheism. It is monotheist too because there is just one God above all other spirits. It is henotheist because, while Brahm is The Supreme, other beings worthy of worship exist, which may be pious humans or angels ([[Devatā|demi-gods]].) Hindu theology is often aptly termed monistic theism and even open monotheism by some scholars, but is not purely polytheistic as outsiders perceive it to be. [[Bhakti Mārga|Worship (Bhakti Yoga]]) is one of the three yogas to attain Moksh.<ref>The other two are [[Gyāna Mārga|Gyāna Yoga]] and [[Karma Mārga|Karma Yoga]].</ref> Monotheism is known in [[Śastras|Hindu scriptures]] as ekantikvad, and some sects practice it strictly, such as the [[Arya]] Samaj, Mahima, and certain [[Śaiva]] (i.e., Viraśaiva, Alakhgir) and the Vaiśnava (i.e., Pushtimarga, Ekasarana) sampradays.

Hinduism has often been considered to be polytheistic because of one leading denomination, Smartism, which follows the [[Advaita]] philosophy of absolute monism, and includes worship of all kinds of personal forms of God. Absolute monists see one unity with all personal forms of God as different aspects of one Supreme Spirit, like a single beam of light separated into colors by a prism. Thus Smartas consider all personal forms of God as equal including Devi, Vishnu, Śiva, Ganesh and Skanda but generally limit the recognized forms to be six. Other denominations of Hinduism don't adhere to the Smarta viewpoint, but are quite unlike Western perceptions of monotheism. Additionally, like Judeo-Christian traditions which believe in angels, Hindus also believe in other less powerful entities, such as [[deva]]s.<ref name = hop1>{{cite book |title=THE RELIGIONS OF INDIA|author=Edward Washburn Hopkins|url=http://books.google.com/?id=Dj33XvXqJO8C |publisher= Jr. Ginn & Co |pages=204 |year= 1896 |editor=Morris Jastrow, |isbn=978-1-60303-143-1}}</ref>

Sometimes the orthodox members of religions interpret religions with a puritan mindset. An example is that many Christians believe any form of worship not including Jesus as being 'idol worship', while Muslims consider idol worship specifically practicing worship through statues but revering the black stone at the Kaaba and circumambulating Kaaba as not idolatry. [Within the Hindu community too prejudices exist among certain people but the general belief is that 'all religions lead to God'.] This leads to religions discrediting other religions. It is resulted in Hinduism being classified as 'pagan cults' and/or a 'polytheistic religion with no heaven'. The underlying principle of the divine is that it has a Supreme Soul (literally 'Parmatma'), making Hinduism monotheistic in belief. Because Hindus believe that Parmatma possesses the universe, which It also transcends, Hinduism believes in panentheism. And because of the principles 'all religions lead to God' and 'All God is One', and that God can be worshiped in those various ways in various forms, Hinduism believes in henotheism.

Contemporary Hinduism can be categorized into four major sects:
# [[Vaiśnava|Vaiśnavism]]
# [[Śaiva|Śaivism]]
# [[Śākta|Śaktism]]
# Smartism
Vaiśnavism, Śaivism, and Śaktism [[worship]] [[Narayan]], [[Śiva]] and [[Devi]] - the Divine Mother as the Supreme Being respectively or considering all [[Hindu]] [[deities]] as aspects of the Supreme Being or Brahm.<ref>See [[Advaita]], or impersonalism.</ref> Other minor sects such as [[Ganapatya]] and [[Surya|Saura]] focus on [[Ganesha|Ganesh]] and [[Surya]] as the Supreme.

==Nature of God==
:''See also: [[God#Nature of God|Nature of God]]'' [[Image:Durga Ma.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Durga|Durga Ma]] as depicted as God (in [[Shakta]] sectarian context), the God of gods, demonstrating henotheism.]]
[[Image:God in all beings.jpg|thumb|250px|God is considered [[Antaryamin]] (Inner Dweller) or [[Caitya-purusa|Chaitya Purush]] (Inner Being.) While God is omnipresent in inanimate objects too, it is Its presence within living beings that enables a relationship between humans and It, and for humans to attain [[Moksha|Moksh]]. (This is an image of God in [[Vaiśnava]] context.)]]
The One Above All is called Brahm and Parmatma in Sanatan Dharm. This [[acintya|Supreme Being is beyond imagination]] and experience, and as such, transcends the universe. The [[Darshana|darshanas (metaphysical worldviews)]] discuss this universe being prakriti which releases from either Brahm Itself or from human under the influence of ignorance (i.e., [[Maya Panchakam|Maya]].) Brahm is also believed by most Hindus to incarnate in various avataras, which may be to answer a prayer of a devotee, [[test]] a human, or promote spirituality (i.e., Krishna.)

Brahm or God Almighty is spoken of as being ''alaukika'' ("''beyond this world''.") This world is seen as prakriti (nature) which God created. This nature of this world is such that karmas cause beings to be possessed with defilements. God is tri-guṇatit, meaning It is transcendental to the modes of material nature.

God is:
#Sarvavyapin (omnipresent)
#Sarvajna (omniscient)
#Sarvaśaktiman (omnipotent)
#Akal (without beginning, and forever)
#Tri-gunatit (transcendent of the 3 modes of material nature)
The sarvavyapin aspect of God is such that it pervades everything, both material and spiritual, and is also called ''Ishavasyam'' ("''God present in all.''") Sarvajna means to know all, and this is an aspect often highlighted when speaking of Moksh, because salvation means Brahmgyana ("''to know Brahm''") or to acquire Brahmvidya. Sarvaśaktiman means the power of Brahm is such that there is nothing it cannot do, and no other power is greater. ''Akal'' means "''timeless''" and refers to the self-existent state (''swayambhu'') of God, and that it will exist forever. Tri-gunatit means to be transcendent of this material universe which is imperfect.

===Dualistic Energies of God===
This is an understanding of Brahm based on its energies in this universe. While Brahm is the Supreme above all, the God Almighty, it is said to apply two forms of energies in this world. This means that the energy which surrounds us in this material realm is different from that of the spiritual world (Moksh), as is the energy which is with our souls. This is spoken of in different sects and [[Darshana|darshans]]. For example, in the Śaiva sect, Śiva is said to be Brahm while his other half is Prakriti (the divine energy possessing this world.) In the [[Samkhya Yoga]] darshan too, Brahm (Purusha) has a counterpart referred to as Prakriti, which is the nature that surrounds us in this reality. In the ''Bhagvad Gita'' too, Krishna says that Brahm is the total energy while the energy here in this reality he calls ''Parmatma''. In Vaiśnavism, this is notion of the Gita is elaborated wherein the energy of Brahm present in this universe is Mahamaya (or hiraṇmaya-[[mahat]]-[[tattva]]), whereas in the spiritual one it is Yogamaya (or jivan śakti.) The material energy is impacted by the three modes of material nature whereas spiritual energy is not, which is why prakriti is eternal and mutable (parimaminitya), whereas Yogamaya is eternal and immutable (parinamnitya.) The total energy of Brahm is called swarup śakti.

Personification of God's two energies has been presented in some instances as well. In Śaiva context, Śiva represents the spiritual energy and Śakti Ma represents the material energy. In Vaiśnavism too, Brahm is Krishna or Narayan and his energy (both spiritual and material) is a female, usually portrayed as Vishnu's wife, Śri (''Mantramayi Kriya Śakti''.)

====References to 3 aspects of God====
[[Image:Trimurti.jpg|thumb|250px|God represented in a syncretist context as [[Trimurti]] ("''Triune God''"), showing [[Brahmā]], [[Vishnu]], and [[Mahesh]] as God in Its 3 aspects.]]
Because the energies in the universe have normally been considered to be dualistic, they, together with God's total energy in the spiritual real, would be 3 aspects of God. From this logic, many Hindu thinkers have believed there are 3 aspects of God we can come to the conclusion of. Various scriptures have written on the One Supreme Lord being characterized of 3 aspects, in Hinduism and in the [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]]. In a conversation mentioned in the ''Brihadaranyaka [[Upanishad|Upaniṣad]]''<Ref> Chapter 3, Part 9 of ''Brihadaranyaka Upaniṣad'' </ref> between [[Yajnavalkya]] and Vidaghdha, the latter asks how many Devas (gods) there are, to which the former replies 33, but Vidaghdha keeps asking, and before coming to the answer of a single 1 God, he had said there are 3 gods [which can be taken to mean that single God has 3 aspects.] No other story legitimizes 3 aspects of Brahm more than the one of the Rig [[Veda]] wherein Ka (an epithet of the unseen presence or Parabrahm) or Apo (primordial waters) produced the universal womb Hiranyagarbha (Prajapati) with Prajapati within the womb having come into being the "one divine spirit", and Agni (souls)[https://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10121.htm]

Parallel to the 3 aspects of Brahm is the the [[Vaiśnava#Pāñcharātra Āgama|Pāñchrātra]], which consists of 5 venerable forms of Narayan (para, vyuha, vibhava, [[arca]], and antaryamin), the 3 aspects which as para, vyuha, and antaryamin fall within the same categories as the classifications of Brahm do in many other analyses. The vibhava aspect of God is basically formed from one or 2 of the other aspects (i.e., avatara of vyuha and consist of antaryamin.) Arca refers to representative icons of God which are venerated, which are created by matter. In this analysis, the Pāñchrātra holds consistent with the triune characterization of God. Some schools of Śaivism too break down the aspects of God into 3, like Śiva being Parabrahm, Śakti being Aparabrahm, and Yamala being Tapas or Agni. The last is called Tapas or Agni normally, as it is imperishable and is the same energy as the soul (Yogamaya.) That is why it is also called Apām Napāt (''Child of Apo''.)

The "Ka Sukta" (aliases "Hiranyagarbha Sukta", "Prajapati Sukta") of the ''Rig Veda'' is one the most popular cosmogonies in the Arya dharmas. What has been overlooked are the triple aspects detailed within the hymn. In it, Apo (God as 'primordial waters'), which "''possesses generational fire''" (Agni), incubates the Hiranyagarbha (womb containing Prajapati, "''born Only-Lord of all created beings''"). In other words, it ambiguously states Apo is God in the highest form (i.e., Parabrahm), Prajapati this material universe's Aparabrahm, and Agni the life-giving spark within all creatures. (This can be likened to the Pāñchrātrik para, vyuha, and antaryamin.) The hymn goes further to state that the Devanam or ''people who've taken the title of God'' (i.e., Devtas on the Divine Council of 33) return to God, meaning that the Devtas are representatives of God on Earth but they are none of the 3 aspects of God and aren't of equal status to God either.

As the material energy is Mahamaya and spiritual (superior) energy is Yogamaya, these energies can also help break down the Vak (cosmic speech.) The ''Rig Veda'' itself declares, "''Vak resides in four quarters (pada). The wise Brahmins who possess insight know them all. Three quarters are hidden in secret and do not stir; human beings speak only the fourth quarter.''"<ref>''Rig Veda'' 1.164.45</ref> The first 3 aspects of Vak itself—para, pashyanti, and madhyama—are spiritual, while the last (Vaikhari) is material energy. Therefore, it can be presumed that this together with synthesizing the commonalities in the creation myths, that the Aparabrahm or Universe is the lowest form of Vak.

Below is a table summarizing and forming the connections between the trinity stated in various texts or beliefs.
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Derivation
! Heavenly Being
! All-Pervasive Being in Universe
! Inner Being
|-
!Vishwakarma Sukta (''Rig Veda'')
|Vishwakarma/Apo (Primordial Waters)/Garbha/Dhātar/Vidhātar/Sacrificial Seer<ref>ṛṣirhotā</ref>/Ascetic Father<ref>nyasīdatpitā</ref>/One Dev<ref>deva ekaḥ</ref>/Lord of Speech<ref>vācas patiṃ</ref>/One, Only One<ref>para ekamāhuḥ</ref>
|Universe
|
|-
!Ka Sukta (''Rig Veda'')
|Apo
|Hiranyagarbha (Prajapati)/Universe
|Agni
|-
!Vak Sukta (''Rig Veda'')
|Apsu (Primordial Waters<ref>Yonirapsvantaḥ</ref>)
|Universe
|Vak
|-
!Nasadiya Sukta (''Rig Veda'')
|Tad Ekam (That One)
|Sat (The Existent/Manifestation)/Universe
|Asat (The Non-Existent/Potentiality)
|-
!Aghamarṣaṇa Sukta (''Rig Veda'')
|Dhātar
|Sat (The Existent/Manifestation)/Ṛta (Cosmic Order) and Satya (Cosmic Truth)
|Tapas (Cosmic Heat)
|-
!Devāgāna Sukta (''Rig Veda'')
|Asur Ek/Brahmaṇaspati/Dev Ek
|Sat (The Existent/Manifestation)
|Vak
|-
!Purush Sukta (''Rig Veda'')
|Adhi Purush
|Virāj/Universe
|Vak/Purush (other souls)
|-
!''Bhagavad Gita''<ref> “''O best of the embodied souls, the physical manifestation that is constantly changing is called adhibhūta; the universal form of God, which presides over the celestial gods in this creation, is called adhidaiva; I, who dwell in the heart of every living being, am called Adhiyajña, or the Lord of all sacrifices.''” - [https://www.holy-bhagavad-gita.org/chapter/8/verse/4 ''Bhagvad Gita'' 8.4] </ref>
|Parabrahm
|Aparabrahm
|Parmatma<Ref> “''Within the body also resides the Supreme Lord. He is said to be the Witness, the Permitter, the Supporter, Transcendental Enjoyer, the ultimate Controller, and the Paramātmā (Supreme Soul).''” - [https://www.holy-bhagavad-gita.org/chapter/13/verse/23 ''Bhagvad Gita'' 13.23] </ref>
|-
!''Bhagavat Purana''
|Narayan
|Mahamaya
|Yogamaya
|-
!''Isha Upaniṣad'' 6-7
|Uttam [Purush]
|Kshar
|Akshar
|-
!''Katha Upaniṣad'' (1.3.10–11)
|Purush
|Avyaktam
|Mahat (Mahan [[Atma]])
|-
!''Mahānārāyan Upaniṣad'' 24
|Tvashtā
| -
| -
|-
!''Maitrāyaṇīya Upaniṣad''
|Brahmā
|Vishnu
|Mahesh
|-
!''Sams'aya-taducchedavādah''
|Manomaya Purush ([[Avyaya]])
|Vangmaya (Kshar)
|Pranamaya Purush (Akshar)
|-
!''Sasongko Jati''
|Principle of Lord<ref>Suksma Kawekas</ref>
|Director of Life<ref>Suksma Sejati</ref>
|Lord of Life<ref>Roh Suci</ref>
|-
!''Sāttvat Saṃhitā''
|Para
|Vyuha
|Antaryamin
|-
!''Swaminarayan Bhashyam'' / ''Vachanamrut''
|Parabrahm
|Aparabrahm
|Aksharbrahm
|-
!''Vijñāna Bhairava Tantra''
|Śiva
|Śakti
|Yamala
|-
!''[[Vayu]] [[Purana]]'' 1.2
|Purush
|Manifested Prakriti
|Unmanifested Prakriti
|-
!''[[Yoga]] Sutra'' 2.20
|Drashtā
|Pratyaya-anupashya
|Shuddha
|-
|}

===Formlessness===
{{Cquote|Knowing That which is soundless, touchless, formless, undecaying; also tasteless, odorless, and eternal; beginningless, endless and immutable; beyond the Unmanifested: (knowing That) man escapes from the mouth of death.|4=Katha Upaniṣad 3.15}}
 
Brahm has been written of to be either Nirguna (Parabrahm) and Shaguna (Aparabrahm), including being both. Nirguna refers to God without physical and personality attributes (i.e., a body) while Shaguna is the opposite. Worshiping God as either is fine. Brahm is believed to take vyuhas or emanations, especially to communicate with humans in the physical world (i.e., to provide revelations), and has been seen particularly in Vaiṣnavism as both heavenly and earthly incarnations. Avatars of Śiva, Ganesh, [[Durga]], and others have also been documented and worshipped. 
{{Cquote|Brahm has indeed has 2 two modes, formless as well as manifested.|4=Brihad-Aranyaka Upaniṣad 2.3.1}}
 
Nirguna bhakti was a popular method of worshipping in the medieval era in particular when several sects appeared. Worshipping Vishnu in the formless manner was practiced by Ramanand [[Sampraday]] and its succeeding sects, including Kabir Panth, Ravidas Panth, Satnam Panth, and others. Mahima Dharm was a peculiar Vaiśnava sect because it adheres only to the ''Bhagvat Purana'' and normally referred to Vishnu as ''Alakh'' or ''Sunya'' (“''Void''.”) [[Temples]] of this sect never include [[idols]] which are venerated because the heavenly Vishnu, God before the creation of all, is considered unmanifested. Some Śaiva sects too have practiced worship without an idol, denying that God (Śiva) has a form. These sects include Alakhgirs and Nath Panthis, both of whom call Śiva ''Alakh'' (“''Invisible''.”) Manikkavasagar was a well-known saint from the Bhakti era that worshipped Śiva as formless.<ref> ''Shiva in the City of Nectar: Fifty-four divine tales of Shiva in ancient India'' By Preetha Rajah Kannan </ref> Arulnanti was a another Śaiva theologian from southern India at the time.
 
{{Cquote|Although the Supreme Lord is described as having no hands and legs, He nonetheless accepts all sacrificial offerings.|4=Śvetāśvatara Upaniṣad 3.19}}
 
Temples wherein Brahm is worshipped as formless are known as ''Sunya Mandirs''. Most of these are Vaiśnava belonging to the Ekasarana, Mahima, and Satnami sects, but Śaiva sects of Brahmā Kumaris are notable. There are also temples of Vishnu, Śiva and other gods that don’t belong to a particular sect.
 
{{Cquote|The Entity who is one and without a second, and one without any colours; who has created the colourful quinquelemental world for reasons unknown with the help of His many powers; in whom this entire universe dissolves; is no other than Parama Puruśa. Let that Entity guide our intellect along the path of supreme righteousness. |4=Śvetāśvatara Upaniṣad 4.1.12}}

==Both Immanency and Transcendence of God (Panentheism)==
{{Cquote|I take refuge in that self-existent Being in Whom is this Universe, and Who is beyond this (differentiated Nature) as also beyond that (Undifferentiated.)|4=[https://vedabase.io/en/library/sb/8/3/3/ Bhagvata Purana 8.3.3]}}
 
Karl Krause coined the term 'panentheism' inspired by his readings on Hinduism.<ref> P. 170 ''The Oxford Handbook of Natural Theology'' By Russell Re Manning; ''Karl Krause (1781–1832) borrowed Indian ideas in formulating his own panentheist doctrine of God as a non-personal essence (Wesen) with which the world must eventually be reunited.''"</ref> In Sanskrit, this is called ''Ishavasyam'' or ''vibhudyatvad'' (“''doctrine of pervading and surpassing''.”) While pantheism equates the visible universe with God, panentheism declares that God is omnipresent in Its creation and transcends Its creation too. This means God is the visible universe and more. Heaven and hell may not be in this universe, but another wherein God is also omnipresent. It would make sense that if God is all-pervasive that we would be within It. In other words, everything is submerged or within God. Purusha [[Sukta]] states that The Supreme is both immanent and transcendent - "''Sa bhumin vishvato vritva atyatishthat dashangulam.''" Even when Hindus greet each other by saying "''Namaste''," it means "''I bow to God within you''," showing panentheism in the very greeting. The ''Kaṭha Upaniṣad'' 2.2.12-13 states, “''Whatever we see is a manifestation of [[Brahman]].''”<ref> “''sarvaṁ khalv idaṁ brahma taj jalā[[niti]] śānta upāsīta''” </ref> Satguru Sivaya Subramuniyaswami, said that "''Panentheism is the view that the universe is part of the being of God, as distinguished from pantheism (all-is-God doctrine"), which identifies God with the total reality. In contrast, panentheism holds that God pervades the world, but is also beyond it. He is immanent and transcendent, relative and Absolute. This embracing of opposites is called dipolar. For the panentheist, God is in all, and all is in God.''"

{{Cquote|It is you from whom this universe of forms emerges, and it is you within whom it stays. It is you in whom it finally disappears. |4=Vedasara Shivastotram}} 

Professor Charles Hartshorne in his discussion of panentheism discussed Hinduism in 1953. Professor Lorilai Biernacki considers Hinduism to be one of the most panentheistic traditions.[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/panentheism/] Other [[Ārya Samudāy]] dharmas have also been written on by scholars as panentheist - Christopher Key Chapple on Jainism, Geoffrey Samuel on Buddhism, William M. Reynolds on [[Sikhism]]<ref> P. 90 ''Expanding Curriculum Theory: Dis/positions and Lines of Flight'' By William M. Reynolds and ‎Julie A. Webber </ref>, Ernest Lee Tuveson on Hermeticism<ref>P. 255 ''Gnosis and Hermeticism from Antiquity to Modern Times'' By R. van den Broek </ref>, and Dirk Baltzly on Neoplatonism.

<blockquote>
"It is in the [[Vedas]] that we find for the first time not merely traces or indications of Pantheism, but Pantheism itself in its full growth and maturity." - Constance E. Plumptre<ref> ''General Sketch of the History of Pantheism: Volume 1'' By Constance E. Plumptre </ref>
</blockquote>
{{Cquote|This entire cosmic manifestation is pervaded by Me in My unmanifest form. All living beings dwell in Me, but I do not dwell in them.|4=[https://www.holy-bhagavad-gita.org/chapter/9/verse/4 Bhagvad Gita 9.24]}}
 
Ishavasyam is a term which demonstrates the omnipresent nature of Brahm, wherein It is everywhere and is transcendent of the objects it possesses. In a story from Krishna's life, once when Krishna was an infant he was suspected to have placed mud into his mouth. Yashoda then said, “''If you have not taken any mud, then open your mouth. I shall see for myself.''” Upon seeing in his mouth, she saw the universe (i.e., galaxies, starts. ) This one event shows how the universe itself is within God Almighty.
 
{{Cquote|The Supreme Lord walks and does not walk. He is far away, but He is very near as well. He is within everything, and yet He is outside of everything.|4=[https://vedabase.io/en/library/iso/5/ Isha Upaniṣad 5]}}
 
In the below verse, [[Yama]] is saying the Brahm is present in the inanimate and animate objects of the world.
{{Cquote|I am the food. I am the eater of food.|4=Taittiriya Upaniṣad 3.10.6}}
 
{{Cquote|He who, dwelling in all things,
Yet is other than all things, 
Whom all things do not know, 
Whose body all things are, 
Who controls all things from within, 
He is your soul, the Inner Controller, the Immortal.|4=Brihad-Aranyaka Upaniṣad 3.7.15}}
 
The verse below illustrates that God is the Complete Whole, meaning all-pervasive in this universe and yet, transcendent of it:
{{Cquote|God is perfect and complete, and because It is completely perfect, all emanations from It, such as this phenomenal world, are perfectly equipped as complete wholes. Whatever is produced of the Complete Whole is also complete in itself. Because It is the Complete Whole, even through so many complete units emanate from It, It remains the complete balance.|4=Isha Upaniṣad invocation}}
 
Mahatma Gandhi was very fond of quoting from this Upaniṣadic couplet:
{{Cquote|Whatever is ephemeral in this changing universe is Ishavasya (enveloped by Isha.)|4=Isha Upaniṣad}}
 
The omnipresence of Brahm is related to the interconnectedness of the soul (aikatmyam), because it is this relationship which also helps connect the soul to Brahm for achieving Moksh - realizing Aham Brahmasmi and tapping into the [[Antaryamin]] (Brahm within.)

{{Cquote|That microcosm [within you] is That Universe [outside of you], That Universe [outside of you] is that microcosm [within you.]<ref>Yat pinde tatha Brahmānde yatha Brahmande tatha pinde[https://www.yogapedia.com/definition/9326/yat-pinde-tat-brahmande]</ref>|4=Yajur Veda}}

This concept is mentioned as ''Pind Brahmand [[Nyaya]]. ''

==Oneness of God (Monotheism)==
[[Image:Surya with attendents.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Surya]] as God (in [[Saura]] sectarian context) being worshipped by his attendants and crowds of humans, demonstrating monotheism.]]
[[Image:Cosmic Vishnu.jpg|thumb|250px|Krishna too is sometimes depicted as comprising of the whole universe and to have his abodes outside of the universe (as stated in the ''[[Bhagavad Gita|Bhagvad Gita]]''), demonstrating panentheism.]]
[[Image:Cosmic Jina.jpg|thumb|250px|The whole universe in [[Jain Dharm|Jainism]] too is depicted as a person - referred to as 'Lok Purusha', demonstrating panentheism.]]
[[Image:Cosmic Buddha.jpg|thumb|250px|The whole universe in [[Bauddh Dharm|Buddhism]] too is sometimes depicted as a person, demonstrating panentheism.]]
''Brahm'' and ''Parmatma'' are the generic terms for The One Above All. The Sanskrit term for this is
''ekantikvad'' or ''ekamata.'' How Hindus have practiced monotheism is by worshiping Parmatma by worshiping It as an Ishta-Dev. Even the worship of solely Krishna as Parmatma or God Almighty by followers was referred to ''Ekantika [[Dharma]]'' and ''[[Ekayana]]''. The latter term was used also by Vaiśnavas of the [[Rudra]] Sampraday for worshipers of only Vishnu. Śaiva sects too have enforced monotheism, such as the Alakh Panth and Virasaivs. Monotheism in worship is enforced by a few sects but worshiping God Almighty along with others (demi-gods and ancestors) isn’t forbidden by most sects.

==Oneness of Deities (Henotheism)==
:''See also: [[Worship]], [[God#Oneness of God|Oneness of God]]''
<blockquote>
"This concept of God is panentheistic and even the Vedic theism is nothing but panentheism. It is very well expressed in philosophical hymns like ''[[Puruṣa]] sūkta'', ''Hiranyagarbha sūkta'' and even ''Nāsadīya sūkta''." - Sahebrao Genu Nigal<ref> P. 81 ''Vedic Philosophy of Values'' By Sahebrao Genu Nigal </ref>
</blockquote>It is understood that any kind of worship is accepted by The One Above All, regardless of name or form addressed in worship. The Sanskrit term for this is ''sarvekāntatva'' (“''state of all being a part of one''.”) Even a worshiper who is not Hindu and worships God [or a god] at their church or home, is worshiping God (only in a different way.) This particular viewpoint was so profound to modern scholars studying Hinduism that new terms had to be invented in English just to describe it - 'henotheism'. Then from 'henothenism' came another another term - 'kathenotheism' - meaning to worship 1 god at a time (while recognizing there may be more than a single divine being.) Then in 1828 German philosopher Karl Krause coined the term 'panentheism'.

 
{{Cquote|Of the eternals you are The Chief Eternal, of the sentients you are The Chief Sentient 
The One Chief of the many, that assembles and who is desirable 
Dark (unseeable) and present in the soul who is watching and unwavering 
That eternal peace is a guiding force [within]|4=Katha Upaniṣad 2.2.13<ref> Nityo nityanam cetanas cetananam 
eko bahunam yo vidadhati kaman 
tam atma-stham ye ’nupasyanti dhiras 
tesham shantih sasvati netaresam</ref>}}

 
Even the earlier Mandalas of [[Ṛgveda]]<ref>Ṛgveda books 1 and 9</ref> which contain hymns dedicated to devas, are thought to have a tendency toward monotheism.<ref>Macdonell, Arthur Anthony. Vedic Mythology. Forgotten Books (May 23, 2012). P. 17. ISBN 1440094365.</ref> Often quoted isolated pada of the Ṛgveda<ref>Ṛgveda 1.164.46</ref> states (trans. Ralph T.H. Griffith):

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! English
! Sanskrit
|-
|
{{Cquote|
:They call him Indra, Mitra, Varuṇa, Agni, and he is heavenly nobly-winged Garutmān.
:To what is One, sages give many a title they call it Agni, Yama, Mātariśvan.}}
|
{{Cquote|
:Indraṃ mitraṃ varuṇamaghnimāhuratho divyaḥ sa suparṇo gharutmān
:ekaṃ sad viprā bahudhā vadantyaghniṃ yamaṃ mātariśvānamāhuḥ}}
|-
|}

Further, the Ṛg Veda states, “There is only one God, [[worship]] Him“<Ref> Ṛg Veda, 6.45.16 </ref> and “Do not worship any one beside Him“<ref> Ṛg Veda 8.1.1 </ref>. Recognizing that there is a Supreme God above any other divinities is seen in the Vaiśnava mantra “Dev devaya namo nama” and Śaiva mantra “Aum nama Shivay sarvaya deva devaya vai namaha,” both of which proclaim their respective Supreme as the “God of gods.”
 
{{Cquote|Patiṁ patīnāṁ paramaṁ parastāt|4=Śvetāśvatara Upaniṣad 6.7}}
 
The ''[[Brahma Samhitā]]''<ref>Brahma Samhitā 5.45</ref> declares, ''Lord Vishnu is milk; Lord Śiva is yogurt''. Other aspects of God are expansions or aspects of Vishnu or Śiva which is detailed in various [[Purānas]]. Vaiṣnavites, like other Hindus, have tolerance for other beliefs because [[Krishna]], an [[avatara]] of Vishnu, said so in the Gitā. Krishna says:
{{Cquote|Whatever deity or form a devotee worships, I make his or her faith steady. However, their wishes are only granted by Me alone."<ref>Gitā 7.21-22</ref>|4=Bhagvad Gita 7.21-22}}
Krishna also says in the Gitā:
{{Cquote|O [[Arjuna]], even those devotees who worship other lesser [[deities]] e.g., devas, with faith, they also worship Me, but in an improper way because I am the Supreme Being. I alone am the enjoyer of all sacrificial services (Seva, [[Yajna]]) and Lord of the universe."<ref>Gitā 9.23</ref>|4=[https://www.holy-bhagavad-gita.org/chapter/9/verse/3 Bhagvad Gita 9.23]}}
 
The theology of henotheism also applies to the treating of ancestors or other beings as venerable. Because divinity is extended to them by many Hindus, it does not mean that there is a violation of the belief in a One God Above All, but that piety is offered to them in respect.
 
{{Cquote|The Lord of lords is Supreme and beyond them (deities.)|4=Śvetāśvatara Upaniṣad 6.7}}

===Smarta view===
The system prevalent in Hinduism is defined by the Smartha philosophy; this theory allows for the veneration of numerous deities, but on the understanding that all of them are but manifestation of the one divine power.<ref>It is a belief sometimes called kathenotheism.</ref> That ultimate [[divinity]] is termed Brahm or Atman and is believed to have no specific form, name or attribute.<ref>{{cite book
| author = Sivaya Subramuniyaswami
| url = http://books.google.com/?id=EWlHPAkjBKUC&pg=PA425
| title = Dancing with Siva: Hinduism's Contemporary Catechism
| publisher = Himalayan Academy Publications
| year = 2004
| isbn = 0-945497-96-2}}</ref> Only a Smartha, or follower of the [[Advaita Vedanta|Advaita]] philosophy, would have no problem worshiping every imaginable deity with equal veneration; as the view is that all names and forms of deities are merely manifestations of the same God. Other Hindu sects such as [[Vaiśnavism]] and Śaivism conform more closely to a Western understanding of what a monotheistic faith is. For instance, a Vaiṣnavite considers Vishnu as being the one and only true God, an attitude that resonates with that of the [[Abrahamic religions]]. However, it is [[Advaita]] philosophy that defines the Smartha sect of mainstream Hinduism, and imparts to Indic spiritual and religious traditions their renowned liberalism.

===Swaminarayan view===
[[Swami Sahajananda]], founder of the Swaminarayan Sampraday, said in verse 115 of its scripture, “''[[Śikśapatri]] said, ‘[[Sri Krishna]] Bhagvan and Sri Krishna Bhagvan's incarnations alone are worthy of meditation. Similarly, Sri Krishna Bhagvan's images are worthy. And men or [[devas]], even if they are devotees of Sri Krishna Bhagvan or Brahmvetta,<ref>It is knower of [[divinity]].</ref> They are still not worthy of meditation and thus one should not meditate upon them.’''"

The ''[[Brahma Samhitā]]''<ref>It means ''Brahma Samhitā'' 5.45</ref> declares, Lord Vishnu is milk; [[Śiva|Lord Śiva]] is yogurt.<ref>http://vedabase.net/bs/5/45/en Sri Bramha Samhita 5.45</ref> Followers of Swaminaryan are [[Vaiṣnavas]], but differ from the viewpoint attested by Gaudiya Vaiṣnavas who emphasize Śiva as a subordinate demigod expansion of Krishna. For example, Swaminaryan states:
<ref>[http://www.swaminarayanwales.org.uk/Shikshapatri/shikshapatridetails.asp?shlockcode=85 Shree Swaminarayan Temple Cardiff - Scriptures - Shikshapatri]</ref>
{{Cquote|And the oneness of Narayan and Śiva should be understood, as the Vedas have described both to be Brahmarupa (or form of Brahm, i.e., Saguna Brahm), thus indicating that Vishnu and Śiva are different forms of the one and same God. And that [[Ishvara]] is Sri Krishna Bhagvan,<ref> (Sri Swaminarayan Bhagvan</ref> who is supreme [[Para Brahman|Parabrahm]], [[Purushottama|Purushottam]], our [[Ishta-deva]]<ref>It means principal deity.</ref> worthy of worship, and the cause of all incarnations.|4=Shikshapatri 47.84.108}}

===Vivekanandian view===
According to the speech of [[Swami Vivekananda]] in Chicago during 1906, the monotheism of Hindu is not only for Hindu. It can effective for every human living on the earth. The verse,

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! English
! Sanskrit
|-
|{{Cquote|
:It means the rain water fallen from the sky go to the ocean, the same worship of every deity goes to only one God." (Here in this verse God is mentioned as Keshav (one of the name of Krishna). It doesn't matter, you are Hindu or not.
:Every worship goes to that God.}}
|{{Cquote|
:akāsāt patitaM toyam yathā gacchati sāgaram
:sarvadeva namaskārān kesavam prati gacchati}}
|-
|}

==Relation Between Brahm and Individuals==
Sanatan Dharm is essentially to understand the relationship between the Self and self, which is why the phrases "''Aham Brahmasmi''" and "''Ayamatma Brahm''", both of which mean, "''I am part of the Supreme''."

==Upaniṣad Era==
In the time period that the [[Upaniṣads]] were written, worship of gods within Hindus is turning into worship of primarily one god. The ''Chāndogya [[Upaniṣad]]'' states,
{{Cquote|God is only one, not a second.“|4=Chāndogya [[Upaniṣad]] Ch. 6.2.1}}
 
The ''Rudra Upaniṣad'' from the ''[[Atharva]] Shiras Upaniṣad'' reads of Rudra declaring himself as Brahm, and describing his attributes. The text also reads:
{{Cquote|O Rudra, O Ishana, O Maheshwara, O Mahadeva, O lord, for thou art Parabrahm, the one and only god!<Ref> P. 443 ''Researches Into the Nature and Affinity of Ancient and Hindu Mythology'' By Vans Kennedy </ref>}}

==Bhakti movement==
:''See also: [[The Hindu Renaissance#Medieval Renaissance|Bhakti movement]], [[Bhakti]], [[Bhakti Marga|Bhakti Yoga]]''
Krishnaism is one notable instance of Vaiṣnava monotheism popularized in the [[Bhakti movement]]. Krishnaism refers to Krishna with the title ''Svayam Bhagvan'', meaning 'Lord Himself' and it is used exclusively to designate Krishna as the Supreme Lord.<ref name=Gupta20071>Gupra, 2007, p.36 note 9.</ref> Certain other [[Sampradaya|traditions]] of Hinduism consider Krishna to be the source of all emanations,<ref name = jsn>''[[Bhagwan Swaminarayan]] bicentenary commemoration volume, 1781-1981.'' p. 154: ...Shri [[Vallabhacharya]] [and] Shri Swaminarayan...Both of them designate the highest reality as Krishna, who is both the highest avatara and also the source of other avataras. To quote R. Kaladhar Bhatt in this context. "In this transcendental devotion (Nirguna [[Bhakti]]), the sole Deity and only" is Krishna. [http://books.google.com/books?id=_Q0YAAAAIAAJ&q=Avatara+Swaminarayan+Krishna+origina%3B&dq=Avatara+Swaminarayan+Krishna+origina%3B New Dimensions in Vedanta Philosophy - Page 154], Sahajā[[nanda]], [http://books.google.com/books?q=+subject:%22Vedanta%22 Vedanta]. 1981</ref> and the source of Vishnu himself or to be the same as [[Narayana|Narayan]].<ref name = "Delmonico2004">{{cite journal
| author = Delmonico, N.
| year = 2004
| title = The History Of Indic Monotheism And Modern Chaitanya Vaishnavism
| journal = The Hare Krishna Movement: the Postcharismatic Fate of a Religious Transplant
| url = http://books.google.com/?id=mBMxPdgrBhoC&pg=PA31&dq=Vaisnava+monotheism
| accessdate = 2008-04-12
| publisher = Columbia University Press
| isbn = 978-0-231-12256-6
}}</ref><ref name = "Elkman1986">{{cite book
| author = Elkman, S.M.
| coauthors = Gosvami, J.
| year = 1986
| title = Jiva Gosvamin's Tattvasandarbha: A Study on the Philosophical and Sectarian Development of the Gaudiya Vaishnava Movement
| publisher = Motilal Banarsidass Pub
| isbn =

}}</ref><ref name = Dimock1989>{{cite book
| author = Dimock Jr, E.C.
| coauthors = Dimock, E.C.
| year = 1989
| title = The Place of the Hidden Moon: Erotic Mysticism in the Vaisnava-Sahajiya Cult of Bengal
| publisher = University Of Chicago Press
| isbn =

}} [http://books.google.com/books?id=EAYa1BtUTm0C&pg=PA132&dq=Svayam+bhagavan&sig=jcyEA-4tyPoddQmWg-FnYKDBgEY page 132]
</ref> The term is seldom used to refer to other forms of Krishna and/or Vishnu within the context of certain religious texts such as the ''[[Bhagvata Purāṇa|Bhagvata Purāṇa]]''.

Though Krishna is recognized as ''Svayam Bhagvan'' by many,<ref name = "RKm">{{cite book
|author=Mepathur Narayana Bhattatiri
|title=Narayaneeyam-Bhagavata, Condensed Edition
|publisher=Sri Ramakrishna Math
|location=
|year=2003
|pages=
|isbn=81-7120-419-8
|oclc=
|doi=
|accessdate=
}}pp.234-239</ref> he is also perceived and understood from an eclectic assortment of perspectives and viewpoints.<ref name=Mahony1987>{{cite journal
| author = Mahony, W.K.
| year = 1987
| title = Perspectives on Krishna's Various Personalities
| journal = History of Religions
| volume = 26
| issue = 3
| pages = 333–335
| accessdate = 2008-04-12
| doi = 10.1086/463085
| jstor=1062381
}}</ref> When Krishna is recognized to be ''Svayam Bhagvan'', it can be understood that this is the belief of Gaudiya Vaiṣnavism,<ref name=Kennedy1925>{{cite book
| author = Kennedy, M.T.
| year = 1925
| title = The Chaitanya Movement: A Study of the Vaiṣnavism of Bengal
| publisher = H. Milford, Oxford university press
| isbn =

}}</ref> the Vallabha Sampradaya,<ref name = "flood">{{cite book
| author = Flood, Gavin D.
| authorlink = Gavin Flood
| title = An introduction to Hinduism
| publisher = Cambridge University Press
| location = Cambridge, UK
| year = 1996
| isbn = 0-521-43878-0
| url = http://books.google.com/?id=KpIWhKnYmF0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=gavin+flood
| accessdate = 2008-04-21
| page = 341
}}"Early [[Vaiṣnava]] worship focuses on three deities who become fused together, namely Vasudeva-Krishna, Krishna-Gopala and Narayana, who in turn all become identified with Vishnu. Put simply, Vasudeva-Krishna and Krishna-Gopala were worshiped by groups generally referred to as Bhagvatas, while Narayana was worshiped by the Pancaratra sect."</ref> and the [[Nimbarka Sampradaya]], where Krishna is accepted to be the source of all other manifestations and the source of Vishnu himself. This belief is drawn primarily from the famous statement of the Bhagvatam<ref name=Gupta2007/>:<ref name = Rosen>''Essential [[Hinduism]]'' S. Rosen, 2006, Greenwood Publishing Group [http://books.google.com/books?id=VlhX1h135DMC&pg=PA124&dq=Krishna+is+the+original+Personality+of+Godhead&client=firefox-a&sig=2Yojs3j3lTcocPQ7RaIqBnpLrq0 p.124] ISBN 0-275-99006-0</ref>
 
{{Cquote|All of the descents and incarnations are either plenary portions or portions of the plenary portions of the Lord, but Lord Śrī Krishna is the original Personality of Godhead.|4=Srimad Bhagvatam<ref>Śrimad Bhagvatam1.3.28</ref>}}
 
Vaiṣnavism is one of the earliest implicit manifestations of monotheism in the traditions of Vedas. ''Svayam Bhagvān'' is a [[Sanskrit]] term for the original deity of the Supreme God worshiped across many traditions of the Vaiṣnavism as the source of all, the monotheistic absolute Deity.<ref name=Delmonico2004>{{cite journal
| author = Delmonico, N.
| year = 2004
| title = The History Of Indic Monotheism And Modern Chaitanya Vaishnavism
| journal = The Hare Krishna Movement: the Postcharismatic Fate of a Religious Transplant
| url = http://books.google.com/?id=mBMxPdgrBhoC&pg=PA31&dq=Vaisnava+monotheism
| accessdate = 2008-04-12
| publisher = Columbia University Press
| isbn = 978-0-231-12256-6
}}</ref><ref name = "Elkman1986">{{cite book
| author = Elkman, S.M.
| coauthors = Gosvami, J.
| year = 1986
| title = Jiva Gosvamin's Tattvasandarbha: A Study on the Philosophical and Sectarian Development of the Gaudiya Vaisnava Movement
| publisher = Motilal Banarsidass Pub
| isbn =
}}</ref>
<ref name = "Klostermaier1974">{{cite journal
| author = Klostermaier, K.
| year = 1974
| title = The Bhaktirasamrtasindhubindu of Visvanatha Cakravartin
| journal = Journal of the American Oriental Society
| volume = 94
| issue = 1
| pages = 96–107
| accessdate = 2008-04-12
| doi = 10.2307/599733
| jstor = 599733
| publisher = American Oriental Society
}}
</ref> Within [[Hinduism]], Krishna is worshiped from a variety of perspectives.<ref name=Mahony1987>{{cite journal
| author = Mahony, W.K.
| year = 1987
| title = Perspectives on Krishna's Various Personalities
| journal = History of Religions
| volume = 26
| issue = 3
| pages = 333–335
| accessdate = 2008-04-12
| jstor=1062381
| doi=10.1086/463085
}}</ref> However, the Svayam Bhagvan concept refers to the Supreme Being of the Orthodox Gaudiya Vaiṣnavism,<ref name=Kennedy1925>{{cite book
| author = Kennedy, M.T.
| year = 1925
| title = The Chaitanya Movement: A Study of the Vaiṣnavism of Bengal
| publisher = H. Milford, Oxford university press
| isbn =
}}</ref> the Vallabha Sampradaya and the [[Nimbarka]] Sampradaya, where Krishna is worshiped as the source of all other avataras (including Vishnu).<ref name=Ojha1978>{{cite book
| author = Ojha, P.N.
| year = 1978
| title = Aspects of Medieval Indian Society and Culture
| publisher = BR Pub. Corp.; New Delhi: DK Publishers' Distributors
| isbn =
}}</ref>
<ref>[http://srimadbhagavatam.com/1/3/28/en1 ''Bhag'' 1.3.28] Chapter 3: Krishna Is the Source of All Incarnations</ref>
<ref name = McDaniel>See McDaniel, June, ''"Folk Vaishnavism and Thākur Pañcāyat: Life and status among village Krishna statues"'' in {{Harvnb|Beck|2005|p=39}}</ref> A distinguishing feature of the Vaisnava teachings is that God, Krishna or Vishnu,<ref name="Elkman1986"/> is a real person and His variegated creation is also real.<ref name="Elkman1986"/><ref name= Thomson>{{cite journal
| author = Richard Thompson, Ph. D.
| year = December 1994
| title = Reflections on the Relation Between Religion and Modern Rationalism
| url = http://www.iskcon.com/icj/1_2/12thompson.html
| accessdate = 2008-04-12
}}</ref>

Krishna worshiped in Vaiṣnava religion as the Supreme came into being as soon as all creatures came into existence. [[Brahma]] was the first Vaiṣnava. In Gaudiya Vaiṣnavism, Śiva Mahadeva is also a Vaiṣnava; in Śaivism, by contrast, Śiva is the supreme God. The ancient Prajapaties are all Vaiṣnavas. [[Narada]] who is the born child of Brahma, is a Vaiṣnava. Thus pure monotheistic Vaiṣnava religion began with the beginning of history.<ref name="Thomson"/> In the recent times man arrived once again at the instinctive monotheism of the Aryans and Vaiṣnavas.<ref name=Dalmia-luderitz1992>{{cite journal
| author = Dalmia-luderitz, V.
| year = 1992
| title = Hariscandra of Banaras and the reassessment of Vaisnava bhakti in the late nineteenth century
| journal = Devotional Literature in South Asia: Current Research, 1985-8
| url = http://books.google.com/?id=BE40dp6SCFUC&pg=PA281&dq=Vaisnava+monotheism
| accessdate = 2008-04-12
| publisher = Cambridge University Press
| isbn = 978-0-521-41311-4
}}</ref>

A different viewpoint, opposing this theological concept, is the concept of Krishna as an ''avatara'' of Narayan or Vishnu. However, although its is usual to speak of Vishnu as the source of the avataras, this is only one of the names of god of Vaiṣnavism, who is also known as Vishnu to some Vaiṣnava, Narayan to some, Vasudeva, or any of the other Vaiśnava persons, and behind each of those names there is a divine figure with attributed supremacy in Vaisnavism.<ref name = Krishna4>
{{Harvnb|Matchett|2000|p=4}}</ref> The theological interpretation of ''Svayam Bhagvān'' differs with each tradition and the translated from the Sanskrit language, the term literary means "[[Bhagvan]] Himself" or "directly Bhagvan".<ref name=Gupta2007/> Gaudiya Vaiṣnava tradition often translates it within its perspective as ''primeval Lord'' or ''original Personality of Godhead'', but also considers the terms such as ''Supreme Personality of Godhead'' and ''Supreme God'' as an equivalent to the term ''Svayam Bhagvan'', and may also choose to apply these terms to Vishnu, Narayan and many of their associated avatars.<ref> name=Knapp2005>{{cite book
| author = Knapp, S.
| year = 2005
| title = The Heart of Hinduism: The Eastern Path to Freedom, Empowerment and Illumination -
| publisher = iUniverse
| isbn =</ref>

"Krishna is the primeval Lord, the original Personality of Godhead, so He can expand Himself into unlimited forms with all potencies."<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=a2KPChj7lTwC&pg=PA161 page 161]</ref><ref name= ICJKnott>{{cite journal
| author = Dr. Kim Knott,
| year = 1993
| title = Contemporary Theological Trends In The Hare Krishna Movement: A Theology of Religions
| url = http://www.iskcon.com/icj/1_1/knott.html
| accessdate = 2008-04-12
}}..."''[[Bhakti]]'', the highest path, was that of surrender to [[Lord Krishna]], the way of pure devotional service to the Supreme Personality of Godhead".</ref>
Others have translated it simply as "the Lord Himself".<ref name="KK">{{cite book |author=K. Klostermaier |title=The Charles Strong Trust Lectures, 1972-1984 |publisher=Brill Academic Pub |location= |year=1997 |isbn=90-04-07863-0 |quote= For his worshippers he is not an avatara in the usual sense, but Svayam Bhagvan, the Lord himself.|url= http://books.google.com/?id=F_0UAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA109&dq=Svayam+bhagavan |accessdate= |page=206 | others = Crotty, Robert B.}} p.109 Klaus Klostermaier translates it simply as "the Lord Himself"</ref> Followers of Vishnu-centered sampradayas of Vaiṣnavism rarely address this term, but believe that it refers to their belief that Krishna is among the highest and fullest of all ''avatars''<ref name = Pal1958>{{cite book
| author = [[Bipin]] Chandra Pal
| year = 1964, 132 pages
| title = Shree Krishna: Letters Written to a Christian Friend
| publisher = Yugayatri/New India Printing
& Publishing Co.
| quote = First edition published in 1938 under the title of 'Europe asks: who is Shree Krishna'.
| isbn =</ref>

Sri Krishna stands at the top of this series. He is therefore called by his votaries as Purna Avatara or the highest and fullest incarnation of the Lord. and is considered to be the "''paripurna avatara''", complete in all respects and the same as the original.<ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://www.tirumala.org/sapthagiri/122002/purana.htm
|title=Sapthagiri
|publisher=www.tirumala.org
|accessdate=2008-05-03
|last=
|first=
}}</ref> Parashara Maharishi, [[Vyāsa]]'s father had devoted the largest [[Aṅṣa]]<ref>It means part.</ref> in ''[[Vishnu Purāṇa]]'' to the description of Sri Krishna Avatara the ''Paripoorna Avatara''. And according to Lord Krishna's own instructions ''upadeṣa'', "he who knows the secrets of His (Krishna's) Janma<ref>It means birth.</ref> and [[Karma]]<ref>It means actions.</ref> will not remain in [[saṅsāra]]<ref>''punar janma naiti-maam eti''.</ref> and attain Him after leaving the mortal coil."<ref>Bhagvad Gita 4.9</ref> [[Parāsara]] Maharishi ends up [[Añṣa]] 5 with a phalashruti in an identical vein (''Vishnu Purāna''<ref>Vishnu Purāna 5.38.94</ref>.)

The prime supporters of the Krishna-centered theology, Gaudiya Vaiṣnavas and followers of the Vallabha [[Sampradāya]] Nimbarka Samprā[[daya]], use the ''[[Gopala Tapani Upaniṣad]]'',<ref>{{cite book |author=B. V. Tripurari |title=Gopala-tapani Upaniṣad |publisher=Audarya Press |location= |year=2004 |pages= |isbn=1-932771-12-3 }}</ref> ''[[Vedanta Sutras]]''<ref name=Gupta2007/> and other Hindu scriptures such as the ''Bhagvata Purāna'' and the ''[[Brahma Vaivarta Purāna]]'', among others, to support their view that Krishna is indeed the ''Svayam Bhagvan''. This belief was summarized by the 16th century author [[Jiva Goswami]] in some of his works, such as ''Krishna-sandarbha''.<ref name=Gupta2007>{{cite book
| author = Gupta, Ravi M.
| coauthors =
| year = 2007
| title = Caitanya Vaisnava Vedanta of Jiva Gosvami
| publisher = Routledge
| isbn = 0-415-40548-3
}}</ref><ref name=Gupta2004>{{cite book
| author = Gupta, Ravi M.
| coauthors =
| year = 2004
| title = Caitanya Vaisnava Vedanta: Acintyabhedabheda in Jiva Gosvami's Catursutri tika
| publisher = University Of Oxford
| isbn =

}}</ref> While Krishna himself if mentioned in one of the earliest texts of Vedic literature - Ṛgveda.<ref>
Sunil Kumar Bhattacharya ''Krishna-cult in Indian Art''. 1996
M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd. ISBN 81-7533-001-5 p.126: "According to (D.R.Bhadarkar), the word Krishna referred to in the expression 'Krishna-drapsah' in the Ṛgveda, denotes the very same Krishna".</ref>

In the sixth book of the [[Hindu epic]] ''[[Mahābhārata]]'', the Bhishma Parva<ref>It is better known as the ''[[Bhagavad Gitā|Bhagvad Gitā]]''.</ref> Krishna offers numerous quotations that reaffirm the belief that he himself is the ''Svayam Bhagvan''. Verse [http://www.asitis.com/7/7.html 7.7] of the ''[[Bhagavad Gitā|Bhagvad Gitā]]'', is often used to support the opinion that Krishna himself is the ''Svayam Bhagvan'', and that no impersonal form of Brahm supersedes his existence, as it is a common view that ''Bhagvad Gitā'' was propounding Krishna-theism before first major proponents of [[Advaita Vedanta|monism of the Smarta school]].<ref name = "IST">{{cite book
|author=
|authorlink=
|editor = S. Devadas Pillai
|others=
|title=Indian Sociology Through Ghurye: A Dictionary
|edition=
|language=
|publisher=South Asia Books
|location=Columbia, Mo
|year=1997
|origyear=
|quote=
|isbn=81-7154-807-5
|oclc=
|doi=
|url=http://books.google.com/?id=P3uD22Ghqs4C&pg=PA283
|accessdate=
|page=403
}}</ref>

==Related Articles==
*[[Cosmogony]]
*[[Cosmology]]
*[[Darshana]]
*[[Divinity]]
*[[Brahm]]
*[[God]]
*[[Devatā]]
*[[Deities]]
*[[Worship]]
*[[Murti Puja]]

==External Resources==
*[http://enlightened-spirituality.org/panentheism.html "Panentheism and the Reality of God"] By Timothy Conway, Ph.D. (Published: October 2, 2015)
*[https://www.academia.edu/19511326/Panentheism_and_Hindu_Tantra_Abhinavagupta_s_Grammatical_Cosmology “Panentheism and Hindu Tantra: Abhinavagupta’s Grammatical Cosmology”] By Loriliai Biernacki

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

[[Category:Theology]]
[[Category:Hindu philosophical concepts]]
[[Category:Forms of worship]]

Category:Cosmology

2026-07-02T05:16:13Z

Himanshu Bhatt: Created page with "These are all cosmologically-related articles"

These are all cosmologically-related articles