Prameya

2019-10-04T10:13:54Z

Jammalamadaka Suryanarayana:

{{Author|Jammalamadaka Suryanarayana}}
{{AlternateSpellings|pramēya, prameyam, viṣayaḥ, vishaya}}

The elaboration of the term 'Pramēya' is pramā viṣaya. Pramā means valid knowledge and being a subject to it is pramēya. According to Gōtama the world is of sixteen elements, which were named in the beginning<ref>प्रमाणप्रमेयसंशयप्रयोजनदृष्टान्तसिद्धान्त- तर्कनिर्णयवादजल्पवितण्डा- हेत्वाभासछलजातिनिग्रहस्थानानां तत्वज्ञानात् निश्रेयसाधिगमः(1.1.1-Nyāya sūtraṃ)</ref> of Nyāya sūtraṃ. After defining Pramāṇa or means of valid knowledge and its types, definition of the second element pramēya is discussed. Even though there are many things that might be accounted to be valid knowledge, but Gōtamaḥ mentions only twelve pramēyās or the subject to validate knowledge. These are especially significant because the true knowledge about them dispels all the delusions and lead to mōkṣaḥ/ freedom from suffering; while the false knowledge concerning these topics perpetuates rebirth and suffering.

==Types of Pramēya==
<blockquote>आत्मशरीरेन्द्रियार्थबुद्धिमनःप्रवृत्तिदोषप्रेत्यभावफलदुःखापवर्गाः तु प्रमेयम् ।<ref>१.१.९ nyāya sūtraṃ of Gōtamaḥ</ref></blockquote>

<blockquote>Ātma- śarīra- indriya- artha- budhdhi- manaḥ- pravṛtti- dōṣa- prētyabhāva- phala- duḥkhāpavargāstu pramēyaṃ।<ref>1.1.9 nyāya sūtraṃ of Gōtamaḥ</ref></blockquote>

According to Gōtamaḥ, there are twelve number of pramēyas. They can be enlisted as follows:
# Self - It is called as ātmā.
# Body - It is called as śarīraṃ.
# Senses - It is called as indriyaṃ.
# Experiences - It is called as arthaḥ.
# Intelligence - It is called as buddhiḥ.
# Intellect - It is called as manaḥ.
# Activity - It is called as pravṛttiḥ.
# Imbalances - It is called as doṣaḥ.
# Re-birth - It is called as prētyabhāvaḥ.
# Consequence - It is called as phalaṃ.
# Suffering - It is called as duḥkhaṃ.
# Liberation - It is called as apavargaḥ.

===Ātmā===
<blockquote>इच्छाद्वेषप्रयत्नसुखदुःखज्ञानानि आत्मनः लिङ्गं इति।<ref>१.१.१० nyāya sūtraṃ of Gōtamaḥ</ref></blockquote>
<blockquote>Ichā- dvēṣa- prayatna- sukha- dukha- jñānāni ātmanō lingam iti।<ref>1.1.10 nyāya sūtraṃ of Gōtamaḥ</ref></blockquote>

It means that the ātmā cannot be known by any sense organs. That means that we can not see, hear, smell, touch and taste ātmā. Then can how could we know ātmā? it can be inferred by ichā means desire, dvēṣa means aversion, prayatnaḥ means internal effort, sukhaṃ means happiness, dukkha means unhappiness and jñānaṃ means cognition. Then the question arises from where do these six emotions initiate from. It originates from the ātmā and not the body or manas. As we can sense all these emotions very easily, we can infer the ātmā with them. The inference may be "This is ātmā, because of ichā<ref>ayaṃ ātmā icchātaḥ</ref>"

===Śarīraṃ===
<blockquote>चेष्टेन्द्रियार्थाश्रयः शरीरम् ।<ref>१.१.११ nyāya sūtraṃ of Gōtamaḥ</ref></blockquote>
<blockquote>Cēṣṭēndriyārthāśrayaḥ śarīraṃ|<ref>1.1.11 nyāya sūtraṃ of Gōtamaḥ</ref></blockquote>

This verse denotes that the body is the place which has cēṣṭā,<ref>It is called as motion.</ref> indriyaṃ<ref>It is called as sense organs.</ref> and arthaḥ<ref>It is called as experiences.</ref>. It has been widely accepted in the tradition that how the knowledge of an object leads to an effort. A person first knows about something and then starts liking or disliking it and then makes an effort to own or disown it<ref>Jānati icchati yatati</ref>. Here the actions which lead to obtaining or leaving an object is called cēṣṭā.

===Indriyaṃ===
<blockquote>घ्राणरसनचक्षुस्त्वक्श्रोत्राणि इन्द्रियाणि भूतेभ्यः।<ref>१.१.१२ nyāya sūtraṃ of Gōtamaḥ</ref></blockquote>
<blockquote>Ghrāṇa- rasana- cakṣhustvak- śrōtrāṇi indriyāṇi bhūtēbhyaḥ।<ref>1.1.12 nyāya sūtraṃ of Gōtamaḥ</ref></blockquote>

Here the sūtrakāra states the five indriyāṇi or sense organs namely:
# Ghrāṇaṃ - It is called as nose.
# Rasanaṃ - It is called as tongue.
# Cakṣhuḥ - It is called as eyes.
# Tvak - It is called as skin.
# Śrōtraṃ - It is called as ears.

At the end of the sūtraṃ we can see the word bhūtēbhyaḥ is the plural form of bhūtāt. Hence it can be inferred that the cause for each sense organ is different. The sūtraṃ defining Pancha būtāni<ref>It refers to the five elements.</ref> are:
<blockquote>पृथिवी आपः तेजः वायुः आकाशं इति भूतानि।<ref>१.१.१३ nyāya sūtraṃ of Gōtamaḥ</ref></blockquote>
<blockquote>Pṛthivī- āpaḥ- tējaḥ- vāyurākāśaṃ iti bhūtāni।<ref>1.1.13 nyāya sūtraṃ of Gōtamaḥ</ref></blockquote>

Pancha bhūtāni are referred to as five elements of nature. Here:
# Nose or ghrāṇaṃ is related to earth.
#Tongue or rasanaṃ is related to water.
# Eye or cakṣhuḥ is related to fire.
# Skin or tvak is related to air.
# Ear or śrōtraṃ is related to Space.

===Arthaḥ===
<blockquote>गन्धरसरूपस्पर्शशब्दाः पृथिव्यादिगुणाः तदर्थाः।<ref>१.१.१४ nyāya sūtraṃ of Gōtamaḥ</ref></blockquote>
<blockquote>Gandha-rasa- rūpā- sparśa- śabdāḥ pṛthivyādiguṇāstadarthāḥ।<ref>1.1.14 nyāya sūtraṃ of Gōtamaḥ</ref></blockquote>

Five sense organs sense different types of subjects via. smell, taste, color, touch, and sound. These senses are objects derived from pancha bhūtāni or five elements. Here the term arthaḥ is used to mean these five subjects of sense organs.

===Buddhiḥ===
<blockquote>बुद्धिः उपलब्धिः ज्ञानं इति अनर्थान्तरम् ।<ref>१.१.१५ nyāya sūtraṃ of Gōtamaḥ</ref></blockquote>
<blockquote>Budhdhirupalabdhiḥ jñānamityanarthāntaraṃ।<ref>1.1.15 nyāya sūtraṃ of Gōtamaḥ</ref></blockquote>

There is no difference between the words Buddhi, Upalabdhi, and Jñānaṃ which have the same meaning. They all represent cognition.

===Manaḥ===
<blockquote>युगपत्ज्ञानानुत्पत्तिः मनसः लिङ्गम् ।<ref>१.१.१६ nyāya sūtraṃ of Gōtamaḥ</ref></blockquote>
<blockquote>Yugapat jñānānutpattirmanasō lingaṃ।<ref>1.1.16 nyāya sūtraṃ of Gōtamaḥ</ref></blockquote>

According to nyāya darśanaṃ there are many reasons behind the birth of a cognition. A unique relation between manaḥ and indriyaṃ is also one of them. Every object is not related to a sense organ except for the manaḥ which is related with that sense organ. That is why we cannot identify different types of cognition at any given point of time.

===Pravṛttiḥ===
<blockquote>प्रवृत्तिः वाग्बुद्धिशरीरारम्भः इति।<ref>१.१.१७ nyāya sūtraṃ of Gōtamaḥ</ref></blockquote>
<blockquote>Pravṛttirvāgbudhdhi- śrīrāraṃbhaḥ iti।<ref>1.1.17 nyāya sūtraṃ of Gōtamaḥ</ref></blockquote>

Pravṛttiḥ is the extrovert activity which sets mind, body, and voice in motion for good or bad. In general, the word buddhi refers to cognition but here the sūtrakāra is referring it to manaḥ.

===Doṣaḥ===
<blockquote>प्रवर्त्तनालक्षणाः दोषाः।<ref>१.१.१८ nyāya sūtraṃ of Gōtamaḥ</ref></blockquote>
<blockquote>Pravartanālakṣaṇāḥ dōṣaḥ।<ref>1.1.18 nyāya sūtraṃ of Gōtamaḥ</ref></blockquote>

Pravartanā means the cause of extrovert activity. Sutrakarā concludes that every dōṣaḥ will be the cause of extrovert activity. Generally the term dōṣaḥ is used to mean an action or an attribute, which results in negativity. According to Gōtamaḥ, as extrovert activity leads to suffering he states the cause for extrovert activity as dōṣaḥ.

===Prētyabhāvaḥ===
<blockquote>पुनरुत्पत्तिः प्रेत्यभावः।<ref>१.१.१९ nyāya sūtraṃ of Gōtamaḥ</ref></blockquote>
<blockquote>Punarutpattiḥ prētyabhāvaḥ।<ref>1.1.19 nyāya sūtraṃ of Gōtamaḥ</ref></blockquote>

It explains the re-embodiment of the Self or jīva in another physical form after death. Birth is nothing but jīva having a relation with a new body and mind complex. Therefore, birth is not the production of a new circumstance, but only re-association; while death is not the destruction of anything just separation. So re-birth is called prētyabhāvaḥ.

===Phalaṃ===
<blockquote>प्रवृत्तिदोषजनितः अर्थः फलम् ।<ref>१.१.२० nyāya sūtraṃ of Gōtamaḥ</ref></blockquote>
<blockquote>Pravṛttidōṣa- janitōrthaḥ phalaṃ।<ref>1.1.20 nyāya sūtraṃ of Gōtamaḥ</ref></blockquote>

The reason behind the extrovert activities are attraction<ref>Here Attraction is denoted by rāgaḥ.</ref> or aversion<ref>Here aversion means dvēṣaḥ.</ref> or delusion.<ref>Delusion here implies mōhaḥ.</ref> Any extrovert activity results either in pleasure<ref>It means sukhaṃ.</ref> or pain.<ref>It means dukhaṃ.</ref> Sutrakara described this as phalaṃ. So the result of extrovert activities may called phalaṃ.

===Duḥkhaṃ/Suffering===
<blockquote>बाधनालक्षणं दुःखम् ।<ref>१.१.२१ nyāya sūtraṃ of Gōtamaḥ</ref></blockquote>
<blockquote>Bādhanālakṣaṇaṃ duḥkhaṃ।<ref>1.1.21 nyāya sūtraṃ of Gōtamaḥ</ref></blockquote>

Generally, we suffer a lot in our lifetime. Sometimes the situation or action, which gives happiness may also result in suffering. Like when we are very hungry a small quantity of food gives happiness, but that same thing may result in suffering when we are not hungry or when we are sick. The Nyaya tradition suggests that the whole concept of suffering is because of not knowing the original characteristics of the elements. So the true knowledge about them would eventually eradicate them. So any type of suffering may be called Duḥkhaṃ.

===Apavargaḥ/Liberation===
<blockquote>तदत्यन्तविमोक्षः अपवर्गः।<ref>१.१.२२ nyāya sūtraṃ of Gōtamaḥ</ref></blockquote>
<blockquote>Tadatyanta- vimōkṣōpavargaḥ।<ref>1.1.22 nyāya sūtraṃ of Gōtamaḥ</ref></blockquote>

Apavargaḥ<ref>Upāttasya janmanaḥ hānaṃ anyasya ca anupādānaṃ, ētāṃ avasthāṃ aparyantāṃ apavargaṃ vēdayantē apavargavidaḥ.</ref> is defined after describing duḥkhaṃ i.e suffering. In the āstika doctrine, we believe that there is always a birth after death according to our sins and virtues. This cycle is called sasāraḥ. By contrast, apavargaḥ is a state where one comes out of that cycle and never takes birth. Gōtama states that suffering starts from birth, so the complete end of the suffering would only be possible by the absence of birth and re-birth.

==References==
{{reflist}}

User:Prameya

2019-10-04T10:12:40Z

Jammalamadaka Suryanarayana: Jammalamadaka Suryanarayana moved page User:Prameya to Prameya

#REDIRECT [[Prameya]]

Prameya

2019-10-04T10:12:39Z

Jammalamadaka Suryanarayana: Jammalamadaka Suryanarayana moved page User:Prameya to Prameya

{{Author|Jammalamadaka Suryanarayana}}
{{AlternateSpellings|pramēya, prameyam, prameya}}

The elaboration of the term 'Pramēya' is pramā viṣaya. Pramā means valid knowledge and being a subject to it is pramēya. According to Gōtama the world is of sixteen elements, which were named in the beginning<ref>प्रमाणप्रमेयसंशयप्रयोजनदृष्टान्तसिद्धान्त- तर्कनिर्णयवादजल्पवितण्डा- हेत्वाभासछलजातिनिग्रहस्थानानां तत्वज्ञानात् निश्रेयसाधिगमः(1.1.1-Nyāya sūtraṃ)</ref> of Nyāya sūtraṃ. After defining Pramāṇa or means of valid knowledge and its types, definition of the second element pramēya is discussed. Even though there are many things that might be accounted to be valid knowledge, but Gōtamaḥ mentions only twelve pramēyās or the subject to validate knowledge. These are especially significant because the true knowledge about them dispels all the delusions and lead to mōkṣaḥ/ freedom from suffering; while the false knowledge concerning these topics perpetuates rebirth and suffering.

==Types of Pramēya==
<blockquote>आत्मशरीरेन्द्रियार्थबुद्धिमनःप्रवृत्तिदोषप्रेत्यभावफलदुःखापवर्गाः तु प्रमेयम् ।<ref>१.१.९ nyāya sūtraṃ of Gōtamaḥ</ref></blockquote>

<blockquote>Ātma- śarīra- indriya- artha- budhdhi- manaḥ- pravṛtti- dōṣa- prētyabhāva- phala- duḥkhāpavargāstu pramēyaṃ।<ref>1.1.9 nyāya sūtraṃ of Gōtamaḥ</ref></blockquote>

According to Gōtamaḥ, there are twelve number of pramēyas. They can be enlisted as follows:
# Self - It is called as ātmā.
# Body - It is called as śarīraṃ.
# Senses - It is called as indriyaṃ.
# Experiences - It is called as arthaḥ.
# Intelligence - It is called as buddhiḥ.
# Intellect - It is called as manaḥ.
# Activity - It is called as pravṛttiḥ.
# Imbalances - It is called as doṣaḥ.
# Re-birth - It is called as prētyabhāvaḥ.
# Consequence - It is called as phalaṃ.
# Suffering - It is called as duḥkhaṃ.
# Liberation - It is called as apavargaḥ.

===Ātmā===
<blockquote>इच्छाद्वेषप्रयत्नसुखदुःखज्ञानानि आत्मनः लिङ्गं इति।<ref>१.१.१० nyāya sūtraṃ of Gōtamaḥ</ref></blockquote>
<blockquote>Ichā- dvēṣa- prayatna- sukha- dukha- jñānāni ātmanō lingam iti।<ref>1.1.10 nyāya sūtraṃ of Gōtamaḥ</ref></blockquote>

It means that the ātmā cannot be known by any sense organs. That means that we can not see, hear, smell, touch and taste ātmā. Then can how could we know ātmā? it can be inferred by ichā means desire, dvēṣa means aversion, prayatnaḥ means internal effort, sukhaṃ means happiness, dukkha means unhappiness and jñānaṃ means cognition. Then the question arises from where do these six emotions initiate from. It originates from the ātmā and not the body or manas. As we can sense all these emotions very easily, we can infer the ātmā with them. The inference may be "This is ātmā, because of ichā<ref>ayaṃ ātmā icchātaḥ</ref>"

===Śarīraṃ===
<blockquote>चेष्टेन्द्रियार्थाश्रयः शरीरम् ।<ref>१.१.११ nyāya sūtraṃ of Gōtamaḥ</ref></blockquote>
<blockquote>Cēṣṭēndriyārthāśrayaḥ śarīraṃ|<ref>1.1.11 nyāya sūtraṃ of Gōtamaḥ</ref></blockquote>

This verse denotes that the body is the place which has cēṣṭā,<ref>It is called as motion.</ref> indriyaṃ<ref>It is called as sense organs.</ref> and arthaḥ<ref>It is called as experiences.</ref>. It has been widely accepted in the tradition that how the knowledge of an object leads to an effort. A person first knows about something and then starts liking or disliking it and then makes an effort to own or disown it<ref>Jānati icchati yatati</ref>. Here the actions which lead to obtaining or leaving an object is called cēṣṭā.

===Indriyaṃ===
<blockquote>घ्राणरसनचक्षुस्त्वक्श्रोत्राणि इन्द्रियाणि भूतेभ्यः।<ref>१.१.१२ nyāya sūtraṃ of Gōtamaḥ</ref></blockquote>
<blockquote>Ghrāṇa- rasana- cakṣhustvak- śrōtrāṇi indriyāṇi bhūtēbhyaḥ।<ref>1.1.12 nyāya sūtraṃ of Gōtamaḥ</ref></blockquote>

Here the sūtrakāra states the five indriyāṇi or sense organs namely:
# Ghrāṇaṃ - It is called as nose.
# Rasanaṃ - It is called as tongue.
# Cakṣhuḥ - It is called as eyes.
# Tvak - It is called as skin.
# Śrōtraṃ - It is called as ears.

At the end of the sūtraṃ we can see the word bhūtēbhyaḥ is the plural form of bhūtāt. Hence it can be inferred that the cause for each sense organ is different. The sūtraṃ defining Pancha būtāni<ref>It refers to the five elements.</ref> are:
<blockquote>पृथिवी आपः तेजः वायुः आकाशं इति भूतानि।<ref>१.१.१३ nyāya sūtraṃ of Gōtamaḥ</ref></blockquote>
<blockquote>Pṛthivī- āpaḥ- tējaḥ- vāyurākāśaṃ iti bhūtāni।<ref>1.1.13 nyāya sūtraṃ of Gōtamaḥ</ref></blockquote>

Pancha bhūtāni are referred to as five elements of nature. Here:
# Nose or ghrāṇaṃ is related to earth.
#Tongue or rasanaṃ is related to water.
# Eye or cakṣhuḥ is related to fire.
# Skin or tvak is related to air.
# Ear or śrōtraṃ is related to Space.

===Arthaḥ===
<blockquote>गन्धरसरूपस्पर्शशब्दाः पृथिव्यादिगुणाः तदर्थाः।<ref>१.१.१४ nyāya sūtraṃ of Gōtamaḥ</ref></blockquote>
<blockquote>Gandha-rasa- rūpā- sparśa- śabdāḥ pṛthivyādiguṇāstadarthāḥ।<ref>1.1.14 nyāya sūtraṃ of Gōtamaḥ</ref></blockquote>

Five sense organs sense different types of subjects via. smell, taste, color, touch, and sound. These senses are objects derived from pancha bhūtāni or five elements. Here the term arthaḥ is used to mean these five subjects of sense organs.

===Buddhiḥ===
<blockquote>बुद्धिः उपलब्धिः ज्ञानं इति अनर्थान्तरम् ।<ref>१.१.१५ nyāya sūtraṃ of Gōtamaḥ</ref></blockquote>
<blockquote>Budhdhirupalabdhiḥ jñānamityanarthāntaraṃ।<ref>1.1.15 nyāya sūtraṃ of Gōtamaḥ</ref></blockquote>

There is no difference between the words Buddhi, Upalabdhi, and Jñānaṃ which have the same meaning. They all represent cognition.

===Manaḥ===
<blockquote>युगपत्ज्ञानानुत्पत्तिः मनसः लिङ्गम् ।<ref>१.१.१६ nyāya sūtraṃ of Gōtamaḥ</ref></blockquote>
<blockquote>Yugapat jñānānutpattirmanasō lingaṃ।<ref>1.1.16 nyāya sūtraṃ of Gōtamaḥ</ref></blockquote>

According to nyāya darśanaṃ there are many reasons behind the birth of a cognition. A unique relation between manaḥ and indriyaṃ is also one of them. Every object is not related to a sense organ except for the manaḥ which is related with that sense organ. That is why we cannot identify different types of cognition at any given point of time.

===Pravṛttiḥ===
<blockquote>प्रवृत्तिः वाग्बुद्धिशरीरारम्भः इति।<ref>१.१.१७ nyāya sūtraṃ of Gōtamaḥ</ref></blockquote>
<blockquote>Pravṛttirvāgbudhdhi- śrīrāraṃbhaḥ iti।<ref>1.1.17 nyāya sūtraṃ of Gōtamaḥ</ref></blockquote>

Pravṛttiḥ is the extrovert activity which sets mind, body, and voice in motion for good or bad. In general, the word buddhi refers to cognition but here the sūtrakāra is referring it to manaḥ.

===Doṣaḥ===
<blockquote>प्रवर्त्तनालक्षणाः दोषाः।<ref>१.१.१८ nyāya sūtraṃ of Gōtamaḥ</ref></blockquote>
<blockquote>Pravartanālakṣaṇāḥ dōṣaḥ।<ref>1.1.18 nyāya sūtraṃ of Gōtamaḥ</ref></blockquote>

Pravartanā means the cause of extrovert activity. Sutrakarā concludes that every dōṣaḥ will be the cause of extrovert activity. Generally the term dōṣaḥ is used to mean an action or an attribute, which results in negativity. According to Gōtamaḥ, as extrovert activity leads to suffering he states the cause for extrovert activity as dōṣaḥ.

===Prētyabhāvaḥ===
<blockquote>पुनरुत्पत्तिः प्रेत्यभावः।<ref>१.१.१९ nyāya sūtraṃ of Gōtamaḥ</ref></blockquote>
<blockquote>Punarutpattiḥ prētyabhāvaḥ।<ref>1.1.19 nyāya sūtraṃ of Gōtamaḥ</ref></blockquote>

It explains the re-embodiment of the Self or jīva in another physical form after death. Birth is nothing but jīva having a relation with a new body and mind complex. Therefore, birth is not the production of a new circumstance, but only re-association; while death is not the destruction of anything just separation. So re-birth is called prētyabhāvaḥ.

===Phalaṃ===
<blockquote>प्रवृत्तिदोषजनितः अर्थः फलम् ।<ref>१.१.२० nyāya sūtraṃ of Gōtamaḥ</ref></blockquote>
<blockquote>Pravṛttidōṣa- janitōrthaḥ phalaṃ।<ref>1.1.20 nyāya sūtraṃ of Gōtamaḥ</ref></blockquote>

The reason behind the extrovert activities are attraction<ref>Here Attraction is denoted by rāgaḥ.</ref> or aversion<ref>Here aversion means dvēṣaḥ.</ref> or delusion.<ref>Delusion here implies mōhaḥ.</ref> Any extrovert activity results either in pleasure<ref>It means sukhaṃ.</ref> or pain.<ref>It means dukhaṃ.</ref> Sutrakara described this as phalaṃ. So the result of extrovert activities may called phalaṃ.

===Duḥkhaṃ/Suffering===
<blockquote>बाधनालक्षणं दुःखम् ।<ref>१.१.२१ nyāya sūtraṃ of Gōtamaḥ</ref></blockquote>
<blockquote>Bādhanālakṣaṇaṃ duḥkhaṃ।<ref>1.1.21 nyāya sūtraṃ of Gōtamaḥ</ref></blockquote>

Generally, we suffer a lot in our lifetime. Sometimes the situation or action, which gives happiness may also result in suffering. Like when we are very hungry a small quantity of food gives happiness, but that same thing may result in suffering when we are not hungry or when we are sick. The Nyaya tradition suggests that the whole concept of suffering is because of not knowing the original characteristics of the elements. So the true knowledge about them would eventually eradicate them. So any type of suffering may be called Duḥkhaṃ.

===Apavargaḥ/Liberation===
<blockquote>तदत्यन्तविमोक्षः अपवर्गः।<ref>१.१.२२ nyāya sūtraṃ of Gōtamaḥ</ref></blockquote>
<blockquote>Tadatyanta- vimōkṣōpavargaḥ।<ref>1.1.22 nyāya sūtraṃ of Gōtamaḥ</ref></blockquote>

Apavargaḥ<ref>Upāttasya janmanaḥ hānaṃ anyasya ca anupādānaṃ, ētāṃ avasthāṃ aparyantāṃ apavargaṃ vēdayantē apavargavidaḥ.</ref> is defined after describing duḥkhaṃ i.e suffering. In the āstika doctrine, we believe that there is always a birth after death according to our sins and virtues. This cycle is called sasāraḥ. By contrast, apavargaḥ is a state where one comes out of that cycle and never takes birth. Gōtama states that suffering starts from birth, so the complete end of the suffering would only be possible by the absence of birth and re-birth.

==References==
{{reflist}}

Talk:Nyaya Introduction to Prameya

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Prameya

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Prameya

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Jammalamadaka Suryanarayana:

Talk:Introduction to Sixteen elements in Nyāya

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Sixteen elements of Nyāya

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{{Author|Jammalamadaka Suryanarayana}}
{{AlternateSpellings|padārthāh, padārtha, padartha, elements, elements in nyaya}}
Nyāya darśanaṃ is one among the six traditional philosophies, which consider the vēdaḥ as the unchallenged source of knowledge. That is why it is considered to be one among āstika darśanaṃ. As all the philosophies have their own way to understand the world. Sorrow<ref>It is also called as duḥkhaṃ in sanskrit.</ref> is stated as the main problem faced by mankind and liberation from it is the main goal of our life.<block quote>'Ātyantika duḥkha-nivṛttiḥ'</block quote> To attain this goal, the true knowledge of all the elements is very primary. These elements are sixteen in number.

<blockquote>प्रमाणप्रमेयसंशयप्रयोजनदृष्टान्तसिद्धान्तावयवतर्कनिर्णयवादजल्पवितण्डाहेत्वाभासच्छलजातिनिग्रहस्थानानाम्तत्त्वज्ञानात्निःश्रेयसाधिगमः।<ref>१.१.१</ref></blockquote>
<blockquote>pramāṇa- pramēya- samśaya- prayōjana- dṛṣṭānta-sidhdhanta-avayava-tarka-nirṇaya-vāda-jalpa-vitaṇḍā-hētvābhāsa-chala-jāti-nigrahasthānām tatvajñānānniśrēyasādhigamaḥ.<ref>1.1.1</ref></blockquote>

This is the first sutra of nyāya sūtraṃ which states that the true knowledge of the sixteen elements or padārthāḥ leads to niśrēyasa or the mōkṣhaḥ<ref>Destruction of the final sorrow is mōkṣhaḥ according to nyāya</ref>.

==Sixteen elements of Nyāya==
These sixteen elements of nyāya are as follows:

# Pramānaṃ - It is the means of valid knowledge.
# Prameyaḥ - It means the object of right knowledge.
# Saṃśayaḥ - It means doubt.
# Prayojanaṃ - It means the motive.
# Dṛṣṭāntaḥ - It means the illustrations.
# Siddhāntaḥ - It means the demonstrated truth.
# Avayavaḥ - It means the factors of reasoning and syllogism.
# Tarkaḥ - It means reasoning and confutation.
# Nirṇayaḥ - It means discernment.
# Vādaḥ - It means discussion.
# Jalpaḥ - It means disputation.
# Vitaṇḍā - It means cavil or objection.
# Hetvābhāsaḥ - It means fallacious reasoning.
# Chalaḥ - It means casuistry or unfair reasoning.
# Jātiḥ - It means futile rejoinder.
# Nigraha-sthānaṃ - It means clinchers.

==Pramānaṃ==
<blockquote>प्रत्यक्षानुमानोपमानशब्दाः प्रमाणानि।<ref>१.१.३</ref></blockquote>
<blockquote>Pratyakha- anumāna- upamāna- śabdāḥ pramāṇāni<ref>1.1.3</ref></blockquote>

Pramā is nothing but valid knowledge. The source of that is pramānaṃ<ref>It is denoted in the quote "pramā karaṇaṃ pramāṇaṃ"</ref>. Valid knowledge<ref>It is denoted in the quote "yathāvasthita vyavahārāṇuguṇa jñānam pramā"</ref> is that which reveals a thing as it actually is. It can be identified as valid knowledge when it is corresponding to the actual nature of the object as it is.<ref>It is denoted in the quote "tadvati-tat-prakāraka-anubhavaḥ"</ref> We can also know that it is valid when we successfully obtain the object stated.<ref>pravṛtti-samārthya</ref>Valid knowledge/ pramā corresponds to the thing as it really is, and leads to successful utilization thereof.

According to Nyāya tradition, there are four pramāṇāni namely:
# Pratyakhaṃ
# Anumānaṃ
# Upamānaṃ
# Śabdāḥ

Each school of Indian thought has its own theory of the Means to obtain valid knowledge.

{| class="wikitable"
||School of Thought||Theory 1||Theory 2||Theory 3||Theory 4||Theory 5||Theory 6||Theory 7||Theory 8
|-
||Cārvāka|||Perception/Pratyakṣaṃ||-||-||-||-||-||-||-
|-
||Mīmāmsaka||Verbal Testimony/Śabdaḥ||-||-||-||-||-||-||-
|-
||Vaiśeṣika & Buddhists||Perception/Pratyakṣaṃ||Inference/Anumānaṃ||-||-||-||-||-||-
|-
||Saṅkhya||Perception/Pratyakṣaṃ||Inference/Anumānaṃ||Verbal Testimony/Śabdaḥ||-||-||-||-||-
|-
||Naiyāyika||Perception/Pratyakṣaṃ||Inference/Anumānaṃ||Comparison/Upamānaṃ||Verbal testimony/Śabdaḥ||-||-||-||-
|-
||Prābhākara||Perception/Pratyakṣaṃ||Inference/Anumānaṃ||Comparison/Upamānaṃ||Verbal testimony/Ṣabdaḥ||Presumption/Arthāpattiḥ||-||-||-
|-
||Bhāṭṭas & Vedāntins||Perception/Pratyakṣaṃ||Inference/Anumānaṃ||Comparison/Upamānaṃ||Verbal testimony/Ṣabdaḥ||Presumption/Arthāpattiḥ||Non-existence/Abhāvaḥ||-||-
|-
||Paurāṇika||Perception/Pratyakṣaṃ||Inference/Anumānaṃ||Comparison/Upamānaṃ||Verbal testimony/Ṣabdaḥ||Presumption/Arthāpattiḥ||Non-existence/Abhāvaḥ||Probability/Saṃbhavaḥ||Tradition/Aitihyaṃ
|-
|}

==Prameya==
<blockquote>आत्मशरीरेन्द्रियार्थबुद्धिमनःप्रवृत्तिदोषप्रेत्यभावफलदुःखापवर्गाः तु प्रमेयम् ।<ref>१.१.९</ref></blockquote>
<blockquote>Ātmā- śarīra-indriya-artha-budhdhi- manaḥ-pravṛtti-dōṣa-prētyabhāva-phala-duḥkhāpavargāstu pramēyaṃ।<ref>1.1.9</ref></blockquote>

After defining pramāṇāni, the sūtrakāra or Gōtamaḥ further defines pramēya. An object of a valid knowledge is pramēya. It is classified into twelve parts as follows:
# Ātmā - It is denoted by self.
# Śarīraṃ - It is represented by body.
# Indriyaṃ - It is called as senses.
# Arthaḥ - It is known as experiences.
# Buddhiḥ - It is denoted as intelligence.
# Manaḥ - It is known as intellect.
# Pravṛttiḥ - It is defined as activity.
# Doṣaḥ - It is known as imbalances.
# Prētyabhāvaḥ - It is called as re-birth.
# Phalaṃ - It is known as consequences.
# Duḥkhaṃ - It is called as suffering.
# Apavargaḥ - It is defined as liberation.

There are many things that might be concerned as the topics of accurate knowledge, but these 12 are especially significant because the true knowledge about them will dispel all the delusions and lead to freedom from sufferings; while false knowledge concerning these topics perpetuates rebirth and suffering. Nyāya only establishes these principles on a rational basis but does not attempt to dilate upon them. It even does not attempt to explain all that is known about these several topics which is left to analyze by the more speculative systems of other philosophies.

==Saṃśayaḥ==
<blockquote>समानानेकधर्मोपपत्तेः विप्रतिपत्तेः उपलब्ध्यनुपलब्ध्यव्यवस्थातः च विशेषापेक्षः विमर्शः संशयः।<ref>१.१.२३</ref></blockquote>
<blockquote>Samānānēkadharmōpapattēḥ vipratipattēḥ upalabdhi- anupalabdhi- avyavasthātaśca viśēṣāpēkṣaḥ vimarśaḥ saṃśayaḥ।<ref>1.1.23</ref></blockquote>

Doubt must not be confused with error or false knowledge. Doubt is just the incomplete knowledge which forms the platform for further investigations. False knowledge or error may produce an erroneous conviction which demotivates the mind by removing all the desires for further knowledge or even entertaining viable alternatives. Error is defined as “the knowledge which does not lead to any successful action”. For example, it is impossible to fulfil the expectations created by hallucinations. Doubt has parts in it, which are opposite to each other. Either of it is an error or false knowledge.

===Causes of Saṃśaya===
A conflicting judgment about the precise character of an object arises from the below mentioned four different arguments:
# Display of properties common to many objects
# Characteristics not common to any objects
# Conflicting testimony
# Irregularity of perception and non-perception

===Types of Saṃśaya===
The ideal world of thought must correspond to the outer reality in order to be considered true. The rules and methodology of nyāya are to be applied when doubt arises which necessitates to need to examine reality for confirmation or clarification of the truth. There are four kinds of doubt:
# Perception of common properties or failure to perceive the difference - It can be explained when in the dark a lamp-post may be mistaken for a person, or a coiled rope can be mistaken for a snake.
# Conflicting testimony of witnesses or news reports or differing opinions on the same subject by two or more people.
# Irregularity of perception - This concept is demonstrated when one is unable to determine whether water is perceived when it is seen in a pond where it actually exists or when it is seen in a mirage where it really does not exist. This possibility arises when on hearing the rustle of leaves in the bush there arises a doubt whether it is due to leaves or it could even be an animal or a human.
# Irregularity of non-perception - This is exemplified when one is unable to believe that something exists because it was never perceived through an object or thing with qualities as described. It also cannot be perceived through the inability to believe that such a thing exists like a kangaroo which is believed to be a big jumping rat.

==Prayojanaṃ==
<blockquote>यं अर्थं अधिकृत्य प्रवर्तते तत्प्रयोजनम् ।<ref>१.१.२४</ref></blockquote>
<blockquote>Yaṃ arthaṃ adhikṛtya pravartatē tat prayōjanaṃ।<ref>1.1.24</ref></blockquote>

Prayojanam is a desire which impels one to act. Purpose serves as the motive behind all the action done to attain something pleasurable or to avoid something undesirable. Until there is a purpose, there can be no successful action; therefore, a wise person never engages in any kind of purposeless actions. It is also the purpose or motive which determines if an act is morally right or wrong. No act should be deduced as good or bad, it is the intention with which it is done that determines its moral character. Therefore sincere spiritual aspirants should always examine and reflect upon our motives and clarify the intent of actions performed.

==Dṛṣṭāntaḥ==
<blockquote>लौकिकपरीक्षकाणां यस्मिनर्थे बुद्धिसाम्यं सः दृष्टान्तः।<ref>१.१.२५</ref></blockquote>
<blockquote>Laukikaparīkṣakāṇāṃ yasminnarthē budhdhisāmyaṃ saḥ dṛṣṭāntaḥ।<ref>1.1.25</ref></blockquote>

When an expert and layman are of the same opinion this happens. It is also known as the familiar example which is a common observation of both common folk and experts. Both the scientists and laymen accepts the general proposition that whenever there is rain there must be clouds. This type of example can be used in the process of reasoning from the known to the unknown.

==Siddhāntaḥ==
<blockquote>तन्त्राधिकरणाभ्युपगमसंस्थितिः सिद्धान्तः।<ref>१.१.२६</ref></blockquote>
<blockquote>Tantrādhikaraṇābhyupagamasaṃsthitiḥ sidhdhāntaḥ।<ref>1.1.26</ref></blockquote>

Siddhānta philosophy is a conclusion that is recognized as being logically proven by a certain school of philosophy. There are four kinds of Siddhāntas:
# A commonly accepted truth is a tenet which is not opposed by any school of philosophy and which is claimed by at least one school; e.g. All the schools of Hindu philosophy accept earth, water, light, air and ether as the five base elements and smell, taste, color, touch and sound as the objects of the five senses.
# A peculiar truth is a tenet which is accepted by the similar schools, but rejected by the opposite schools. e.g., the 3 Abrahamic schools accepts that God created the world from nothing. All schools of Indian philosophy rejects this conclusion saying that something cannot come into existence out of nothing.<ref>Ex nihilo nihilo fit</ref>
# An implied truth is a tenet which is not explicitly declared, but are finalized on the basis of examination of the particulars concerning it. e.g., The discussion whether certain people should be allowed to vote implies that those people are capable of understanding and making political decisions.
# A consequential truth is a tenet which if accepted, leads to the acceptance of another tenet for e.g., the acceptance of the doctrine that there is a Self which is separate from the 5 senses, because it can recognize one and the same object by seeing and touching both. Hence it implies the following mentioned possibilities:
* Senses are more than one.
* Each of the senses has its particular characteristic.
* Self derives its knowledge through the channels of the senses.
* Substance which are distinct from its qualities is the locus of them.

==Avayavaḥ==

<blockquote>प्रतिज्ञाहेतूदाहरणोपनयनिगमनानि अवयवाः।<ref>१.१.३२</ref></blockquote>
<blockquote>Pratijñā hētūdāharaṇōpanayanigamanāni avayavāḥ</blockquote>

[http://www.hindupedia.com/en/Talk:Nyaya_Introduction_to_Avayava Introduction to Avayavāḥ]

==Tarkaḥ==
<blockquote>अविज्ञाततत्वे अर्थे कारणोपपत्तितः तत्त्वज्ञानार्थं उहः तर्कः।<ref>१.१.४०</ref></blockquote>
<blockquote>Avijñātatvē arthē kāraṇōpapattitaḥ tatvajñānārthaṃ ūhaḥ tarkaḥ</blockquote>

Tarkaḥ is a process for ascertaining the real nature of a thing of whose character is not known. It is a method of arriving to the right conclusion by showing the absurdity of all the contrary ideas. Tarka is a method of attaining knowledge of the truth about an unknown or uncertain thing by comparing and then gradually eliminating all the competing suppositions; E.g. Is the Self a product or a non-Product? If the Self is a non-product, it will experience the result of its action and on the eradication of the causes of re-birth, will be released; therefore, re-birth and release are indeed possible. If it is a product, these chances would not be possible, because the Self's connection with the body, mind and senses will not be the result and experience of its own action.

The phenomenon of re-birth and release is very well known and established; therefore, the Self must be a non-product. This form of reasoning is also called as Confutation. This is not a method which ascertains, determines and verifies that the Self is a particular thing and nothing else. It simply eliminates all other contesting theories to the supposition it supports; after which truth is established through the application of other means of accurate knowledge. Hence, confutation is considered to be a supporting technique and is therefore mentioned separately.

==Nirṇayaḥ==
<blockquote>विमृश्य पक्षप्रतिपक्षाभ्यां अर्थावधारणं निर्णयः।<ref>१.१.४१</ref></blockquote>
<blockquote>Vimṛśya pakṣapratipakṣābhyāṃ arthāvadhāraṇaṃ nirṇyaḥ</blockquote>

The removal of doubts and the resolution of a dispute by examining two opposite views is called as nirṇayaḥ. Dialectic is in the form of a dialogue between two people who may hold differing views, yet wish to establish the truth by seeking agreement with one another. This is in contrast to debate in which two or more people hold differing views and wish to persuade or prove one another wrong and thus a jury or judge is needed to decide the matter. The sequence of investigation is as follows:
* First impression
* Doubt arises
* Examining the opposite view<ref>It is called as pūrva pakṣa.</ref>
* Application of logic
* Determination of the controversy
* Ascertainment of Truth<ref>It is called as nirṇaya.</ref>

Doubt is the result of first impression and gives impetus to investigation in order to ascertain the truth. “Ascertainment” is unnecessary in the case of direct perception or the verbal testimony of a trustworthy authority. But one must be convinced of the authority being trustworthy. In other words, everything should be questioned and not accepted simply because the person holds a degree or title. One must test that individual and once the authenticity is assured then only one can accept the statements without further investigation. Endlessly questioning for the sake of questioning is also not useful for coming to the accurate conclusion.

==Vādaḥ==
<blockquote>प्रमाणतर्कसादनोपालम्भः सिद्दान्ताविरुद्दः पंचावयवोपपन्नः पक्षप्रतिपक्षपरिग्रहो वादः।<ref>1-2-1</ref></blockquote>
<blockquote>Pramāṇa tarkasādhanōpālaṃbhaḥ sidhdāntāvirudhdaḥ paṃcāvayavōpapannaḥ pakṣapratipakṣa parigrahaḥ vādaḥ</blockquote>

A dialogue in which one adopts one of two opposing positions is called as vādaḥ. The purpose of discussion is to come to the truth of the proposition under consideration. This may be achieved by talking about the topic with anyone who is a sincere seeker of truth. In vāda it is not necessary to establish one's own thesis, it is enough to submit one's views for examination in order to ascertain the truth. The discussion does not necessarily have to take into consideration the opposite opinion; it is enough to put any proposition to logical reasoning. The usual procedure is to maintain the thesis by means of right knowledge and to counter-thesis by the means of tarka.

==Jalpaḥ==
<blockquote>यथोक्तोपपन्नः छलजातिनिग्रहस्थान साधनोपालम्भः जल्पः।<ref>1-2-2</ref></blockquote>
<blockquote>Yathōktōpapannaḥ chalajātinigrahasthānōpālaṃbhaḥ jalpaḥ</blockquote>

A vigorous verbal disputation directed to gain victory in it is called as jalpaḥ. The sole purpose of engaging in a polemic is simply to gain victory over the other party. There’s no desire to either gain further knowledge or to establish one’s own position. Therefore, one can employ any device of debate in order to win. These devices are usually of a negative character, such as attacking the opponent’s character,<ref>It is called as argumentum ad hominem.</ref> quibbling, advancing futile arguments, behave with absurdity, evading the issue, focusing on examples or metaphors rather than on the actual argument itself etc.

==Vitaṇḍā==
<blockquote>स प्रतिपक्षस्थापनाहीनः वितण्डा।<ref>1-2-3</ref></blockquote>
<blockquote>Sa pratipakṣa sthāpanāhīnaḥ vitaṇḍā</blockquote>

A kind of wrangling, which consists in mere attacks on the opposite side is called as vitaṇḍā. In cavil there is no desire to establish any proposition. The only interest is to heckle the speaker by carping and offering frivolous objections. Polemics and caviling, which are considered as forms of discussion, may be used by an aspirant of truth only as means of protecting one's young and fragile knowledge which has not yet matured to a full blossomed conviction.

One may occasionally encounter objectionable people, who devoid of true knowledge, are puffed up with their academic achievements or are deluded by their own erroneous convictions. These people may try to impose their views and beliefs on others. Under such circumstances the student is urged to make use of these argumentative devices in order to safeguard the development of knowledge in the same way that nature uses thorns on some plants to safeguard the growth of its fruit.

If one’s philosophy or belief system is under attack then one may also employ these negative means for self-defense. One should never gratuitously criticize or attack anyone else’s belief system, ideology or way of life if that person is keeping to themselves. When a person tries to impose their views on others then defense is required.

===Hetvābhāsaḥ===
<blockquote>सव्यभिचारविरुध्द- प्रकरणसम- साध्यसम- कालातीताः हेत्वाभासाः।<ref>1-2-4</ref></blockquote>
<blockquote>avyabhicāra virudhda prakaraṇasama sādhyasama kālātītā hētvābhāsāḥ</blockquote>

[http://www.hindupedia.com/en/Talk:Nyaya_Introduction_to_Hetvabhasa Introduction to Hētvābhāsāḥ]

==Chalaḥ==
<blockquote>वचनविघातो अर्थविकल्पोपपत्या छलम्।<ref>1-2-10</ref></blockquote>
<blockquote>Acanavighātō arthavikalpōpapatyā chalaṃ</blockquote>

The opposition offered to a proposition by the assumption of an alternative meaning is called as chalaḥ. Casuistry is classified into three types:
# Vacas - It is called as playing upon words. This consists of willfully taking a term to mean something different from that intended by the speaker; e.g., taking the word 'quadruped' to mean four-legged table instead of an animal.
# Sāmānyas - It means generalizations. This consists of asserting the impossibility of a particular part because of the impossibility of the whole; e.g., to deny that a particular cow is black because all cows are not black.
# Upacārās - It is denoted by metaphors. This consists of invalidating a word used in a particular context by taking it literally when it was used metaphorically; e.g., the ‘House cheered’ means that the people in the house cheered and not the physical structure.

==Jātiḥ==
<blockquote>साधर्म्य वैधर्म्याभ्यां प्रत्यवस्थानं जातिः।<ref>1-2-18</ref></blockquote>
<blockquote>Sādharmya vaidharmyābhāṃ pratyavasthānaṃ jātiḥ</blockquote>

Offering objections founded on mere similarity or dissimilarity is called as jātiḥ. The reply is said to be futile if it does not take into consideration the universal connection between the middle term and the major term. Mere similarity or dissimilarity is not sufficient. There are twenty-four kinds of futility which display equality of the arguments of two sides so that neither side can win the argument.

==Nigraha-sthānaṃ==
<blockquote>विप्रतिपत्तिरप्रतिपत्तिश्च निग्रहस्थानम्।<ref>1-2-19</ref></blockquote>
<blockquote>Vipratipattirapratipattiśca nigrahasthānaṃ</blockquote>

When we do not understand or misunderstand the arguments stated by the opponent we eventually lose the debate. There is no purpose in entering into a debate if one is ignorant about the subject being investigated. Demonstrating ignorance or misunderstanding of the subject under discussion and attaining defeat in a debate is the last element in nyāya darśanaṃ, which is called nigrahasthānaṃ. Here the term 'nigrahasthānaṃ' means attaining defeat in a debate. The means for that defeat are shown as Vipratipattiḥ<ref>viparītā vā kutsitā vā pratipattiḥ</ref> and Apratipattiḥ. 'Vipratipattiḥ' is a situation in which one misunderstands and 'Apratipattiḥ' is a situation in which does not understand at all.

==References==
{{reflist}}

Sixteen elements of Nyāya

2019-10-04T09:59:17Z

Jammalamadaka Suryanarayana:

{{Author|Jammalamadaka Suryanarayana}}
{{AlternateSpellings|padārthāh, padārtha, padartha, elements, elements in nyaya}}
Nyāya darśanaṃ is one among the six traditional philosophies, which consider the vēdaḥ as the unchallenged source of knowledge. That is why it is considered to be one among āstika darśanaṃ. As all the philosophies have their own way to understand the world. Sorrow<ref>It is also called as duḥkhaṃ in sanskrit.</ref> is stated as the main problem faced by mankind and liberation from it is the main goal of our life.<block quote>'Ātyantika duḥkha-nivṛttiḥ'</block quote> To attain this goal, the true knowledge of all the elements is very primary. These elements are sixteen in number.

<blockquote>प्रमाणप्रमेयसंशयप्रयोजनदृष्टान्तसिद्धान्तावयवतर्कनिर्णयवादजल्पवितण्डाहेत्वाभासच्छलजातिनिग्रहस्थानानाम्तत्त्वज्ञानात्निःश्रेयसाधिगमः।<ref>१.१.१</ref></blockquote>
<blockquote>pramāṇa- pramēya- samśaya- prayōjana- dṛṣṭānta-sidhdhanta-avayava-tarka-nirṇaya-vāda-jalpa-vitaṇḍā-hētvābhāsa-chala-jāti-nigrahasthānām tatvajñānānniśrēyasādhigamaḥ.<ref>1.1.1</ref></blockquote>

This is the first sutra of nyāya sūtraṃ which states that the true knowledge of the sixteen elements or padārthāḥ leads to niśrēyasa or the mōkṣhaḥ<ref>Destruction of the final sorrow is mōkṣhaḥ according to nyāya</ref>.

==Sixteen elements of Nyāya==
These sixteen elements of nyāya are as follows:

# Pramānaṃ - It is the means of valid knowledge.
# Prameyaḥ - It means the object of right knowledge.
# Saṃśayaḥ - It means doubt.
# Prayojanaṃ - It means the motive.
# Dṛṣṭāntaḥ - It means the illustrations.
# Siddhāntaḥ - It means the demonstrated truth.
# Avayavaḥ - It means the factors of reasoning and syllogism.
# Tarkaḥ - It means reasoning and confutation.
# Nirṇayaḥ - It means discernment.
# Vādaḥ - It means discussion.
# Jalpaḥ - It means disputation.
# Vitaṇḍā - It means cavil or objection.
# Hetvābhāsaḥ - It means fallacious reasoning.
# Chalaḥ - It means casuistry or unfair reasoning.
# Jātiḥ - It means futile rejoinder.
# Nigraha-sthānaṃ - It means clinchers.

==Pramānaṃ==
<blockquote>प्रत्यक्षानुमानोपमानशब्दाः प्रमाणानि।<ref>१.१.३</ref></blockquote>
<blockquote>Pratyakha- anumāna- upamāna- śabdāḥ pramāṇāni<ref>1.1.3</ref></blockquote>

Pramā is nothing but valid knowledge. The source of that is pramānaṃ<ref>It is denoted in the quote "pramā karaṇaṃ pramāṇaṃ"</ref>. Valid knowledge<ref>It is denoted in the quote "yathāvasthita vyavahārāṇuguṇa jñānam pramā"</ref> is that which reveals a thing as it actually is. It can be identified as valid knowledge when it is corresponding to the actual nature of the object as it is.<ref>It is denoted in the quote "tadvati-tat-prakāraka-anubhavaḥ"</ref> We can also know that it is valid when we successfully obtain the object stated.<ref>pravṛtti-samārthya</ref>Valid knowledge/ pramā corresponds to the thing as it really is, and leads to successful utilization thereof.

According to Nyāya tradition, there are four pramāṇāni namely:
# Pratyakhaṃ
# Anumānaṃ
# Upamānaṃ
# Śabdāḥ

Each school of Indian thought has its own theory of the Means to obtain valid knowledge.

{| class="wikitable"
||School of Thought||Theory 1||Theory 2||Theory 3||Theory 4||Theory 5||Theory 6||Theory 7||Theory 8
|-
||Cārvāka|||Perception/Pratyakṣaṃ||-||-||-||-||-||-||-
|-
||Mīmāmsaka||Verbal Testimony/Śabdaḥ||-||-||-||-||-||-||-
|-
||Vaiśeṣika & Buddhists||Perception/Pratyakṣaṃ||Inference/Anumānaṃ||-||-||-||-||-||-
|-
||Saṅkhya||Perception/Pratyakṣaṃ||Inference/Anumānaṃ||Verbal Testimony/Śabdaḥ||-||-||-||-||-
|-
||Naiyāyika||Perception/Pratyakṣaṃ||Inference/Anumānaṃ||Comparison/Upamānaṃ||Verbal testimony/Śabdaḥ||-||-||-||-
|-
||Prābhākara||Perception/Pratyakṣaṃ||Inference/Anumānaṃ||Comparison/Upamānaṃ||Verbal testimony/Ṣabdaḥ||Presumption/Arthāpattiḥ||-||-||-
|-
||Bhāṭṭas & Vedāntins||Perception/Pratyakṣaṃ||Inference/Anumānaṃ||Comparison/Upamānaṃ||Verbal testimony/Ṣabdaḥ||Presumption/Arthāpattiḥ||Non-existence/Abhāvaḥ||-||-
|-
||Paurāṇika||Perception/Pratyakṣaṃ||Inference/Anumānaṃ||Comparison/Upamānaṃ||Verbal testimony/Ṣabdaḥ||Presumption/Arthāpattiḥ||Non-existence/Abhāvaḥ||Probability/Saṃbhavaḥ||Tradition/Aitihyaṃ
|-
|}

==Prameya==
<blockquote>आत्मशरीरेन्द्रियार्थबुद्धिमनःप्रवृत्तिदोषप्रेत्यभावफलदुःखापवर्गाः तु प्रमेयम् ।<ref>१.१.९</ref></blockquote>
<blockquote>Ātmā- śarīra-indriya-artha-budhdhi- manaḥ-pravṛtti-dōṣa-prētyabhāva-phala-duḥkhāpavargāstu pramēyaṃ।<ref>1.1.9</ref></blockquote>

After defining pramāṇāni, the sūtrakāra or Gōtamaḥ further defines pramēya. An object of a valid knowledge is pramēya. It is classified into twelve parts as follows:
# Ātmā - It is denoted by self.
# Śarīraṃ - It is represented by body.
# Indriyaṃ - It is called as senses.
# Arthaḥ - It is known as experiences.
# Buddhiḥ - It is denoted as intelligence.
# Manaḥ - It is known as intellect.
# Pravṛttiḥ - It is defined as activity.
# Doṣaḥ - It is known as imbalances.
# Prētyabhāvaḥ - It is called as re-birth.
# Phalaṃ - It is known as consequences.
# Duḥkhaṃ - It is called as suffering.
# Apavargaḥ - It is defined as liberation.

There are many things that might be concerned as the topics of accurate knowledge, but these 12 are especially significant because the true knowledge about them will dispel all the delusions and lead to freedom from sufferings; while false knowledge concerning these topics perpetuates rebirth and suffering. Nyāya only establishes these principles on a rational basis but does not attempt to dilate upon them. It even does not attempt to explain all that is known about these several topics which is left to analyze by the more speculative systems of other philosophies.

==Saṃśayaḥ==
<blockquote>समानानेकधर्मोपपत्तेः विप्रतिपत्तेः उपलब्ध्यनुपलब्ध्यव्यवस्थातः च विशेषापेक्षः विमर्शः संशयः।<ref>१.१.२३</ref></blockquote>
<blockquote>Samānānēkadharmōpapattēḥ vipratipattēḥ upalabdhi- anupalabdhi- avyavasthātaśca viśēṣāpēkṣaḥ vimarśaḥ saṃśayaḥ।<ref>1.1.23</ref></blockquote>

Doubt must not be confused with error or false knowledge. Doubt is just the incomplete knowledge which forms the platform for further investigations. False knowledge or error may produce an erroneous conviction which demotivates the mind by removing all the desires for further knowledge or even entertaining viable alternatives. Error is defined as “the knowledge which does not lead to any successful action”. For example, it is impossible to fulfil the expectations created by hallucinations. Doubt has parts in it, which are opposite to each other. Either of it is an error or false knowledge.

===Causes of Saṃśaya===
A conflicting judgment about the precise character of an object arises from the below mentioned four different arguments:
# Display of properties common to many objects
# Characteristics not common to any objects
# Conflicting testimony
# Irregularity of perception and non-perception

===Types of Saṃśaya===
The ideal world of thought must correspond to the outer reality in order to be considered true. The rules and methodology of nyāya are to be applied when doubt arises which necessitates to need to examine reality for confirmation or clarification of the truth. There are four kinds of doubt:
# Perception of common properties or failure to perceive the difference - It can be explained when in the dark a lamp-post may be mistaken for a person, or a coiled rope can be mistaken for a snake.
# Conflicting testimony of witnesses or news reports or differing opinions on the same subject by two or more people.
# Irregularity of perception - This concept is demonstrated when one is unable to determine whether water is perceived when it is seen in a pond where it actually exists or when it is seen in a mirage where it really does not exist. This possibility arises when on hearing the rustle of leaves in the bush there arises a doubt whether it is due to leaves or it could even be an animal or a human.
# Irregularity of non-perception - This is exemplified when one is unable to believe that something exists because it was never perceived through an object or thing with qualities as described. It also cannot be perceived through the inability to believe that such a thing exists like a kangaroo which is believed to be a big jumping rat.

==Prayojanaṃ==
<blockquote>यं अर्थं अधिकृत्य प्रवर्तते तत्प्रयोजनम् ।<ref>१.१.२४</ref></blockquote>
<blockquote>Yaṃ arthaṃ adhikṛtya pravartatē tat prayōjanaṃ।<ref>1.1.24</ref></blockquote>

Prayojanam is a desire which impels one to act. Purpose serves as the motive behind all the action done to attain something pleasurable or to avoid something undesirable. Until there is a purpose, there can be no successful action; therefore, a wise person never engages in any kind of purposeless actions. It is also the purpose or motive which determines if an act is morally right or wrong. No act should be deduced as good or bad, it is the intention with which it is done that determines its moral character. Therefore sincere spiritual aspirants should always examine and reflect upon our motives and clarify the intent of actions performed.

==Dṛṣṭāntaḥ==
<blockquote>लौकिकपरीक्षकाणां यस्मिनर्थे बुद्धिसाम्यं सः दृष्टान्तः।<ref>१.१.२५</ref></blockquote>
<blockquote>Laukikaparīkṣakāṇāṃ yasminnarthē budhdhisāmyaṃ saḥ dṛṣṭāntaḥ।<ref>1.1.25</ref></blockquote>

When an expert and layman are of the same opinion this happens. It is also known as the familiar example which is a common observation of both common folk and experts. Both the scientists and laymen accepts the general proposition that whenever there is rain there must be clouds. This type of example can be used in the process of reasoning from the known to the unknown.

==Siddhāntaḥ==
<blockquote>तन्त्राधिकरणाभ्युपगमसंस्थितिः सिद्धान्तः।<ref>१.१.२६</ref></blockquote>
<blockquote>Tantrādhikaraṇābhyupagamasaṃsthitiḥ sidhdhāntaḥ।<ref>1.1.26</ref></blockquote>

Siddhānta philosophy is a conclusion that is recognized as being logically proven by a certain school of philosophy. There are four kinds of Siddhāntas:
# A commonly accepted truth is a tenet which is not opposed by any school of philosophy and which is claimed by at least one school; e.g. All the schools of Hindu philosophy accept earth, water, light, air and ether as the five base elements and smell, taste, color, touch and sound as the objects of the five senses.
# A peculiar truth is a tenet which is accepted by the similar schools, but rejected by the opposite schools. e.g., the 3 Abrahamic schools accepts that God created the world from nothing. All schools of Indian philosophy rejects this conclusion saying that something cannot come into existence out of nothing.<ref>Ex nihilo nihilo fit</ref>
# An implied truth is a tenet which is not explicitly declared, but are finalized on the basis of examination of the particulars concerning it. e.g., The discussion whether certain people should be allowed to vote implies that those people are capable of understanding and making political decisions.
# A consequential truth is a tenet which if accepted, leads to the acceptance of another tenet for e.g., the acceptance of the doctrine that there is a Self which is separate from the 5 senses, because it can recognize one and the same object by seeing and touching both. Hence it implies the following mentioned possibilities:
* Senses are more than one.
* Each of the senses has its particular characteristic.
* Self derives its knowledge through the channels of the senses.
* Substance which are distinct from its qualities is the locus of them.

==Avayavaḥ==

<blockquote>प्रतिज्ञाहेतूदाहरणोपनयनिगमनानि अवयवाः।<ref>१.१.३२</ref></blockquote>
<blockquote>Pratijñā hētūdāharaṇōpanayanigamanāni avayavāḥ</blockquote>

[http://www.hindupedia.com/en/Talk:Nyaya_Introduction_to_Avayava Introduction to Avayavāḥ]

==Tarkaḥ==
<blockquote>अविज्ञाततत्वे अर्थे कारणोपपत्तितः तत्त्वज्ञानार्थं उहः तर्कः।<ref>१.१.४०</ref></blockquote>
<blockquote>Avijñātatvē arthē kāraṇōpapattitaḥ tatvajñānārthaṃ ūhaḥ tarkaḥ</blockquote>

Tarkaḥ is a process for ascertaining the real nature of a thing of whose character is not known. It is a method of arriving to the right conclusion by showing the absurdity of all the contrary ideas. Tarka is a method of attaining knowledge of the truth about an unknown or uncertain thing by comparing and then gradually eliminating all the competing suppositions; E.g. Is the Self a product or a non-Product? If the Self is a non-product, it will experience the result of its action and on the eradication of the causes of re-birth, will be released; therefore, re-birth and release are indeed possible. If it is a product, these chances would not be possible, because the Self's connection with the body, mind and senses will not be the result and experience of its own action.

The phenomenon of re-birth and release is very well known and established; therefore, the Self must be a non-product. This form of reasoning is also called as Confutation. This is not a method which ascertains, determines and verifies that the Self is a particular thing and nothing else. It simply eliminates all other contesting theories to the supposition it supports; after which truth is established through the application of other means of accurate knowledge. Hence, confutation is considered to be a supporting technique and is therefore mentioned separately.

==Nirṇayaḥ==
<blockquote>विमृश्य पक्षप्रतिपक्षाभ्यां अर्थावधारणं निर्णयः।<ref>१.१.४१</ref></blockquote>
<blockquote>Vimṛśya pakṣapratipakṣābhyāṃ arthāvadhāraṇaṃ nirṇyaḥ</blockquote>

The removal of doubts and the resolution of a dispute by examining two opposite views is called as nirṇayaḥ. Dialectic is in the form of a dialogue between two people who may hold differing views, yet wish to establish the truth by seeking agreement with one another. This is in contrast to debate in which two or more people hold differing views and wish to persuade or prove one another wrong and thus a jury or judge is needed to decide the matter. The sequence of investigation is as follows:
* First impression
* Doubt arises
* Examining the opposite view<ref>It is called as pūrva pakṣa.</ref>
* Application of logic
* Determination of the controversy
* Ascertainment of Truth<ref>It is called as nirṇaya.</ref>

Doubt is the result of first impression and gives impetus to investigation in order to ascertain the truth. “Ascertainment” is unnecessary in the case of direct perception or the verbal testimony of a trustworthy authority. But one must be convinced of the authority being trustworthy. In other words, everything should be questioned and not accepted simply because the person holds a degree or title. One must test that individual and once the authenticity is assured then only one can accept the statements without further investigation. Endlessly questioning for the sake of questioning is also not useful for coming to the accurate conclusion.

==Vādaḥ==
<blockquote>प्रमाणतर्कसादनोपालम्भः सिद्दान्ताविरुद्दः पंचावयवोपपन्नः पक्षप्रतिपक्षपरिग्रहो वादः।<ref>1-2-1</ref></blockquote>
<blockquote>Pramāṇa tarkasādhanōpālaṃbhaḥ sidhdāntāvirudhdaḥ paṃcāvayavōpapannaḥ pakṣapratipakṣa parigrahaḥ vādaḥ</blockquote>

A dialogue in which one adopts one of two opposing positions is called as vādaḥ. The purpose of discussion is to come to the truth of the proposition under consideration. This may be achieved by talking about the topic with anyone who is a sincere seeker of truth. In vāda it is not necessary to establish one's own thesis, it is enough to submit one's views for examination in order to ascertain the truth. The discussion does not necessarily have to take into consideration the opposite opinion; it is enough to put any proposition to logical reasoning. The usual procedure is to maintain the thesis by means of right knowledge and to counter-thesis by the means of tarka.

==Jalpaḥ==
<blockquote>यथोक्तोपपन्नः छलजातिनिग्रहस्थान साधनोपालम्भः जल्पः।<ref>1-2-2</ref></blockquote>
<blockquote>Yathōktōpapannaḥ chalajātinigrahasthānōpālaṃbhaḥ jalpaḥ</blockquote>

A vigorous verbal disputation directed to gain victory in it is called as jalpaḥ. The sole purpose of engaging in a polemic is simply to gain victory over the other party. There’s no desire to either gain further knowledge or to establish one’s own position. Therefore, one can employ any device of debate in order to win. These devices are usually of a negative character, such as attacking the opponent’s character,<ref>It is called as argumentum ad hominem.</ref> quibbling, advancing futile arguments, behave with absurdity, evading the issue, focusing on examples or metaphors rather than on the actual argument itself etc.

==Vitaṇḍā==
<blockquote>स प्रतिपक्षस्थापनाहीनः वितण्डा।<ref>1-2-3</ref></blockquote>
<blockquote>Sa pratipakṣa sthāpanāhīnaḥ vitaṇḍā</blockquote>

A kind of wrangling, which consists in mere attacks on the opposite side is called as vitaṇḍā. In cavil there is no desire to establish any proposition. The only interest is to heckle the speaker by carping and offering frivolous objections. Polemics and caviling, which are considered as forms of discussion, may be used by an aspirant of truth only as means of protecting one's young and fragile knowledge which has not yet matured to a full blossomed conviction.

One may occasionally encounter objectionable people, who devoid of true knowledge, are puffed up with their academic achievements or are deluded by their own erroneous convictions. These people may try to impose their views and beliefs on others. Under such circumstances the student is urged to make use of these argumentative devices in order to safeguard the development of knowledge in the same way that nature uses thorns on some plants to safeguard the growth of its fruit.

If one’s philosophy or belief system is under attack then one may also employ these negative means for self-defense. One should never gratuitously criticize or attack anyone else’s belief system, ideology or way of life if that person is keeping to themselves. When a person tries to impose their views on others then defense is required.

===Hetvābhāsaḥ===
<blockquote>सव्यभिचारविरुध्द- प्रकरणसम- साध्यसम- कालातीताः हेत्वाभासाः।<ref>1-2-4</ref></blockquote>
<blockquote>avyabhicāra virudhda prakaraṇasama sādhyasama kālātītā hētvābhāsāḥ</blockquote>

[http://www.hindupedia.com/en/Talk:Nyaya_Introduction_to_Hetvabhasa Introduction to Hētvābhāsāḥ]

==Chalaḥ==
<blockquote>वचनविघातो अर्थविकल्पोपपत्या छलम्।<ref>1-2-10</ref></blockquote>
<blockquote>Acanavighātō arthavikalpōpapatyā chalaṃ</blockquote>

The opposition offered to a proposition by the assumption of an alternative meaning is called as chalaḥ. Casuistry is classified into three types:
# Vacas - It is called as playing upon words. This consists of willfully taking a term to mean something different from that intended by the speaker; e.g., taking the word 'quadruped' to mean four-legged table instead of an animal.
# Sāmānyas - It means generalizations. This consists of asserting the impossibility of a particular part because of the impossibility of the whole; e.g., to deny that a particular cow is black because all cows are not black.
# Upacārās - It is denoted by metaphors. This consists of invalidating a word used in a particular context by taking it literally when it was used metaphorically; e.g., the ‘House cheered’ means that the people in the house cheered and not the physical structure.

==Jātiḥ==
<blockquote>साधर्म्य वैधर्म्याभ्यां प्रत्यवस्थानं जातिः।<ref>1-2-18</ref></blockquote>
<blockquote>Sādharmya vaidharmyābhāṃ pratyavasthānaṃ jātiḥ</blockquote>

Offering objections founded on mere similarity or dissimilarity is called as jātiḥ. The reply is said to be futile if it does not take into consideration the universal connection between the middle term and the major term. Mere similarity or dissimilarity is not sufficient. There are twenty-four kinds of futility which display equality of the arguments of two sides so that neither side can win the argument.

==Nigraha-sthānaṃ==
<blockquote>विप्रतिपत्तिरप्रतिपत्तिश्च निग्रहस्थानम्।<ref>1-2-19</ref></blockquote>
<blockquote>Vipratipattirapratipattiśca nigrahasthānaṃ</blockquote>

When we do not understand or misunderstand the arguments stated by the opponent we eventually lose the debate. There is no purpose in entering into a debate if one is ignorant about the subject being investigated. Demonstrating ignorance or misunderstanding of the subject under discussion and attaining defeat in a debate is the last element in nyāya darśanaṃ, which is called nigrahasthānaṃ. Here the term 'nigrahasthānaṃ' means attaining defeat in a debate. The means for that defeat are shown as Vipratipattiḥ<ref>viparītā vā kutsitā vā pratipattiḥ</ref> and Apratipattiḥ. 'Vipratipattiḥ' is a situation in which one misunderstands and 'Apratipattiḥ' is a situation in which does not understand at all.

==References==
{{reflist}}

Talk:Nyāya - Introduction to Hētvābhāsāḥ

2019-10-04T09:54:04Z

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#REDIRECT [[Talk:Hetvabhasa]]

Talk:Hetvabhasa

2019-10-04T09:54:04Z

Jammalamadaka Suryanarayana: Jammalamadaka Suryanarayana moved page Talk:Nyāya - Introduction to Hētvābhāsāḥ to Talk:Hetvabhasa

#REDIRECT [[Nyāya - Introduction to Hētvābhāsāḥ]]