Hindupedia, the Hindu Encyclopedia - User contributions [en]

Talk:Bhairava

2015-03-01T04:50:04Z

Vishal J Mehta:

By Swami Harshananda

Bhairava literally means ‘one with a frightening cry’.

==Different Names of Bhairava==
Bhairava is regarded as one of the terrible aspects of Rudra-Śiva. This form of Lord Śiva is associated with his fights against the asuras or demons. During his fight with Andhakāsura, eight emanations came out of him, called Aṣṭa-bhairavas. They are :
# Vidyārāja
# Kāmarāja
# Nāgarāja
# Svacchandarāja
# Lambitarāja
# Devarāja
# Ugrarāja
# Vighnarāja

Other lists give the other set of names as :
# Mahābhairava
# Samhārabhairava
# Asitāṅgabhairava
# Rurubhairava
# Kālabhairava
# Krodhabhairava
# Tāmracuda or Kapālabhairava
# Candracṅḍa or Rudra-bhairava

==Origin of Bhairava==
Bhairava is sometimes mentioned as one of the five leaders of Śiva’s troops. The Rudrayāmala-tantra provides a list of 64 bhairavas in eight groups. The groups are distinguished by the color of their bodies, and their ornaments and weapons.

==Description of Bhairava==
Iconographical works generally describe the Bhairava as of a dark or reddish complexion and having four arms in which he carries a mace, lotus, spear and discus. The number of arms may be increased to eight and the other objects carried in the hands may include a sword, axe, small drum (ḍamaru), bell, fire and so on. Other texts describe him as having a flabby belly, round yellow eyes, side-tusks, wide nostrils, and wearing a garland of skulls. Snakes are his ornaments. A dog is often shown as his companion.

==Followers of Bhairava==
It is quite likely that the Bhairava was the deity of the people of the other caste groups. In some parts of the country, he is the protecting deity of the farmers. Bhairava is also the deity of some obscure religious cults like the Nātha Cult and the Kāpālika Cult. The Kāpālikas are sometimes referred to as ‘Bhairava-yogīs.’

==References==
{{reflist}}
* The Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Swami Harshananda, Ram Krishna Math, Bangalore

Talk:Bhagīratha

2015-03-01T04:42:46Z

Vishal J Mehta:

By Swami Harshananda

The word ‘bhagīratha-prayatna’, often used in literature for Herculean efforts in any field, owes its origin to the king Bhagīratha. Bhagīratha was the son of Dilīpa of the Ikṣvāku race who ruled in Ayodhyā for several generations.

The Sāgaras, or 60,000 sons of the Sagara (an ancestor of Bhagīratha), had been reduced to ashes by the wrath of the sage Kapila. The only way of their spiritual redemption was to bring the river Gaṅgā from the svargaloka or heaven, and make its waters flow over these ashes.Though successive kings tried to do it, they failed. Finally, it was Bhagīratha who succeeded in doing so.
He performed very severe austerities to please Brahmā, the Creator, who appeared before him and advised him to solicit the help of Śiva who alone could arrest the torrential flow of the river Gaṅgā and slow her down.

Bhagīratha did tapas or penance once again and appeased Śiva who agreed to do so. Then, at the behest of Brahmā and the request of the king Bhagīratha, Gaṅgā descended on to Śiva’s jaṭā (matted hair) and emerged as a stream. Then she followed the king right up to the pātāla or the nether world, and flowed over the ashes, thus redeeming the Sāgaras.

Since Bhagīratha brought the river Gaṅgā down to this earth, it was also known as the ‘Bhāgīrathi’. Some mythological works say that Bhagīratha was the son of Amśumān, the grandson of Sagara.

==References==
{{reflist}}
* The Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Swami Harshananda, Ram Krishna Math, Bangalore

Bhagavati

2015-03-01T04:36:21Z

Vishal J Mehta: moved from Discussion

By Swami Harshananda

The theistic systems of philosophy and the cults based on them use the general term ‘Bhagavān’ to denote God. This word has been used since He possesses ‘[[bhaga]]’ or the six blessed qualities of jñāna (knowledge), [[aiśvarya]] (lordship), [[dharma]] (righteousness), yaśas (celebrity), srī (wealth and splendor) and vairāgya (detachment), in abundance. His power, conceived as His consort, is called ‘Bhagavati (also known as Śakti or Devī).

Though this word can apply to any goddess or female deity, it is almost invariably used to denote Pārvatī and her several aspects. In the town of Chengannur in the Alleppy district of Kerala, [[a]] temple of a goddess known as Bhagavati is situated. According to local folklore, Śiva and Pārvatī presented themselves before the sage [[Agastya]] at the time of their marriage and settled down there. While residing there, the [[Devi]] had her menses. This forced the couple to stay back for the purification bath that was required due to her period.

Even today, the devotees believe that the goddess Bhagavati, whose image is cast in pañcaloha (or an alloy of five metals) has her periods. The cella is kept closed for three days during such periods. On the fourth day there is [[a]] bathing ritual, conducted in the nearby river Pampā.

The temple is spread across over a six-acre plot. It is a massive structure. The image of the deity faces west. After the original icon was damaged by fire, it was replaced by a pañcaloha idol. It is a beautiful image, about 60 cm in height and has two hands in the varada (boon-giving) and [[abhaya]] (granting protection) poses.

There is also a shrine for Śiva and the liṅga is of the svayambhu (self-manifested) type. Subsidiary shrines dedicated to Gaṇ[[eśa]] and Caṇ[[deśa]] are also located inside the complex. [[Temples]] of Śāstā and Kṛṣṇa are situated a little farther. A giant peepal tree on the western side is said to be endowed with the miraculous power of curing those possessed by evil spirits.

The original temple might have been built by the Cerman dynasty (9th to 12th century A.D.). It was renovated later, though this renovation has not been completed.

==References==
{{reflist}}
* The Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Swami Harshananda, Ram [[Krishna]] Math, Bangalore

Talk:Bhagavati

2015-03-01T04:36:00Z

Vishal J Mehta:

By Swami Harshananda

The theistic systems of philosophy and the cults based on them use the general term ‘Bhagavān’ to denote God. This word has been used since He possesses ‘bhaga’ or the six blessed qualities of jñāna (knowledge), aiśvarya (lordship), dharma (righteousness), yaśas (celebrity), srī (wealth and splendor) and vairāgya (detachment), in abundance. His power, conceived as His consort, is called ‘Bhagavati (also known as Śakti or Devī).

Though this word can apply to any goddess or female deity, it is almost invariably used to denote Pārvatī and her several aspects. In the town of Chengannur in the Alleppy district of Kerala, a temple of a goddess known as Bhagavati is situated. According to local folklore, Śiva and Pārvatī presented themselves before the sage Agastya at the time of their marriage and settled down there. While residing there, the Devi had her menses. This forced the couple to stay back for the purification bath that was required due to her period.

Even today, the devotees believe that the goddess Bhagavati, whose image is cast in pañcaloha (or an alloy of five metals) has her periods. The cella is kept closed for three days during such periods. On the fourth day there is a bathing ritual, conducted in the nearby river Pampā.

The temple is spread across over a six-acre plot. It is a massive structure. The image of the deity faces west. After the original icon was damaged by fire, it was replaced by a pañcaloha idol. It is a beautiful image, about 60 cm in height and has two hands in the varada (boon-giving) and abhaya (granting protection) poses.

There is also a shrine for Śiva and the liṅga is of the svayambhu (self-manifested) type. Subsidiary shrines dedicated to Gaṇeśa and Caṇdeśa are also located inside the complex. Temples of Śāstā and Kṛṣṇa are situated a little farther. A giant peepal tree on the western side is said to be endowed with the miraculous power of curing those possessed by evil spirits.

The original temple might have been built by the Cerman dynasty (9th to 12th century A.D.). It was renovated later, though this renovation has not been completed.

==References==
{{reflist}}
* The Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Swami Harshananda, Ram Krishna Math, Bangalore

Bhāgavata-dharma

2015-03-01T04:15:45Z

Vishal J Mehta: moved from Discussion

By Swami Harshananda

[[Bhāgavata]]-[[dharma]] literally means ‘The Bhāgavata Religion’.

==Origin of Bhāgavata-dharma==
[[Bhakti]] or love towards God is [[a]] very ancient religious sentiment. Its origin can be traced even in the [[Rgveda]].<ref>Rgveda 1.156.3; 8.98.11</ref> It's reference also appears like [[a]] flash of lightning in the Upaniṣads;<ref>Katha Upanisad 2.23; Svetāśvatara Upanisad 6.23</ref> Even during the period of the epics and the purāṇas it grew to voluminous proportions.

==Growth of Bhāgavata-[[dharma]]==
Gradually, [[bhakti]] was developed into a doctrine or a religion or even a philosophy. This has been christened as ‘Bhāgavata-dharma.’ The term ‘Bhāgavata-dharma’ has been derived from the word ‘Bhāgavat’ or God. It has been endowed with ‘[[bhaga]]’ or the six divine attributes like :
# [[Aiśvarya]] - Lordship
# Dharma - Righteousness
# Yaśas - Celebrity
# Śrī - Wealth and splendor
# Jñāna - Knowledge
# Vairāgya - Detachment

==Alternative Names of Bhāgavata-dharma==
Since the God is identified with Nārāyaṇa, this religion is also called ‘Nārāyaṇīya-dharma.’ It was also called ‘Sātvata-mata’ since it was current among the people of the ‘satvat’ tribe to which Kṛṣṇa belonged. It teaches [[ekānta]]-bhakti or single-minded devotion, hence it became popularly known as ‘[[Ek]]āntika or Aikāntika mata.’ Other names of this system are :
# Pāñcarātra mata - Religion as taught in the Pāñcarātra Āgamas
# Vaiṣṇava-dharma - Religion of the followers of [[Viṣṇu]]

==Sources of Bhāgavata-dharma==
The sources of the Bhāgavata-dharma are :
# The Nārāyanīya section of the Mahā[[bhārata]]<ref>Śāntiparva chapter 334 onwards</ref>
# Visnupurāna
# Bhagavadgītā
# Bhāgavata
# Pāñcarātra Āgamas
# Bhaktisutras of Sāṇdilya and Nārada

==Different Names of God as per Bhāgavata-dharma==
The Bhāgavata religion has adapted the impersonal [[Brahman]] of the Upaniṣads to a personal God. Some of the most commonly names used to respect him are :
# Īśvara
# Mahāviṣṇu
# Nārāyaṇa
# Kṛṣṇa-Vāsudeva

==Representation of God as per Bhāgavata-dharma==
* He cannot be apprehended by the senses nor by logic.
* Śrutis or scriptures describes about him to the best.
* His grace is the supreme factor in realizing him.
* [[Ekānta]]-bhakti or single-minded devotion is the only mode by which his grace can be obtained and he can be apprehended.
* Though He is ‘sarvatantra- svatantra’ or supremely independent, he is ever fond of those that are devoted to him and reveals himself to them.
* He is always ‘[[bhakta]]- parādhīna’ or subject to the will of the devotees.
* Prapatti or śaraṇāgati (complete resignation) is another means of attaining him.

==Different Aspects of Bhāgavata-dharma==
The Caturvyuha doctrine is another speciality of this Bhāgavata-dharma. The four vyuhas or emanations of the Lord Viṣṇu are:
# Vāsudeva
# Sañkarṣaṇa
# Pradyumna
# [[Aniruddha]]
They are different aspects of the manifestation of the six qualities known as ‘[[bhāga]]’ mentioned earlier. While Vāsudeva has all the six qualities in full measure, the other three have two each in greater measure than the others. Followers of the Bhāgavata-dharma are called ‘bhāgavatas.’

==References==
{{reflist}}
* The Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Swami Harshananda, Ram [[Krishna]] Math, Bangalore

Talk:Bhāgavata-dharma

2015-03-01T04:15:06Z

Vishal J Mehta:

By Swami Harshananda

Bhāgavata-dharma literally means ‘The Bhāgavata Religion’.

==Origin of Bhāgavata-dharma==
Bhakti or love towards God is a very ancient religious sentiment. Its origin can be traced even in the Rgveda.<ref>Rgveda 1.156.3; 8.98.11</ref> It's reference also appears like a flash of lightning in the Upaniṣads;<ref>Katha Upanisad 2.23; Svetāśvatara Upanisad 6.23</ref> Even during the period of the epics and the purāṇas it grew to voluminous proportions.

==Growth of Bhāgavata-dharma==
Gradually, bhakti was developed into a doctrine or a religion or even a philosophy. This has been christened as ‘Bhāgavata-dharma.’ The term ‘Bhāgavata-dharma’ has been derived from the word ‘Bhāgavat’ or God. It has been endowed with ‘bhaga’ or the six divine attributes like :
# Aiśvarya - Lordship
# Dharma - Righteousness
# Yaśas - Celebrity
# Śrī - Wealth and splendor
# Jñāna - Knowledge
# Vairāgya - Detachment

==Alternative Names of Bhāgavata-dharma==
Since the God is identified with Nārāyaṇa, this religion is also called ‘Nārāyaṇīya-dharma.’ It was also called ‘Sātvata-mata’ since it was current among the people of the ‘satvat’ tribe to which Kṛṣṇa belonged. It teaches ekānta-bhakti or single-minded devotion, hence it became popularly known as ‘Ekāntika or Aikāntika mata.’ Other names of this system are :
# Pāñcarātra mata - Religion as taught in the Pāñcarātra Āgamas
# Vaiṣṇava-dharma - Religion of the followers of Viṣṇu

==Sources of Bhāgavata-dharma==
The sources of the Bhāgavata-dharma are :
# The Nārāyanīya section of the Mahābhārata<ref>Śāntiparva chapter 334 onwards</ref>
# Visnupurāna
# Bhagavadgītā
# Bhāgavata
# Pāñcarātra Āgamas
# Bhaktisutras of Sāṇdilya and Nārada

==Different Names of God as per Bhāgavata-dharma==
The Bhāgavata religion has adapted the impersonal Brahman of the Upaniṣads to a personal God. Some of the most commonly names used to respect him are :
# Īśvara
# Mahāviṣṇu
# Nārāyaṇa
# Kṛṣṇa-Vāsudeva

==Representation of God as per Bhāgavata-dharma==
* He cannot be apprehended by the senses nor by logic.
* Śrutis or scriptures describes about him to the best.
* His grace is the supreme factor in realizing him.
* Ekānta-bhakti or single-minded devotion is the only mode by which his grace can be obtained and he can be apprehended.
* Though He is ‘sarvatantra- svatantra’ or supremely independent, he is ever fond of those that are devoted to him and reveals himself to them.
* He is always ‘bhakta- parādhīna’ or subject to the will of the devotees.
* Prapatti or śaraṇāgati (complete resignation) is another means of attaining him.

==Different Aspects of Bhāgavata-dharma==
The Caturvyuha doctrine is another speciality of this Bhāgavata-dharma. The four vyuhas or emanations of the Lord Viṣṇu are:
# Vāsudeva
# Sañkarṣaṇa
# Pradyumna
# Aniruddha
They are different aspects of the manifestation of the six qualities known as ‘bhāga’ mentioned earlier. While Vāsudeva has all the six qualities in full measure, the other three have two each in greater measure than the others. Followers of the Bhāgavata-dharma are called ‘bhāgavatas.’

==References==
{{reflist}}
* The Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Swami Harshananda, Ram Krishna Math, Bangalore

Bhagavadgītā

2015-01-29T01:56:25Z

Vishal J Mehta: /* References */

By Swami Harshananda

Bhagavadgītā literally means ‘Song of God’.

==Significance of the Bhagavadgītā==
The Bhagavadgītā, popularly known as the Gītā, is one of the outstanding religious classics available in the world. Hindus, irrespective of their sects and denominations, cherish great reverence for this book. [[A]] ceremonial reading of the book or even a part thereof, is believed to confer great religious merits.

==Origin of Bhagavadgītā==
Bhagavadgītā forms an integral part of a much bigger work, the great epic Mahā[[bhārata]].<ref>[[Bhismaparva]], chapters 25 to 42</ref> It is [[a]] poetical work in the form of a dialogue between Srī Kṛṣṇa and [[Arjuna]], on the battlefield of Kurukṣetra. The setting of the battlefield contributes a dramatic element to the book and relates religion to the realities of life.

==Magnitude of Bhagavadgītā==
The greatness and the popularity of the Gītā can be attributed to several factors.
* It is a part and parcel of the epic Mahā[[bhārata]], which itself has been highly venerated as the fifth [[Veda]] (Pañcama- Veda).
* The teacher of the Gitā is Srī Kṛṣṇa, who is regarded as an [[avatāra]] or incarnation of God Himself. As an ideal friend, a great statesman, an invincible warrior, a wise preceptor and a yogi par excellence, he harmonizes in his life the various conflicting activities of life. It is precisely this that makes him the fittest person to preach such a religio-spiritual classic.
* [[Arjuna]], the recipient of the preachings given by Srī Kṛṣṇa, was himself a great warrior. He is a typical representative of humans, easily liable to be upset or confused during the periods of crisis. Hence, his predicaments very much represent those of the common man. The questions, doubts and the misgivings he raises and the solutions that Srī Kṛṣṇa offers are not only relevant but also valid even today.
* Finally, the Vedāntic tradition has always regarded the prasthānatraya (the three foundational works) as its basis. The Gītā is one of them, the other two being the Upaniṣads and the Brahmasutras. That is why Śaṅkara (A.D. 788-820) and other ancient teachers have chosen to write commentaries on it.

==Existence of Bhagavadgītā==
Since the Gītā is an integral part of the epic Mahābhārata, its date and authorship are obviously the same as those of the epic itself. Kṛṣṇa Dvaipāyana, better known as Vedavyāsa, is reputed to be its author. As per the oral traditions based on the notion of time as the [[yuga]]-system, the Kurukṣetra war must have taken place during 3139 B.C. However, the dates given by the modern historians and scholars (mostly from the West) vary from 1424 B.C. to 575 B.C.

==Segments of Bhagavadgītā==
The widely accepted present text of the Gītā is based on the one chosen by Śaṅkara, the earliest of the traditional commentators. It consists of 700 ślokas or verses spread over 18 chapters. The following is a brief summary of the book, arranged chapterwise. The book comprises of eighteen chapters.

==Chapter 1, Arjuna-visāda-[[yoga]]==
This chapter contains forty seven verses. Arjuna, the Pāṇḍava hero, shaken by the prospect of killing the venerable Bhīṣma and the preceptor Droṇa, gets into a despondent mood at the beginning of the war. He describes the horrendous fallout of such wars, and lays down his arms, refusing to fight.

==Chapter 2, Sāñkhya-yoga==
This chapter contains seventy two verses. Śrī Kṛṣṇa, at first, admonishes Arjuna for his unmanly and ignominious behavior. This however, falls on deaf ears. Hence he was obliged to give a long philosophical discourse, summarized as follows: Since the soul inhabiting bodies, is immortal, one should not grieve over death and destruction. It is Arjuna’s duty to fight for righteousness in the war and win it, or become a martyr if necessary. He should never yield to unrighteousness. Work done as duty in a spirit of detachment and for public welfare ultimately leads to perfection. A perfect man (called ‘sthitaprajña’ here) approves only truth under all the vicissitudes of life.

==Chapter 3, Karmayoga==
This chapter contains forty three verses. Śrī Kṛṣṇa clears Arjuna’s doubts regarding the conflict between jñāna (knowledge), which envisages renunciation and [[karma]] (work, action). Śrī Kṛṣṇa opines that the path of karma is easier and better for most people. Citing his own example, along with ancient kings like Janaka, he urges Arjuna not to relinquish his duties. He should perform his duties without selfish motives.

==Chapter 4, Jñāna-[[yoga]]==
Śrī Kṛṣṇa explains to Arjuna how knowledge of Karma yoga, or the yoga of action, taught by him in ancient times to Vivasvān and others, got lost in the course of time. Śrī Kṛṣṇa reveals that he is God Himself who has come down to save [[dharma]] or righteousness. He incarnates himself at his own will whenever dharma declines to put it on a firm foundation. He extols the greatness of jñāna or spiritual wisdom.

==Chapter 5, [[Karma]]-samnyāsa-yoga==
This chapter contains twenty nine verses. Arjuna questions which is better karma-sanyāsa (renunciation of action) or karma yoga (yoga of action). Śrī Kṛṣṇa avers that the latter is better for him. What is needed is equanimity while doing karma.

==Chapter 6 Dhyānayoga==
This chapter contains forty seven verses. In this chapter, Śrī Kṛṣṇa describes the process of [[dhyāna]] or meditation. He graphically depicts the place and posture suitable for meditation. He also explains that the method of controlling the mind is only through meditation.

==Chapter 7 Jñāna-vijñāna-yoga==
This chapter contains thirty verses. Śrī Kṛṣṇa as the Supreme Lord has created the whole universe, drawing upon his twofold prakṛti or nature. It is he that is holding together all beings and things. Only those that surrender themselves to him can transcend his māyā (the power of delusion).

==Chapter 8 Aksarabrahmayoga==
This chapter contains twenty eight verses. Śrī Kṛṣṇa describes here how a person should remember Him at the moment of death to attain Him. Repetition of praṇava or [[Om]] at this juncture is of a great help. He also mentions the two well-known paths which the jīvas or embodied beings take to after death. These paths are :
# Arcirādimārga - The path of light
# Dhumādimārga - The path of smoke

==Chapter 9 Rājavidyā-rājaguhya-yoga==
This chapter contains thirty four verses. Śrī Kṛṣṇa gives here the esoteric wisdom by which Arjuna can get liberated. He is everything in creation. If people [[worship]] him with devotion, offering him even insignificant things like a flower, or a leaf or water, he accepts them and blesses them. His devotee never perishes in life.

==Chapter 10 Vibhutiyoga==
This chapter contains forty two verses. Śrī Kṛṣṇa devotes this chapter almost entirely to the delineation of his vibhutis or divine manifestations. He is the best or the essence in all beings or things. The whole world has been supported by just a part of His glory.

==Chapter 11 Viśvarupa [[darśana]]-yoga==
This chapter contains fifty five verses. At Arjuna’s request, Śrī Kṛṣṇa reveals his Viśvarupa or celestial form, after endowing him with divine sight. Awed by it, Arjuna offers his prayers and obeisance. Śrī Kṛṣṇa withdraws the Viśvarupa and declares that it can be seen only by those who have intense devotion.

==Chapter 12 Bhaktiyoga==
This chapter contains twenty verses. In this chapter, Śrī Kṛṣṇa declares that even though contemplation on the [[Avyakta]] or unmanifested leads to the same result as devotion to him, the latter path is better. He advises Arjuna to cultivate devotion to him. Towards the end, the characteristics of a [[bhakta]] or an ideal devotee are delineated.

==Chapter 13 Ksetra-ksetrajña-yoga==
This chapter contains thirty four verses. The body is the kṣetra or the field. The Self is the kṣetrajña or the knower of the field. Both these concepts are described in this chapter. This is followed by descriptions of jñāna (knowledge), jñeya (that which is to be known, viz., [[Brahman]]), prakṛti (nature) and puruṣa (the Self or kṣetrajña). Those who can intuit the difference between the last two will attain Brahman.

==Chapter 14 Gunatraya-vibhaga-yoga==
This chapter contains twenty seven verses. Prakṛti (or nature), from which creation proceeds, prodded by the Lord (Srī Kṛṣṇa), comprises the three guṇas. There is a detailed description of these guṇas and also that of the guṇātīta (the person who has transcended them):
# Sattva
# Rajas
# Tamas

==Chapter 15 Purusottama-yoga==
This chapter contains twenty verses. In this chapter, Srī Kṛṣṇa describes samsāra or the created world as an inverted tree with its roots above, in Brahman or Purāṇa-puruṣa, the Primeval Being. By taking refuge in Him, this tree can be cut resulting into liberation. There is also a description of transmigration of the jīva, the bound soul. Srī Kṛṣṇa also states that He is the power that sustains the world and its living beings. He is the Puruṣottama or the best of beings.

==Chapter 16 Daivā[[sura]]-sampad-vibhāga- yoga==
This chapter contains twenty four verses. In this chapter, Srī Kṛṣṇa delineates those traits of character (sampat) that make a person divine (daivi) or demoniac (āsurī). He assures Arjuna that he belongs to the divine group but urges him to avoid the three gateways to hell :
# Lust
# Anger
# Greed

==Chapter 17 Sraddhātraya-vibhāga-yoga==
This chapter contains twenty eight verses. It contains interesting descriptions of śraddhā (faith), āhāra (food), yajña (sacrifices), tapas (austerity) and [[dāna]] (gifts). All are divided into three categories according to the three guṇas. Śrī Kṛṣṇa also give the aphorism ‘[[Om]] tat sat,’ a designation for Brahman, which can act as a magic formula to correct the deficiencies in religious acts.

==Chapter 18 Moksa-samnyāsa-yoga==
This chapter comprises of seventy eight verses. It is the last and the longest chapter, dealing with several miscellaneous topics like tyāga, sanyāsa (renunciation), jñāna (knowledge), karma (action) and kartā (doer) classified as per the three guṇas. The division of society into four varṇas or groups, according to people's nature and vocation, has also been mentioned in this chapter. Finally Śrī Kṛṣṇa advises Arjuna to totally surrender himself to Him, with the promise of freeing him from all the sins. Arjuna's delusion was destroyed by this wonderful discourse, and he vows to fight in obedience to Śrī Kṛṣṇa's command.

==References==
{{reflist}}
* The Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Swami Harshananda, Ram [[Krishna]] Math, Bangalore

==See also==
The Philosophy of the Bhagavadgitā

Bhagavadgītā

2015-01-29T01:55:07Z

Vishal J Mehta:

Bhagavadgītā

2015-01-29T01:53:18Z

Vishal J Mehta:

Talk:Bhagavadgītā

2015-01-29T01:51:33Z

Vishal J Mehta:

By Swami Harshananda

Bhagavadgītā literally means ‘Song of God’.

==Significance of the Bhagavadgītā==
The Bhagavadgītā, popularly known as the Gītā, is one of the outstanding religious classics available in the world. Hindus, irrespective of their sects and denominations, cherish great reverence for this book. A ceremonial reading of the book or even a part thereof, is believed to confer great religious merits.

==Origin of Bhagavadgītā==
Bhagavadgītā forms an integral part of a much bigger work, the great epic Mahābhārata.<ref>Bhismaparva, chapters 25 to 42</ref> It is a poetical work in the form of a dialogue between Srī Kṛṣṇa and Arjuna, on the battlefield of Kurukṣetra. The setting of the battlefield contributes a dramatic element to the book and relates religion to the realities of life.

==Magnitude of Bhagavadgītā==
The greatness and the popularity of the Gītā can be attributed to several factors.
* It is a part and parcel of the epic Mahābhārata, which itself has been highly venerated as the fifth Veda (Pañcama- Veda).
* The teacher of the Gitā is Srī Kṛṣṇa, who is regarded as an avatāra or incarnation of God Himself. As an ideal friend, a great statesman, an invincible warrior, a wise preceptor and a yogi par excellence, he harmonizes in his life the various conflicting activities of life. It is precisely this that makes him the fittest person to preach such a religio-spiritual classic.
* Arjuna, the recipient of the preachings given by Srī Kṛṣṇa, was himself a great warrior. He is a typical representative of humans, easily liable to be upset or confused during the periods of crisis. Hence, his predicaments very much represent those of the common man. The questions, doubts and the misgivings he raises and the solutions that Srī Kṛṣṇa offers are not only relevant but also valid even today.
* Finally, the Vedāntic tradition has always regarded the prasthānatraya (the three foundational works) as its basis. The Gītā is one of them, the other two being the Upaniṣads and the Brahmasutras. That is why Śaṅkara (A.D. 788-820) and other ancient teachers have chosen to write commentaries on it.

==Existence of Bhagavadgītā==
Since the Gītā is an integral part of the epic Mahābhārata, its date and authorship are obviously the same as those of the epic itself. Kṛṣṇa Dvaipāyana, better known as Vedavyāsa, is reputed to be its author. As per the oral traditions based on the notion of time as the yuga-system, the Kurukṣetra war must have taken place during 3139 B.C. However, the dates given by the modern historians and scholars (mostly from the West) vary from 1424 B.C. to 575 B.C.

==Segments of Bhagavadgītā==
The widely accepted present text of the Gītā is based on the one chosen by Śaṅkara, the earliest of the traditional commentators. It consists of 700 ślokas or verses spread over 18 chapters. The following is a brief summary of the book, arranged chapterwise. The book comprises of eighteen chapters.

==Chapter 1, Arjuna-visāda-yoga==
This chapter contains forty seven verses. Arjuna, the Pāṇḍava hero, shaken by the prospect of killing the venerable Bhīṣma and the preceptor Droṇa, gets into a despondent mood at the beginning of the war. He describes the horrendous fallout of such wars, and lays down his arms, refusing to fight.

==Chapter 2, Sāñkhya-yoga==
This chapter contains seventy two verses. Śrī Kṛṣṇa, at first, admonishes Arjuna for his unmanly and ignominious behavior. This however, falls on deaf ears. Hence he was obliged to give a long philosophical discourse, summarized as follows: Since the soul inhabiting bodies, is immortal, one should not grieve over death and destruction. It is Arjuna’s duty to fight for righteousness in the war and win it, or become a martyr if necessary. He should never yield to unrighteousness. Work done as duty in a spirit of detachment and for public welfare ultimately leads to perfection. A perfect man (called ‘sthitaprajña’ here) approves only truth under all the vicissitudes of life.

==Chapter 3, Karmayoga==
This chapter contains forty three verses. Śrī Kṛṣṇa clears Arjuna’s doubts regarding the conflict between jñāna (knowledge), which envisages renunciation and karma (work, action). Śrī Kṛṣṇa opines that the path of karma is easier and better for most people. Citing his own example, along with ancient kings like Janaka, he urges Arjuna not to relinquish his duties. He should perform his duties without selfish motives.

==Chapter 4, Jñāna-yoga==
Śrī Kṛṣṇa explains to Arjuna how knowledge of Karma yoga, or the yoga of action, taught by him in ancient times to Vivasvān and others, got lost in the course of time. Śrī Kṛṣṇa reveals that he is God Himself who has come down to save dharma or righteousness. He incarnates himself at his own will whenever dharma declines to put it on a firm foundation. He extols the greatness of jñāna or spiritual wisdom.

==Chapter 5, Karma-samnyāsa-yoga==
This chapter contains twenty nine verses. Arjuna questions which is better karma-sanyāsa (renunciation of action) or karma yoga (yoga of action). Śrī Kṛṣṇa avers that the latter is better for him. What is needed is equanimity while doing karma.

==Chapter 6 Dhyānayoga==
This chapter contains forty seven verses. In this chapter, Śrī Kṛṣṇa describes the process of dhyāna or meditation. He graphically depicts the place and posture suitable for meditation. He also explains that the method of controlling the mind is only through meditation.

==Chapter 7 Jñāna-vijñāna-yoga==
This chapter contains thirty verses. Śrī Kṛṣṇa as the Supreme Lord has created the whole universe, drawing upon his twofold prakṛti or nature. It is he that is holding together all beings and things. Only those that surrender themselves to him can transcend his māyā (the power of delusion).

==Chapter 8 Aksarabrahmayoga==
This chapter contains twenty eight verses. Śrī Kṛṣṇa describes here how a person should remember Him at the moment of death to attain Him. Repetition of praṇava or Om at this juncture is of a great help. He also mentions the two well-known paths which the jīvas or embodied beings take to after death. These paths are :
# Arcirādimārga - The path of light
# Dhumādimārga - The path of smoke

==Chapter 9 Rājavidyā-rājaguhya-yoga==
This chapter contains thirty four verses. Śrī Kṛṣṇa gives here the esoteric wisdom by which Arjuna can get liberated. He is everything in creation. If people worship him with devotion, offering him even insignificant things like a flower, or a leaf or water, he accepts them and blesses them. His devotee never perishes in life.

==Chapter 10 Vibhutiyoga==
This chapter contains forty two verses. Śrī Kṛṣṇa devotes this chapter almost entirely to the delineation of his vibhutis or divine manifestations. He is the best or the essence in all beings or things. The whole world has been supported by just a part of His glory.

==Chapter 11 Viśvarupa darśana-yoga==
This chapter contains fifty five verses. At Arjuna’s request, Śrī Kṛṣṇa reveals his Viśvarupa or celestial form, after endowing him with divine sight. Awed by it, Arjuna offers his prayers and obeisance. Śrī Kṛṣṇa withdraws the Viśvarupa and declares that it can be seen only by those who have intense devotion.

==Chapter 12 Bhaktiyoga==
This chapter contains twenty verses. In this chapter, Śrī Kṛṣṇa declares that even though contemplation on the Avyakta or unmanifested leads to the same result as devotion to him, the latter path is better. He advises Arjuna to cultivate devotion to him. Towards the end, the characteristics of a bhakta or an ideal devotee are delineated.

==Chapter 13 Ksetra-ksetrajña-yoga==
This chapter contains thirty four verses. The body is the kṣetra or the field. The Self is the kṣetrajña or the knower of the field. Both these concepts are described in this chapter. This is followed by descriptions of jñāna (knowledge), jñeya (that which is to be known, viz., Brahman), prakṛti (nature) and puruṣa (the Self or kṣetrajña). Those who can intuit the difference between the last two will attain Brahman.

==Chapter 14 Gunatraya-vibhaga-yoga==
This chapter contains twenty seven verses. Prakṛti (or nature), from which creation proceeds, prodded by the Lord (Srī Kṛṣṇa), comprises the three guṇas. There is a detailed description of these guṇas and also that of the guṇātīta (the person who has transcended them):
# Sattva
# Rajas
# Tamas

==Chapter 15 Purusottama-yoga==
This chapter contains twenty verses. In this chapter, Srī Kṛṣṇa describes samsāra or the created world as an inverted tree with its roots above, in Brahman or Purāṇa-puruṣa, the Primeval Being. By taking refuge in Him, this tree can be cut resulting into liberation. There is also a description of transmigration of the jīva, the bound soul. Srī Kṛṣṇa also states that He is the power that sustains the world and its living beings. He is the Puruṣottama or the best of beings.

==Chapter 16 Daivāsura-sampad-vibhāga- yoga==
This chapter contains twenty four verses. In this chapter, Srī Kṛṣṇa delineates those traits of character (sampat) that make a person divine (daivi) or demoniac (āsurī). He assures Arjuna that he belongs to the divine group but urges him to avoid the three gateways to hell :
# Lust
# Anger
# Greed

==Chapter 17 Sraddhātraya-vibhāga-yoga==
This chapter contains twenty eight verses. It contains interesting descriptions of śraddhā (faith), āhāra (food), yajña (sacrifices), tapas (austerity) and dāna (gifts). All are divided into three categories according to the three guṇas. Śrī Kṛṣṇa also give the aphorism ‘Om tat sat,’ a designation for Brahman, which can act as a magic formula to correct the deficiencies in religious acts.

==Chapter 18 Moksa-samnyāsa-yoga==
This chapter comprises of seventy eight verses. It is the last and the longest chapter, dealing with several miscellaneous topics like tyāga, sanyāsa (renunciation), jñāna (knowledge), karma (action) and kartā (doer) classified as per the three guṇas. The division of society into four varṇas or groups, according to people's nature and vocation, has also been mentioned in this chapter. Finally Śrī Kṛṣṇa advises Arjuna to totally surrender himself to Him, with the promise of freeing him from all the sins. Arjuna's delusion was destroyed by this wonderful discourse, and he vows to fight in obedience to Śrī Kṛṣṇa's command.

==References==
{{reflist}}
* The Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Swami Harshananda, Ram Krishna Math, Bangalore

==See also==
[[The Philosophy of the Bhagavadgitā]]

The Philosophy of the Bhagavadgitā

2015-01-29T01:49:23Z

Vishal J Mehta: moved from Discussion

By Swami Harshananda

The philosophical systems, known as [[darśanas]], generally treat their subject under four major headings :
# The cause of the universe
# Creation or evolution of the universe
# Nature of the individual soul
# The goal of human life and the means of achieving it

Though the Bhagavadgitā is not [[a]] systematic treatise on philosophy, it is possible to deal with its subject matter under these headings. It may not be out of place to mention that the colophon given at the end of each chapter of the Gitā viz. Upaniṣad, Brahmavidyā and [[Yoga]]śāstra, reflects its contents very well. It is an ‘Upaniṣad’ or esoteric wisdom, given by the teacher to [[a]] disciple on request. It is ‘Brahmavidyā’, since it deals with [[Brahman]], the Absolute. It is ‘[[Yoga]]śāstra’, since it describes yoga or practical disciplines that help an aspirant to attain spiritual wisdom, the goal of life.

==Cause of the Universe==
Śrī Kṛṣṇa has been venerated and worshiped as God Himself, who came down to Earth as a human being to save mankind and redirect it to the path of [[dharma]] or righteousness. In the Mahā[[bhārata]], the [[Bhāgavata]], and also in the Gītā, Śrī Kṛṣṇa often identified himself with God and speaks with indisputable authority. While studying the philosophy of the Gītā, it is necessary to keep this fact in mind.

The Gitā compares the created universe to an inverted tree with its roots above, established in God.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 15.1-4</ref> The more popular view of the mythological lore is that Brahmā (the four-faced Creator) creates the world during his ‘day’ and withdraws it into himself during ‘night,’.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 8.17-19</ref> The various terms used to indicate the Supreme or God are :
# Parabrahman<ref>Bhagavadgitā 13.12</ref>
# Paramātman<ref>Bhagavadgitā 13.22, 31</ref>
# Uttamapuruṣa or Puruṣottama<ref>Bhagavadgitā 15.17-19</ref>
# Īśvara<ref>Bhagavadgitā 15.17; 18.61</ref>
# Kṣetrajña<ref>Bhagavadgitā 13.2</ref>
# Parameśvara<ref>Bhagavadgitā 13.27</ref>

==Creation of Universe==
God has a twofold prakṛti or nature.
# The aparā or the lower one is insentient and comprises of the eight components. The five elements like earth, water, manas (mind), [[buddhi]] (intellect) and [[ahaṅkāra]] (egoism) are also a part of it.
# The parā or the higher one consists of the innumerable jīvas or souls.

Creation proceeds out of the combination of the two prakṛtis. It is under His direction that prakṛti gives birth to all beings and things. He is the sole origin and place of dissolution of this universe.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 7.4-6; 9.7</ref> The whole universe is supported by Him as the beads of a necklace are supported by the string on which they are strung.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 7.7</ref> As [[Avyakta]] or the Unmanifest, He has pervaded the whole universe.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 9.4</ref> That is why He is the essence of all in this creation.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 10.41</ref>

God is not only transcendent and immanent,<ref>Bhagavadgitā 18.61</ref> but he can also incarnate himself as a human being whenever [[dharma]] or righteousness declines, in order to restore its balance. He does it out of his own free will. By his māyā-power, and subjugating his prakṛti, he creates a body for himself.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 4.6-8</ref>

God is more easily approachable through devotion.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 9.26</ref> He responds in whatever way people approach him.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 4.11; 7.21-23</ref> His devotee never perishes.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 9.31</ref> Those who surrender to him will easily cross over māyā (the delusive power of God), which is otherwise impossible to cross.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 7.14</ref> He takes over their entire responsibility even here in this world.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 9.22</ref> That is why He constantly urges [[Arjuna]] to cultivate devotion to him and surrender to him.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 9.34; 11.55; 18.65, 66</ref>

==Nature of the Individual Soul==
The jīva or the individual soul is an important aspect of this creation. He is a part of God.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 15.7</ref> He is the higher aspect of his nature, parāprakṛti.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 7.5</ref> He is essentially unborn, indestructible and eternal.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 2.17-25</ref> He takes on bodies just as he wears garments, and then discards them to take new ones.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 2.22</ref> While doing so, he draws to himself the five sense-organs and the mind from the aparā prakṛti or the lower prakṛti<ref>Bhagavadgitā 7.4, 5</ref> and transmigrates with them. He is deluded by [[ajñāna]]
(or ignorance) which covers jñāna (or knowledge).<ref>Bhagavadgitā 5.15</ref>

==Goal of Human Life==
The goal of life is to reach the Lord’s Abode, from which there is no return to this mundane existence.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 8.16; 5.17; 15.6</ref> This state has been variously called as follows :
# [[Brahma]] nirvaṇa - Dissolution into [[Brahman]]<ref>Bhagavadgitā 2.72; 5.24</ref>
# [[Brāhmī]]sthiti - Being established in Brahman<ref>Bhagavadgitā 2.72</ref>
# Samsiddhi - Perfection<ref>Bhagavadgitā 8.15; 18.45</ref>
# Parāgati - Highest state by attaining Srī Kṛṣṇa Himself.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 6.45; 8.13, 21; 9.32; 13.28; 16.22</ref><ref>Bhagavadgitā 4.9, 10; 5.29; 7.3, 18, 23, 30; 8.5, 7, 14, 15, 16; 9.28, 34; 10.10; 11.55; 12.4, 9; 18.55</ref>

==Means of Achieving the Goal of Human Life==
The ancient Upaniṣadic idea of the jīva reaching [[Brahmaloka]] (Abode of Brahmā) by the arcirādi-mārga, or the path of light, has also been mentioned in the Gitā.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 8.24-26</ref> Since it is [[ajñāna]] or ignorance that is responsible for transmigration, it can be erased only by jñāna or spiritual wisdom.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 4.35-39; 5.16, 17</ref> Acquisition of jñāna has to be preceded by spiritual disciplines that help in purifying the mind. Indriyanigraha or control of sense organs is one of the most important disciplines referred to.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 2.58, 60, 61, 64, 68; 3.34, 41; 5.22, 23; 6.4, 24; 12.4</ref> Tapas or austerity<ref>Bhagavadgitā 16.1; 17.14-16; 18</ref> and other disciplines, such as the performance of one’s duties with the right attitude, have also been recommended. But devotion to the Lord and surrendering to him have been highly extolled.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 7.21; 8.10, 22; 9.14, 26, 29, 31; 11.54; 12.17, 20; 13.10; 14.26; 18.55</ref>

==Characteristics of a Perfect Being as per Bhagavadgitā==
There are three beautiful descriptions of the perfect being, who has reached the final goal of life :
# The sthitaprajña or the man of steady wisdom<ref>Bhagavadgitā 2.55-72</ref> - The sthitaprajña (man of steady wisdom) is bereft of all desires. He is unmoved by the pairs of opposites like pleasure and pain, attachment and aversion. He is capable of withdrawing his sense-organs from the sense-objects effortlessly. He is the supreme master of himself. He can wield his sense-organs among the sense-objects without being affected by them. He is ever awake to the ātman, the reality within himself. He is free from egoism and possessiveness, and hence ever-filled with peace. This state is called [[brāhmī]]sthiti; the state of being established in Brahman.
# The [[bhakta]] or the devotee<ref>Bhagavadgitā 12.13-20</ref> - The bhakta or the ideal devotee who is ever dear to God, is free from inimical thoughts towards all beings. He has nothing but friendliness and compassion for them. He has neither egoism nor attachment. He is always equanimous and contented. Having controlled the senses and the mind, he has totally dedicated them to God, out of devotion. He is never upset by other people nor are they agitated by him. Bereft of desires, pure to the core and an expert in his field of work, he has renounced all selfish desires and actions. Deeply devoted to God, indifferent to praise and blame, unaffected by the vagaries of the weather and having no fixed place for dwelling, the bhakta is extremely dear to the Lord.
# The guṇātīta or one who has transcended the three guṇas.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 14.22-27</ref> - The guṇātīta (who is beyond the three guṇas) is never affected by the experiences brought about by the three guṇas, like knowledge, happiness or delusion. He knows about the guṇas and the senses that act upon the guṇas as objects, and that he as the Self is beyond them. He looks upon happiness and misery, wealth and worthless objects, praise and blame with equipoise. He never undertakes desire-motivated actions, but only serves God through devotion.

==Special Contribution of the Gitā to Philosophical Thought==
Though the Gītā has been reputed to contain the essence of the teachings of the Upaniṣads and is considered to be one of the three basic scriptures of Vedānta (prasthānatraya), there is no gainsaying the fact that it has charted new avenues in the philosophical literature, previously unknown or unexpressed. The work presents us with three original doctrines :
# The doctrine of niṣkāma-[[karma]]-yoga - The yoga of desireless actions with the allied concepts of svadharma and loka-saṅgraha
# The doctrine of integral yoga - A comprehensive mode of sādhanā (or spiritual discipline)
# The doctrine of [[avatāra]] - Descent of God into the human form or the theory of incarnation of God

==The Doctrine of Niskāmakarmayoga==
During the period of Srī Kṛṣṇa, two major streams of thoughts which resulted in two different views and ways of life existed. One line of thought was the philosophy of [[abhyudaya]] or worldly well-being. It emphasized more on yajñas and yāgas, or sacrificial rites and rituals. By performing these rites, one could get everything in life, here and hereafter. Since this involved a lot of time, energy and money, the results of these rites were considered petty. The retro-reaction came in the form of the doctrine of niśśreyasa, or the highest good, put forward by the sages of the Upaniṣads. These sages advocated a life of renunciation of all actions except those needed for the bare sustenance of life, coupled with mendicancy and contemplation on the ātman (the Self) within. These two views and ways according to their execution were restricted to the [[brāhma]]ṇa and kṣattriya classes, as they were the most affluent and rigorous groups. As a result, the majority of the people were left in the lurch, though imbued with higher spiritual aspirations. It is here that Śrī Kṛṣṇa’s doctrine of niṣkāma-[[karma]]-yoga becomes relevant and extremely useful.

Being a wise and a sensible leader, Srī Kṛṣṇa accepts the tradition of sacrifices as it existed then, but shows the way to transform it or even transcend it. Since Prajāpati (Father of beings) created the system of yajña or sacrifice as a link between human beings and gods, they are expected to prosper only by mutual help and cooperation.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 3.10, 11</ref> Yajña or sacrifice is not the only one that can be performed with a duly consecrated fire, but any act of an individual, involving the sacrifice of selfishness and done for the public good can also be a yajña.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 4.25-30</ref>

Srī Kṛṣṇa defines saṅnyāsa as the renunciation of all kāmya-karmas (or desire-motivated actions) and tyāga as the abandonment of sarvakarmaphala (or the fruits of all the actions).<ref>Bhagavadgitā 18.21</ref> Srī Kṛṣṇa rules out the renunciation of actions that purify mind like yajña (sacrificial rites), [[dāna]] (giving gifts) and tapas (austerity).<ref>Bhagavadgitā 18.5</ref> These actions should be performed without attachment and the desire for fruits just as we perform our duties. What really binds one is not work itself, but the selfish desire for its fruits.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 9.20, 21</ref> Work is inevitable for an embodied being,<ref>Bhagavadgitā 3.5,8; 18.11</ref> so it is better to accept the fact gracefully and perform it with self-control.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 3.7</ref> Similarly a yajña or sacrifice<ref>Bhagavadgitā 3.9</ref> should be performed by giving up the desire for the fruits thereof.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 3.19; 12.11</ref> One who performs such actions is both a saiṅnyāsi and a yogi.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 6.1</ref>

Alternatively, one can perform actions for the sake of God and offer the fruits thereof.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 3.19; 12.11</ref> It is necessary to perform the actions even from the standpoint of lokasaṅgraha or guiding the people on the right path<ref>Bhagavadgitā 3.20, 25</ref>, which is the bounden duty of the leaders of the society.

Work done in the right spirit, thus, can also lead to mokṣa (liberation or perfection). It is in no way less effective than jñāna or knowledge. Many of the great people in the past, like Janaka, attained perfection through the path of actions alone.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 3.19, 20; 4.15, 23, 41; 5.5, 6, 12; 8.7; 9.27, 28; 12.12; 18.45,46,56</ref> Not only did such persons, including Srī Kṛṣṇa himself, continue to live and work in the society to set an example to the unenlightened ones, but also they guided people as to how to work with perfection and also lead a life will lead to beatitude.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 3.21-26</ref>

[[Arjuna]] was a sincere seeker of spiritual wisdom. He was not interested in sakāma-karma or desire-motivated actions. However, he was also not qualified to tread the path of jñāna or knowledge, which entails renunciation of all actions. That is why Sri Kṛṣṇa declares that Arjuna has the competence only to work and not to renounce it. At the same time he should do so without reference to the fruits thereof.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 2.47</ref>

Closely associated with this is the idea of ‘svadharma’, or 'dharma’ (duties) that are ‘sva’, meaning one’s own. This idea is nurtured and ordained by the scriptures. It goes without saying that ‘svadharma’ must be ‘dharma’ (righteousness) first. Such svadharma should never be abandoned. If performed righteously, it brings great good, and if this dharma is abandoned, it brings sin.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 2.31-33</ref> However imperfect it may appear, it is far better to die performing it than to do paradharma, or someone else’s dharma, which is unsuitable.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 3.35</ref> One who acts according to svadharma will never be tainted by its effects.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 18.47</ref> There is no doubt that the performance of svadharma in the right spirit will lead to perfection.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 18.45, 46</ref>

==The Doctrine of Integral Yoga==
As already stated, the colophon of the Gītā calls it as a ‘yogaśāstra.’ Yoga’ is a technical term which means union with God. It is the spiritual discipline that leads to such union. Yoga takes into consideration four different states of human mind :
# The active mind
# The philosophical mind
# The emotional mind
# The psychic mind
Yoga has branched off into four paths :
# Karmayoga - The path of work for the active
# Jñānayoga - The path of knowledge and philosophy
# Bhaktiyoga - The path of devotion for the emotional
# Rājayoga - The path of psychic control for the psychic

Each of these yogas opens upon the infinite horizon of Truth and effects union with God. The Gītā describes them all. Śrī Kṛṣṇa has used the word ‘yoga’ in several senses. For instance, it is Karmayoga that is meant in verses 2.48, 50 and 6.2. However, in the verses 6.12 and 15 it is Rājayoga that is referenced. In the verse 5.8, the word ‘yukta’ has been used to signify the jñānayogi. Finally, it is the bhaktiyogi that is implied by the word ‘nityayukta’ in verse 8.14.

Srī Kṛṣṇa has taught all the four yogas to one person, Arjuna, and urged him to follow them. From this it can be safely concluded that the yoga of the Gītā is a comprehensive spiritual discipline integrating into itself all the four aspects. However, since Arjuna’s svabhāva or nature was such that Karmayoga was better suited to him, Srī Kṛṣṇa relentlessly urged him to fight.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 2.18; 3.30; 11.34</ref>

The inference from this is obvious that the Gitā urges an aspirant to practice a balanced combination of all the four yogas. One should practice, as the main discipline, the yoga which suits one’s nature best, and add the others in the right proportion. Since each human being has all four aspects in varying proportions, this deduction is reasonable.

==The Doctrine of [[Avatāra]]==
The doctrine of avatāra or incarnation of God is another original contribution of the Gītā to philosophical and religious literature. The avatāra concept is perhaps suggested in the [[Rgveda]]<ref>Bhagavadgitā 3.53.8; 6.47.18</ref> itself. Some of the avatāras mentioned in the purāṇas in the lists of [[daśā]]vatāras (ten incarnations of [[Viṣṇu]]) are met with in the Satapatha Brāhmana also.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 1.8.1.-6; 1.2.5.1</ref> However, in the Gītā this concept is more definite and clear.

Srī Kṛṣṇa mentions that he taught the yoga to Vivasvān (Sun-god), who further transmitted it to Manu. But it was lost in the course of time. Arjuna naturally questions him out of disbelief how a contemporary person like him could have taught a person living in antiquity.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 4.1-4</ref> It is then that Srī Kṛṣṇa reveals the truth of both of them passing through many births. Arjuna underwent those births helplessly due to prārabdha karma (residual karma, responsible for rebirth) and did not know about his past births. Sri Kṛṣṇa being the Supreme Lord himself, voluntarily and willingly accepted these births for a higher purpose.

It is dharma or righteousness that is the principle regulating the smooth working of the created world. Since the created world is a product of the three guṇas (sattva, rajas and tamas), which are constantly in a state of flux, it is but natural that each one of them gets the upper hand periodically. Whenever sattva goes down and rajas or tamas comes up, dharma declines and [[adharma]] (evil) gets the upper hand. At such critical periods of human history, the Supreme Lord decides to incarnate himself in a human frame to restore the balance. Though he is unborn, eternal and the Lord of all beings, he can and does ‘come down’ (avatāra = coming down) by taking recourse to his māyā-power (also called prakṛti or nature).<ref>Bhagavadgitā 4.6, 7</ref>

The primary purpose of the avatāra is dharma-saṅsthāpana, or establishing dharma on a firm foundation. In the process, if he needs to destroy or chastise the wicked, he can do it as per His will and thereby protect the good.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 4.8</ref> This descent of the Divine into the human frame can take place anywhere and anytime. The sole condition of taking incarnation is only the decline of dharma and the ascent of adharma<ref>Bhagavadgitā 4.7</ref> to the extent that good people are rendered absolutely helpless and at the mercy of evil.

There is an added assurance given by Srī Kṛṣṇa that one who is able to understand the significance of his birth and work as an avatāra will attain liberation.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 4.9</ref> Understandably, in number of places, he urges Arjuna to cultivate devotion towards him, to meditate upon him and to work for him.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 9.34; 11.55; 18.65</ref> The final destination is the command to surrender totally to Him, with the pledge to free him from all sins.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 18.66</ref>

==Commentaries==
Being a part of the prasthānatraya and thus accorded a very high place in the religio-philosophical tradition, the Gitā has attracted the attention of several ancient and medieval teachers who have written commentaries on it in [[Sanskrit]]. The commentaries written by great authors are as follows :
* In the [[Advaita]] [[Vedanta]] tradition, Śaṅkara (A. D. 788-820) comes first. In fact, his is the earliest of the extant commentaries.
* Rāmāmija (A.D. 1017-1137), Madhva (A.D. 1197-1276), Nimbārka (12th century A.D.) and Vallabha (A.D. 1473-1531) are the other great ācāryas or teachers who have written commentaries on the Gītā.
* Ānandagiri (A.D. 1200), Vedānta Deśika (A.D. 1268- 1370) and Jayatīrtha (13th century A.D.) have written glosses on the commentaries of Śaṅkara, Rāmānuja and Madhva respectively.
* Commentaries by Śrī[[dhara]] (15th century A.D.), Madhusīidana (A.D. 1525-1632) and Rāghavendra (A.D. 1598-1671), who have made some original contributions to the Gītā literature.

==Conclusion==
The Bhagavadgitā is one of the most translated religious classics of the world. The beauty and the sublimity of the work, its eternal relevance to the problems of human life and its universal approach helps us view the whole creation as one. This may have prompted the scholars to undertake the task of translating it as a labor of love.

Though part of the great epic Mahā[[bhārata]], it can as well stand on its own as an independent work. Though taught on the battlefield of Kurukṣetra, urging Arjuna to fight, it has nothing to do with wars, battles or bloodshed. It mainly deals with the one’s sacred duties of life, however unpleasant they may be. Though given by Śrī Kṛṣṇa to Arjuna in the days of yore, its declarations like, ‘Remember Me and fight!’<ref>Bhagavadgitā 8.7</ref> can help and inspire anyone of us even today to handle and fight when beleaguered with serious problems of life. Though recognizing multiplicity here, its principle of unity in diversity has signified the Viśavarupa or the Cosmic Form.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 11.9-13</ref> The underlying [[divinity]] as taught in verse 7.1. helps us to cultivate a holistic approach to the universe of which ecological balance too is only a small aspect.
If the Mahābhārata can claim to be an encyclopedia of religion and culture, the Bhagavadgitā can as well claim to be its quintessence.

==References==
{{reflist}}
* The Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Swami Harshananda, Ram [[Krishna]] Math, Bangalore

Talk:The Philosophy of the Bhagavadgitā

2015-01-29T01:48:47Z

Vishal J Mehta:

By Swami Harshananda

The philosophical systems, known as darśanas, generally treat their subject under four major headings :
# The cause of the universe
# Creation or evolution of the universe
# Nature of the individual soul
# The goal of human life and the means of achieving it

Though the Bhagavadgitā is not a systematic treatise on philosophy, it is possible to deal with its subject matter under these headings. It may not be out of place to mention that the colophon given at the end of each chapter of the Gitā viz. Upaniṣad, Brahmavidyā and Yogaśāstra, reflects its contents very well. It is an ‘Upaniṣad’ or esoteric wisdom, given by the teacher to a disciple on request. It is ‘Brahmavidyā’, since it deals with Brahman, the Absolute. It is ‘Yogaśāstra’, since it describes yoga or practical disciplines that help an aspirant to attain spiritual wisdom, the goal of life.

==Cause of the Universe==
Śrī Kṛṣṇa has been venerated and worshiped as God Himself, who came down to Earth as a human being to save mankind and redirect it to the path of dharma or righteousness. In the Mahābhārata, the Bhāgavata, and also in the Gītā, Śrī Kṛṣṇa often identified himself with God and speaks with indisputable authority. While studying the philosophy of the Gītā, it is necessary to keep this fact in mind.

The Gitā compares the created universe to an inverted tree with its roots above, established in God.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 15.1-4</ref> The more popular view of the mythological lore is that Brahmā (the four-faced Creator) creates the world during his ‘day’ and withdraws it into himself during ‘night,’.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 8.17-19</ref> The various terms used to indicate the Supreme or God are :
# Parabrahman<ref>Bhagavadgitā 13.12</ref>
# Paramātman<ref>Bhagavadgitā 13.22, 31</ref>
# Uttamapuruṣa or Puruṣottama<ref>Bhagavadgitā 15.17-19</ref>
# Īśvara<ref>Bhagavadgitā 15.17; 18.61</ref>
# Kṣetrajña<ref>Bhagavadgitā 13.2</ref>
# Parameśvara<ref>Bhagavadgitā 13.27</ref>

==Creation of Universe==
God has a twofold prakṛti or nature.
# The aparā or the lower one is insentient and comprises of the eight components. The five elements like earth, water, manas (mind), buddhi (intellect) and ahaṅkāra (egoism) are also a part of it.
# The parā or the higher one consists of the innumerable jīvas or souls.

Creation proceeds out of the combination of the two prakṛtis. It is under His direction that prakṛti gives birth to all beings and things. He is the sole origin and place of dissolution of this universe.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 7.4-6; 9.7</ref> The whole universe is supported by Him as the beads of a necklace are supported by the string on which they are strung.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 7.7</ref> As Avyakta or the Unmanifest, He has pervaded the whole universe.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 9.4</ref> That is why He is the essence of all in this creation.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 10.41</ref>

God is not only transcendent and immanent,<ref>Bhagavadgitā 18.61</ref> but he can also incarnate himself as a human being whenever dharma or righteousness declines, in order to restore its balance. He does it out of his own free will. By his māyā-power, and subjugating his prakṛti, he creates a body for himself.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 4.6-8</ref>

God is more easily approachable through devotion.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 9.26</ref> He responds in whatever way people approach him.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 4.11; 7.21-23</ref> His devotee never perishes.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 9.31</ref> Those who surrender to him will easily cross over māyā (the delusive power of God), which is otherwise impossible to cross.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 7.14</ref> He takes over their entire responsibility even here in this world.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 9.22</ref> That is why He constantly urges Arjuna to cultivate devotion to him and surrender to him.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 9.34; 11.55; 18.65, 66</ref>

==Nature of the Individual Soul==
The jīva or the individual soul is an important aspect of this creation. He is a part of God.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 15.7</ref> He is the higher aspect of his nature, parāprakṛti.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 7.5</ref> He is essentially unborn, indestructible and eternal.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 2.17-25</ref> He takes on bodies just as he wears garments, and then discards them to take new ones.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 2.22</ref> While doing so, he draws to himself the five sense-organs and the mind from the aparā prakṛti or the lower prakṛti<ref>Bhagavadgitā 7.4, 5</ref> and transmigrates with them. He is deluded by ajñāna
(or ignorance) which covers jñāna (or knowledge).<ref>Bhagavadgitā 5.15</ref>

==Goal of Human Life==
The goal of life is to reach the Lord’s Abode, from which there is no return to this mundane existence.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 8.16; 5.17; 15.6</ref> This state has been variously called as follows :
# Brahma nirvaṇa - Dissolution into Brahman<ref>Bhagavadgitā 2.72; 5.24</ref>
# Brāhmīsthiti - Being established in Brahman<ref>Bhagavadgitā 2.72</ref>
# Samsiddhi - Perfection<ref>Bhagavadgitā 8.15; 18.45</ref>
# Parāgati - Highest state by attaining Srī Kṛṣṇa Himself.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 6.45; 8.13, 21; 9.32; 13.28; 16.22</ref><ref>Bhagavadgitā 4.9, 10; 5.29; 7.3, 18, 23, 30; 8.5, 7, 14, 15, 16; 9.28, 34; 10.10; 11.55; 12.4, 9; 18.55</ref>

==Means of Achieving the Goal of Human Life==
The ancient Upaniṣadic idea of the jīva reaching Brahmaloka (Abode of Brahmā) by the arcirādi-mārga, or the path of light, has also been mentioned in the Gitā.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 8.24-26</ref> Since it is ajñāna or ignorance that is responsible for transmigration, it can be erased only by jñāna or spiritual wisdom.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 4.35-39; 5.16, 17</ref> Acquisition of jñāna has to be preceded by spiritual disciplines that help in purifying the mind. Indriyanigraha or control of sense organs is one of the most important disciplines referred to.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 2.58, 60, 61, 64, 68; 3.34, 41; 5.22, 23; 6.4, 24; 12.4</ref> Tapas or austerity<ref>Bhagavadgitā 16.1; 17.14-16; 18</ref> and other disciplines, such as the performance of one’s duties with the right attitude, have also been recommended. But devotion to the Lord and surrendering to him have been highly extolled.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 7.21; 8.10, 22; 9.14, 26, 29, 31; 11.54; 12.17, 20; 13.10; 14.26; 18.55</ref>

==Characteristics of a Perfect Being as per Bhagavadgitā==
There are three beautiful descriptions of the perfect being, who has reached the final goal of life :
# The sthitaprajña or the man of steady wisdom<ref>Bhagavadgitā 2.55-72</ref> - The sthitaprajña (man of steady wisdom) is bereft of all desires. He is unmoved by the pairs of opposites like pleasure and pain, attachment and aversion. He is capable of withdrawing his sense-organs from the sense-objects effortlessly. He is the supreme master of himself. He can wield his sense-organs among the sense-objects without being affected by them. He is ever awake to the ātman, the reality within himself. He is free from egoism and possessiveness, and hence ever-filled with peace. This state is called brāhmīsthiti; the state of being established in Brahman.
# The bhakta or the devotee<ref>Bhagavadgitā 12.13-20</ref> - The bhakta or the ideal devotee who is ever dear to God, is free from inimical thoughts towards all beings. He has nothing but friendliness and compassion for them. He has neither egoism nor attachment. He is always equanimous and contented. Having controlled the senses and the mind, he has totally dedicated them to God, out of devotion. He is never upset by other people nor are they agitated by him. Bereft of desires, pure to the core and an expert in his field of work, he has renounced all selfish desires and actions. Deeply devoted to God, indifferent to praise and blame, unaffected by the vagaries of the weather and having no fixed place for dwelling, the bhakta is extremely dear to the Lord.
# The guṇātīta or one who has transcended the three guṇas.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 14.22-27</ref> - The guṇātīta (who is beyond the three guṇas) is never affected by the experiences brought about by the three guṇas, like knowledge, happiness or delusion. He knows about the guṇas and the senses that act upon the guṇas as objects, and that he as the Self is beyond them. He looks upon happiness and misery, wealth and worthless objects, praise and blame with equipoise. He never undertakes desire-motivated actions, but only serves God through devotion.

==Special Contribution of the Gitā to Philosophical Thought==
Though the Gītā has been reputed to contain the essence of the teachings of the Upaniṣads and is considered to be one of the three basic scriptures of Vedānta (prasthānatraya), there is no gainsaying the fact that it has charted new avenues in the philosophical literature, previously unknown or unexpressed. The work presents us with three original doctrines :
# The doctrine of niṣkāma-karma-yoga - The yoga of desireless actions with the allied concepts of svadharma and loka-saṅgraha
# The doctrine of integral yoga - A comprehensive mode of sādhanā (or spiritual discipline)
# The doctrine of avatāra - Descent of God into the human form or the theory of incarnation of God

==The Doctrine of Niskāmakarmayoga==
During the period of Srī Kṛṣṇa, two major streams of thoughts which resulted in two different views and ways of life existed. One line of thought was the philosophy of abhyudaya or worldly well-being. It emphasized more on yajñas and yāgas, or sacrificial rites and rituals. By performing these rites, one could get everything in life, here and hereafter. Since this involved a lot of time, energy and money, the results of these rites were considered petty. The retro-reaction came in the form of the doctrine of niśśreyasa, or the highest good, put forward by the sages of the Upaniṣads. These sages advocated a life of renunciation of all actions except those needed for the bare sustenance of life, coupled with mendicancy and contemplation on the ātman (the Self) within. These two views and ways according to their execution were restricted to the brāhmaṇa and kṣattriya classes, as they were the most affluent and rigorous groups. As a result, the majority of the people were left in the lurch, though imbued with higher spiritual aspirations. It is here that Śrī Kṛṣṇa’s doctrine of niṣkāma-karma-yoga becomes relevant and extremely useful.

Being a wise and a sensible leader, Srī Kṛṣṇa accepts the tradition of sacrifices as it existed then, but shows the way to transform it or even transcend it. Since Prajāpati (Father of beings) created the system of yajña or sacrifice as a link between human beings and gods, they are expected to prosper only by mutual help and cooperation.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 3.10, 11</ref> Yajña or sacrifice is not the only one that can be performed with a duly consecrated fire, but any act of an individual, involving the sacrifice of selfishness and done for the public good can also be a yajña.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 4.25-30</ref>

Srī Kṛṣṇa defines saṅnyāsa as the renunciation of all kāmya-karmas (or desire-motivated actions) and tyāga as the abandonment of sarvakarmaphala (or the fruits of all the actions).<ref>Bhagavadgitā 18.21</ref> Srī Kṛṣṇa rules out the renunciation of actions that purify mind like yajña (sacrificial rites), dāna (giving gifts) and tapas (austerity).<ref>Bhagavadgitā 18.5</ref> These actions should be performed without attachment and the desire for fruits just as we perform our duties. What really binds one is not work itself, but the selfish desire for its fruits.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 9.20, 21</ref> Work is inevitable for an embodied being,<ref>Bhagavadgitā 3.5,8; 18.11</ref> so it is better to accept the fact gracefully and perform it with self-control.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 3.7</ref> Similarly a yajña or sacrifice<ref>Bhagavadgitā 3.9</ref> should be performed by giving up the desire for the fruits thereof.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 3.19; 12.11</ref> One who performs such actions is both a saiṅnyāsi and a yogi.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 6.1</ref>

Alternatively, one can perform actions for the sake of God and offer the fruits thereof.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 3.19; 12.11</ref> It is necessary to perform the actions even from the standpoint of lokasaṅgraha or guiding the people on the right path<ref>Bhagavadgitā 3.20, 25</ref>, which is the bounden duty of the leaders of the society.

Work done in the right spirit, thus, can also lead to mokṣa (liberation or perfection). It is in no way less effective than jñāna or knowledge. Many of the great people in the past, like Janaka, attained perfection through the path of actions alone.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 3.19, 20; 4.15, 23, 41; 5.5, 6, 12; 8.7; 9.27, 28; 12.12; 18.45,46,56</ref> Not only did such persons, including Srī Kṛṣṇa himself, continue to live and work in the society to set an example to the unenlightened ones, but also they guided people as to how to work with perfection and also lead a life will lead to beatitude.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 3.21-26</ref>

Arjuna was a sincere seeker of spiritual wisdom. He was not interested in sakāma-karma or desire-motivated actions. However, he was also not qualified to tread the path of jñāna or knowledge, which entails renunciation of all actions. That is why Sri Kṛṣṇa declares that Arjuna has the competence only to work and not to renounce it. At the same time he should do so without reference to the fruits thereof.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 2.47</ref>

Closely associated with this is the idea of ‘svadharma’, or 'dharma’ (duties) that are ‘sva’, meaning one’s own. This idea is nurtured and ordained by the scriptures. It goes without saying that ‘svadharma’ must be ‘dharma’ (righteousness) first. Such svadharma should never be abandoned. If performed righteously, it brings great good, and if this dharma is abandoned, it brings sin.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 2.31-33</ref> However imperfect it may appear, it is far better to die performing it than to do paradharma, or someone else’s dharma, which is unsuitable.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 3.35</ref> One who acts according to svadharma will never be tainted by its effects.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 18.47</ref> There is no doubt that the performance of svadharma in the right spirit will lead to perfection.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 18.45, 46</ref>

==The Doctrine of Integral Yoga==
As already stated, the colophon of the Gītā calls it as a ‘yogaśāstra.’ Yoga’ is a technical term which means union with God. It is the spiritual discipline that leads to such union. Yoga takes into consideration four different states of human mind :
# The active mind
# The philosophical mind
# The emotional mind
# The psychic mind
Yoga has branched off into four paths :
# Karmayoga - The path of work for the active
# Jñānayoga - The path of knowledge and philosophy
# Bhaktiyoga - The path of devotion for the emotional
# Rājayoga - The path of psychic control for the psychic

Each of these yogas opens upon the infinite horizon of Truth and effects union with God. The Gītā describes them all. Śrī Kṛṣṇa has used the word ‘yoga’ in several senses. For instance, it is Karmayoga that is meant in verses 2.48, 50 and 6.2. However, in the verses 6.12 and 15 it is Rājayoga that is referenced. In the verse 5.8, the word ‘yukta’ has been used to signify the jñānayogi. Finally, it is the bhaktiyogi that is implied by the word ‘nityayukta’ in verse 8.14.

Srī Kṛṣṇa has taught all the four yogas to one person, Arjuna, and urged him to follow them. From this it can be safely concluded that the yoga of the Gītā is a comprehensive spiritual discipline integrating into itself all the four aspects. However, since Arjuna’s svabhāva or nature was such that Karmayoga was better suited to him, Srī Kṛṣṇa relentlessly urged him to fight.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 2.18; 3.30; 11.34</ref>

The inference from this is obvious that the Gitā urges an aspirant to practice a balanced combination of all the four yogas. One should practice, as the main discipline, the yoga which suits one’s nature best, and add the others in the right proportion. Since each human being has all four aspects in varying proportions, this deduction is reasonable.

==The Doctrine of Avatāra==
The doctrine of avatāra or incarnation of God is another original contribution of the Gītā to philosophical and religious literature. The avatāra concept is perhaps suggested in the Rgveda<ref>Bhagavadgitā 3.53.8; 6.47.18</ref> itself. Some of the avatāras mentioned in the purāṇas in the lists of daśāvatāras (ten incarnations of Viṣṇu) are met with in the Satapatha Brāhmana also.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 1.8.1.-6; 1.2.5.1</ref> However, in the Gītā this concept is more definite and clear.

Srī Kṛṣṇa mentions that he taught the yoga to Vivasvān (Sun-god), who further transmitted it to Manu. But it was lost in the course of time. Arjuna naturally questions him out of disbelief how a contemporary person like him could have taught a person living in antiquity.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 4.1-4</ref> It is then that Srī Kṛṣṇa reveals the truth of both of them passing through many births. Arjuna underwent those births helplessly due to prārabdha karma (residual karma, responsible for rebirth) and did not know about his past births. Sri Kṛṣṇa being the Supreme Lord himself, voluntarily and willingly accepted these births for a higher purpose.

It is dharma or righteousness that is the principle regulating the smooth working of the created world. Since the created world is a product of the three guṇas (sattva, rajas and tamas), which are constantly in a state of flux, it is but natural that each one of them gets the upper hand periodically. Whenever sattva goes down and rajas or tamas comes up, dharma declines and adharma (evil) gets the upper hand. At such critical periods of human history, the Supreme Lord decides to incarnate himself in a human frame to restore the balance. Though he is unborn, eternal and the Lord of all beings, he can and does ‘come down’ (avatāra = coming down) by taking recourse to his māyā-power (also called prakṛti or nature).<ref>Bhagavadgitā 4.6, 7</ref>

The primary purpose of the avatāra is dharma-saṅsthāpana, or establishing dharma on a firm foundation. In the process, if he needs to destroy or chastise the wicked, he can do it as per His will and thereby protect the good.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 4.8</ref> This descent of the Divine into the human frame can take place anywhere and anytime. The sole condition of taking incarnation is only the decline of dharma and the ascent of adharma<ref>Bhagavadgitā 4.7</ref> to the extent that good people are rendered absolutely helpless and at the mercy of evil.

There is an added assurance given by Srī Kṛṣṇa that one who is able to understand the significance of his birth and work as an avatāra will attain liberation.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 4.9</ref> Understandably, in number of places, he urges Arjuna to cultivate devotion towards him, to meditate upon him and to work for him.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 9.34; 11.55; 18.65</ref> The final destination is the command to surrender totally to Him, with the pledge to free him from all sins.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 18.66</ref>

==Commentaries==
Being a part of the prasthānatraya and thus accorded a very high place in the religio-philosophical tradition, the Gitā has attracted the attention of several ancient and medieval teachers who have written commentaries on it in Sanskrit. The commentaries written by great authors are as follows :
* In the Advaita Vedanta tradition, Śaṅkara (A. D. 788-820) comes first. In fact, his is the earliest of the extant commentaries.
* Rāmāmija (A.D. 1017-1137), Madhva (A.D. 1197-1276), Nimbārka (12th century A.D.) and Vallabha (A.D. 1473-1531) are the other great ācāryas or teachers who have written commentaries on the Gītā.
* Ānandagiri (A.D. 1200), Vedānta Deśika (A.D. 1268- 1370) and Jayatīrtha (13th century A.D.) have written glosses on the commentaries of Śaṅkara, Rāmānuja and Madhva respectively.
* Commentaries by Śrīdhara (15th century A.D.), Madhusīidana (A.D. 1525-1632) and Rāghavendra (A.D. 1598-1671), who have made some original contributions to the Gītā literature.

==Conclusion==
The Bhagavadgitā is one of the most translated religious classics of the world. The beauty and the sublimity of the work, its eternal relevance to the problems of human life and its universal approach helps us view the whole creation as one. This may have prompted the scholars to undertake the task of translating it as a labor of love.

Though part of the great epic Mahābhārata, it can as well stand on its own as an independent work. Though taught on the battlefield of Kurukṣetra, urging Arjuna to fight, it has nothing to do with wars, battles or bloodshed. It mainly deals with the one’s sacred duties of life, however unpleasant they may be. Though given by Śrī Kṛṣṇa to Arjuna in the days of yore, its declarations like, ‘Remember Me and fight!’<ref>Bhagavadgitā 8.7</ref> can help and inspire anyone of us even today to handle and fight when beleaguered with serious problems of life. Though recognizing multiplicity here, its principle of unity in diversity has signified the Viśavarupa or the Cosmic Form.<ref>Bhagavadgitā 11.9-13</ref> The underlying divinity as taught in verse 7.1. helps us to cultivate a holistic approach to the universe of which ecological balance too is only a small aspect.
If the Mahābhārata can claim to be an encyclopedia of religion and culture, the Bhagavadgitā can as well claim to be its quintessence.

==References==
{{reflist}}
* The Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Swami Harshananda, Ram Krishna Math, Bangalore

Bhagavadgītā

2015-01-29T01:11:57Z

Vishal J Mehta: moved from Discussion

Talk:Bhagavadgītā

2015-01-29T01:11:34Z

Vishal J Mehta:

By Swami Harshananda

Bhagavadgītā literally means ‘Song of God’.

==Significance of the Bhagavadgītā==
The Bhagavadgītā, popularly known as the Gītā, is one of the outstanding religious classics available in the world. Hindus, irrespective of their sects and denominations, cherish great reverence for this book. A ceremonial reading of the book or even a part thereof, is believed to confer great religious merits.

==Origin of Bhagavadgītā==
Bhagavadgītā forms an integral part of a much bigger work, the great epic Mahābhārata.<ref>Bhismaparva, chapters 25 to 42</ref> It is a poetical work in the form of a dialogue between Srī Kṛṣṇa and Arjuna, on the battlefield of Kurukṣetra. The setting of the battlefield contributes a dramatic element to the book and relates religion to the realities of life.

==Magnitude of Bhagavadgītā==
The greatness and the popularity of the Gītā can be attributed to several factors.
* It is a part and parcel of the epic Mahābhārata, which itself has been highly venerated as the fifth Veda (Pañcama- Veda).
* The teacher of the Gitā is Srī Kṛṣṇa, who is regarded as an avatāra or incarnation of God Himself. As an ideal friend, a great statesman, an invincible warrior, a wise preceptor and a yogi par excellence, he harmonizes in his life the various conflicting activities of life. It is precisely this that makes him the fittest person to preach such a religio-spiritual classic.
* Arjuna, the recipient of the preachings given by Srī Kṛṣṇa, was himself a great warrior. He is a typical representative of humans, easily liable to be upset or confused during the periods of crisis. Hence, his predicaments very much represent those of the common man. The questions, doubts and the misgivings he raises and the solutions that Srī Kṛṣṇa offers are not only relevant but also valid even today.
* Finally, the Vedāntic tradition has always regarded the prasthānatraya (the three foundational works) as its basis. The Gītā is one of them, the other two being the Upaniṣads and the Brahmasutras. That is why Śaṅkara (A.D. 788-820) and other ancient teachers have chosen to write commentaries on it.

==Existence of Bhagavadgītā==
Since the Gītā is an integral part of the epic Mahābhārata, its date and authorship are obviously the same as those of the epic itself. Kṛṣṇa Dvaipāyana, better known as Vedavyāsa, is reputed to be its author. As per the oral traditions based on the notion of time as the yuga-system, the Kurukṣetra war must have taken place during 3139 B.C. However, the dates given by the modern historians and scholars (mostly from the West) vary from 1424 B.C. to 575 B.C.

==Segments of Bhagavadgītā==
The widely accepted present text of the Gītā is based on the one chosen by Śaṅkara, the earliest of the traditional commentators. It consists of 700 ślokas or verses spread over 18 chapters. The following is a brief summary of the book, arranged chapterwise. The book comprises of eighteen chapters.

==Chapter 1, Arjuna-visāda-yoga==
This chapter contains forty seven verses. Arjuna, the Pāṇḍava hero, shaken by the prospect of killing the venerable Bhīṣma and the preceptor Droṇa, gets into a despondent mood at the beginning of the war. He describes the horrendous fallout of such wars, and lays down his arms, refusing to fight.

==Chapter 2, Sāñkhya-yoga==
This chapter contains seventy two verses. Śrī Kṛṣṇa, at first, admonishes Arjuna for his unmanly and ignominious behavior. This however, falls on deaf ears. Hence he was obliged to give a long philosophical discourse, summarized as follows: Since the soul inhabiting bodies, is immortal, one should not grieve over death and destruction. It is Arjuna’s duty to fight for righteousness in the war and win it, or become a martyr if necessary. He should never yield to unrighteousness. Work done as duty in a spirit of detachment and for public welfare ultimately leads to perfection. A perfect man (called ‘sthitaprajña’ here) approves only truth under all the vicissitudes of life.

==Chapter 3, Karmayoga==
This chapter contains forty three verses. Śrī Kṛṣṇa clears Arjuna’s doubts regarding the conflict between jñāna (knowledge), which envisages renunciation and karma (work, action). Śrī Kṛṣṇa opines that the path of karma is easier and better for most people. Citing his own example, along with ancient kings like Janaka, he urges Arjuna not to relinquish his duties. He should perform his duties without selfish motives.

==Chapter 4, Jñāna-yoga==
Śrī Kṛṣṇa explains to Arjuna how knowledge of Karma yoga, or the yoga of action, taught by him in ancient times to Vivasvān and others, got lost in the course of time. Śrī Kṛṣṇa reveals that he is God Himself who has come down to save dharma or righteousness. He incarnates himself at his own will whenever dharma declines to put it on a firm foundation. He extols the greatness of jñāna or spiritual wisdom.

==Chapter 5, Karma-samnyāsa-yoga==
This chapter contains twenty nine verses. Arjuna questions which is better karma-sanyāsa (renunciation of action) or karma yoga (yoga of action). Śrī Kṛṣṇa avers that the latter is better for him. What is needed is equanimity while doing karma.

==Chapter 6 Dhyānayoga==
This chapter contains forty seven verses. In this chapter, Śrī Kṛṣṇa describes the process of dhyāna or meditation. He graphically depicts the place and posture suitable for meditation. He also explains that the method of controlling the mind is only through meditation.

==Chapter 7 Jñāna-vijñāna-yoga==
This chapter contains thirty verses. Śrī Kṛṣṇa as the Supreme Lord has created the whole universe, drawing upon his twofold prakṛti or nature. It is he that is holding together all beings and things. Only those that surrender themselves to him can transcend his māyā (the power of delusion).

==Chapter 8 Aksarabrahmayoga==
This chapter contains twenty eight verses. Śrī Kṛṣṇa describes here how a person should remember Him at the moment of death to attain Him. Repetition of praṇava or Om at this juncture is of a great help. He also mentions the two well-known paths which the jīvas or embodied beings take to after death. These paths are :
# Arcirādimārga - The path of light
# Dhumādimārga - The path of smoke

==Chapter 9 Rājavidyā-rājaguhya-yoga==
This chapter contains thirty four verses. Śrī Kṛṣṇa gives here the esoteric wisdom by which Arjuna can get liberated. He is everything in creation. If people worship him with devotion, offering him even insignificant things like a flower, or a leaf or water, he accepts them and blesses them. His devotee never perishes in life.

==Chapter 10 Vibhutiyoga==
This chapter contains forty two verses. Śrī Kṛṣṇa devotes this chapter almost entirely to the delineation of his vibhutis or divine manifestations. He is the best or the essence in all beings or things. The whole world has been supported by just a part of His glory.

==Chapter 11 Viśvarupa darśana-yoga==
This chapter contains fifty five verses. At Arjuna’s request, Śrī Kṛṣṇa reveals his Viśvarupa or celestial form, after endowing him with divine sight. Awed by it, Arjuna offers his prayers and obeisance. Śrī Kṛṣṇa withdraws the Viśvarupa and declares that it can be seen only by those who have intense devotion.

==Chapter 12 Bhaktiyoga==
This chapter contains twenty verses. In this chapter, Śrī Kṛṣṇa declares that even though contemplation on the Avyakta or unmanifested leads to the same result as devotion to him, the latter path is better. He advises Arjuna to cultivate devotion to him. Towards the end, the characteristics of a bhakta or an ideal devotee are delineated.

==Chapter 13 Ksetra-ksetrajña-yoga==
This chapter contains thirty four verses. The body is the kṣetra or the field. The Self is the kṣetrajña or the knower of the field. Both these concepts are described in this chapter. This is followed by descriptions of jñāna (knowledge), jñeya (that which is to be known, viz., Brahman), prakṛti (nature) and puruṣa (the Self or kṣetrajña). Those who can intuit the difference between the last two will attain Brahman.

==Chapter 14 Gunatraya-vibhaga-yoga==
This chapter contains twenty seven verses. Prakṛti (or nature), from which creation proceeds, prodded by the Lord (Srī Kṛṣṇa), comprises the three guṇas. There is a detailed description of these guṇas and also that of the guṇātīta (the person who has transcended them):
# Sattva
# Rajas
# Tamas

==Chapter 15 Purusottama-yoga==
This chapter contains twenty verses. In this chapter, Srī Kṛṣṇa describes samsāra or the created world as an inverted tree with its roots above, in Brahman or Purāṇa-puruṣa, the Primeval Being. By taking refuge in Him, this tree can be cut resulting into liberation. There is also a description of transmigration of the jīva, the bound soul. Srī Kṛṣṇa also states that He is the power that sustains the world and its living beings. He is the Puruṣottama or the best of beings.

==Chapter 16 Daivāsura-sampad-vibhāga- yoga==
This chapter contains twenty four verses. In this chapter, Srī Kṛṣṇa delineates those traits of character (sampat) that make a person divine (daivi) or demoniac (āsurī). He assures Arjuna that he belongs to the divine group but urges him to avoid the three gateways to hell :
# Lust
# Anger
# Greed

==Chapter 17 Sraddhātraya-vibhāga-yoga==
This chapter contains twenty eight verses. It contains interesting descriptions of śraddhā (faith), āhāra (food), yajña (sacrifices), tapas (austerity) and dāna (gifts). All are divided into three categories according to the three guṇas. Śrī Kṛṣṇa also give the aphorism ‘Om tat sat,’ a designation for Brahman, which can act as a magic formula to correct the deficiencies in religious acts.

==Chapter 18 Moksa-samnyāsa-yoga==
This chapter comprises of seventy eight verses. It is the last and the longest chapter, dealing with several miscellaneous topics like tyāga, sanyāsa (renunciation), jñāna (knowledge), karma (action) and kartā (doer) classified as per the three guṇas. The division of society into four varṇas or groups, according to people's nature and vocation, has also been mentioned in this chapter. Finally Śrī Kṛṣṇa advises Arjuna to totally surrender himself to Him, with the promise of freeing him from all the sins. Arjuna's delusion was destroyed by this wonderful discourse, and he vows to fight in obedience to Śrī Kṛṣṇa's command.

==References==
{{reflist}}
* The Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Swami Harshananda, Ram Krishna Math, Bangalore

Ātmānātma-viveka

2015-01-29T00:42:52Z

Vishal J Mehta: moved from Discussion

By Swami Harshananda

Ātmānātma-viveka literally means ‘discrimination between the Self and the non-Self’.

The Vedānta system of Indian philosophy considers the [[Brahman]]/Ātman Principle as the only or the Supreme Reality. All other things, perceived or unperceived, are its manifestations, or even subservient to it. The primary purpose of life is to realize this Reality as our true Self.

But all efforts of doing so are being negated by inordinate attachment to our body-mind complex. Hence this attachment is to be attenuated and ultimately got rid of by sā[[dhana]]-catuṣṭaya or the fourfold discipline. Ātmānātma-viveka heads this list. It consists of separation (viveka) of the ātman (Self) from all that is [[anātman]] (not-Self). The body, the sense-organs, the vital airs, the mind, the intellect, the egoism - none of these is the ātman and hence are fit to be brushed aside. Such discrimination and logical thinking gradually leads to the next higher modes of sādhanā and ultimately to the direct experience of the ātman.

==References==
{{reflist}}
* The Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Swami Harshananda, Ram [[Krishna]] Math, Bangalore

Bhadrapīṭha

2015-01-29T00:38:29Z

Vishal J Mehta: moved from Discussion

By Swami Harshananda

Bhadrapītha literally means ‘the auspicious pedestal’.

[[A]] pīṭha is a pedestal for an icon. Out of the four varieties mentioned in iconographical works, bhadrapīṭha is one, the other three being padmapīṭha, vedikā and parimaṇḍala.

If the height of the pedestal is sixteen units accommodated in eight parts, then, it is called ‘bhadrapītha’. The parts are reckoned from the bottom to the top. Their measurements are as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
||1||Upāna||1 Unit
|-
||2||Jagatī||4 Units
|-
||3||Kumuda||3 Units
|-
||4||Kampa||1 Unit
|-
||5||Kaṅṭha||3 Units
|-
||6||Kampa||1 Unit
|-
||7||Paṭṭikā||2 Units
|-
||8||Ghṛtavāri||1 Unit
|-
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}
* The Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Swami Harshananda, Ram [[Krishna]] Math, Bangalore

Ātman

2015-01-29T00:37:00Z

Vishal J Mehta: moved from Discussion

By Swami Harshananda

Ātman literally means ‘the Self which is the essence or the principle of life or, which pervades everything’.

==Phenomena of Ātman==
The phenomena of birth and death have always mystified man. [[A]] question, whether there is ‘something’ before birth and whether it survives death has been an eternal question haunting human minds. Most of the Indian philosophical systems have accepted the existence of such spirit, generally termed as ‘ātman,’ though views about it have varied greatly.

==Atman as per Literatures==
In the early Vedic literature, the word ‘ātman’ has rarely been used. Even when used<ref>[[Rgveda]] 1.115.1</ref> it does not seem to have any mystical or metaphysical significance as found in the later literature. From [[a]] simple notion of cosmic unity, the word gradually came to represent the entity which is both immanent and transcendent with regard to the cosmos. The term ‘ātman’ has been derived and defined in various ways :
# That which animates
# That which pervades
# That which experiences
# That which exists always

==Concept of Ātman==
A fuller development of the concept is found in the later Vedic literature such as the Āraṇyakas and the Upaniṣads. Here, together with the word ‘[[Brahman]]’ it has been used to denote the Cosmic Spirit both in its transcendent and in its immanent aspects. However, gradually, the word ‘Brahman’ came to be used much more to indicate the transcendent Reality whereas the term ‘ātman’ was generally confined to the immanent Reality or the individual self. Descriptions of the nature of the ātman or the soul as given by the various schools of Indian philosophy differ widely from each other.

==Ātman as per [[Cārvāka]] System==
The Cārvāka (materialistic) schools deny the existence of a permanent soul and attribute [[consciousness]] to the chemical reactions brought about by the combination of the pañcabhutas or the five fundamental elements constituting the world.

==Ātman as per Jainism==
Jainism believes in the existence of eternal souls, infinite in number. They possess consciousness which is limited in manifestation but capable of evolving to infinite proportions.

==Ātman as per [[Buddhism]]==
Buddhism believes in the existence of a permanent soul, accepts the continuity of life which generates the next life as one tree produces another through its seed.

==Ātman as per Nyāya System==
The Nyāya system admits the existence of ‘ātman,’ an eternal soul, different from the body, the senses and the mind. It is vibhu or all-pervading and has consciousness, not as integral to it, but as an adventitious attribute brought about by its association with the mind. It is an agent of action and suffers its consequences. Due to mithyā-jñāna or false knowledge or ignorance, it allows itself to be swayed by the impulses of rāga (attachment), dveṣa (dislike) and moha (infatuation). Consequently it performs good or bad actions and suffers their results. It attains [[apavarga]] or liberation by tattvajñāna or right knowledge of the Reality. In this state, it is freed from all sorrow, suffering and misery. It is a negative state of transcendence of dukkha (pain, suffering) and not a positive state of bliss as some others deem to think. Also, the ātmans are considered infinite in number.

==Ātman as per Vaiśeṣika System==
The Vaiśeṣika view is practically identical with that of the Nyāya school.

==Ātman as per Sāṅkhya and [[Yoga]] Systems==
The Sāṅkhya and the Yoga systems accept the ātman as an indubitable reality, which they call as ‘puruṣa.’ The puruṣa is eternal, pure and all-pervading consciousness. He gets into the bondage of sarisāra (transmigratory existence) due to aviveka or non-discrimination between himself and prakṛti (nature). By viveka-khyāti or knowledge that distinguishes him from the prakṛti, the non-self, he recovers his original state of freedom, freedom from pain and suffering. It is not a state of joy or bliss. These systems also concede that the puruṣas are innumerable.

==Ātman as per Mīmānsā System==
The views of the Mīmānsā school regarding the ātman, or the soul, are very similar to those of the preceding four systems mentioned here. The ātman is an eternal, infinite substance which is related to a real body in a real world. It survives death to be able to reap the consequences of its action performed here. Consciousness is not its essence but only an adventitious quality which arises when some conditions are present. There are as many souls as there are individuals. Liberation is obtained by the disinterested performance of obligatory actions, knowledge of the ātman and the wearing out of the karmas accumulated in the past. Total stoppage of rebirth and remaining in a state beyond pleasure and pain is the special characteristic of liberation.

==Ātman as per [[Vedanta]] System==
The Vedanta system has branched off into three main schools :
#[[Advaita]] - The Advaita school maintains that the ātman is eternal, infinite and is of the nature of pure consciousness. It is, in the ultimate analysis, [[Brahman]] the Absolute itself. [[Ajñāna]] or the ignorance of its real nature has led to its bondage and jñāna or knowledge will lead it to liberation. This is not a state to be attained but the original state itself regained. In this state, it will enjoy unalloyed bliss.
# Viśiṣṭādvaita - The Viśiṣṭādvaita school declares that the ātman or the soul, though eternal, is not vibhu (infinite) but [[aṇu]] (atomic) in size. Consciousness is intrinsic to it, though its contraction and expansion are possible. Such souls are infinite in number. They are different from Brahman or God, but parts of it. Liberation is attained by [[bhakti]] or devotion to God. In this state, the souls become similar to God but not absolutely identical with him.
# Dvaita - According to the Dvaita school, the soul is eternal, atomic in size and has consciousness as its essence. The souls are innumerable, different from God and from one another too. They are of three classes: those that are bound but may become liberated; those that are eternally confined to transmigratory existence and those that are doomed permanently to the misery of hell. Liberation is obtained by knowledge, devotion to [[Viṣṇu]], and by his grace. It is living in Vaikuṇṭha, the world of God, in his eternal presence. Even in the state of liberation differences among the liberated souls persist.

==References==
{{reflist}}
* The Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Swami Harshananda, Ram [[Krishna]] Math, Bangalore

Talk:Ātman

2015-01-29T00:36:20Z

Vishal J Mehta:

By Swami Harshananda

Ātman literally means ‘the Self which is the essence or the principle of life or, which pervades everything’.

==Phenomena of Ātman==
The phenomena of birth and death have always mystified man. A question, whether there is ‘something’ before birth and whether it survives death has been an eternal question haunting human minds. Most of the Indian philosophical systems have accepted the existence of such spirit, generally termed as ‘ātman,’ though views about it have varied greatly.

==Atman as per Literatures==
In the early Vedic literature, the word ‘ātman’ has rarely been used. Even when used<ref>Rgveda 1.115.1</ref> it does not seem to have any mystical or metaphysical significance as found in the later literature. From a simple notion of cosmic unity, the word gradually came to represent the entity which is both immanent and transcendent with regard to the cosmos. The term ‘ātman’ has been derived and defined in various ways :
# That which animates
# That which pervades
# That which experiences
# That which exists always

==Concept of Ātman==
A fuller development of the concept is found in the later Vedic literature such as the Āraṇyakas and the Upaniṣads. Here, together with the word ‘Brahman’ it has been used to denote the Cosmic Spirit both in its transcendent and in its immanent aspects. However, gradually, the word ‘Brahman’ came to be used much more to indicate the transcendent Reality whereas the term ‘ātman’ was generally confined to the immanent Reality or the individual self. Descriptions of the nature of the ātman or the soul as given by the various schools of Indian philosophy differ widely from each other.

==Ātman as per Cārvāka System==
The Cārvāka (materialistic) schools deny the existence of a permanent soul and attribute consciousness to the chemical reactions brought about by the combination of the pañcabhutas or the five fundamental elements constituting the world.

==Ātman as per Jainism==
Jainism believes in the existence of eternal souls, infinite in number. They possess consciousness which is limited in manifestation but capable of evolving to infinite proportions.

==Ātman as per Buddhism==
Buddhism believes in the existence of a permanent soul, accepts the continuity of life which generates the next life as one tree produces another through its seed.

==Ātman as per Nyāya System==
The Nyāya system admits the existence of ‘ātman,’ an eternal soul, different from the body, the senses and the mind. It is vibhu or all-pervading and has consciousness, not as integral to it, but as an adventitious attribute brought about by its association with the mind. It is an agent of action and suffers its consequences. Due to mithyā-jñāna or false knowledge or ignorance, it allows itself to be swayed by the impulses of rāga (attachment), dveṣa (dislike) and moha (infatuation). Consequently it performs good or bad actions and suffers their results. It attains apavarga or liberation by tattvajñāna or right knowledge of the Reality. In this state, it is freed from all sorrow, suffering and misery. It is a negative state of transcendence of dukkha (pain, suffering) and not a positive state of bliss as some others deem to think. Also, the ātmans are considered infinite in number.

==Ātman as per Vaiśeṣika System==
The Vaiśeṣika view is practically identical with that of the Nyāya school.

==Ātman as per Sāṅkhya and Yoga Systems==
The Sāṅkhya and the Yoga systems accept the ātman as an indubitable reality, which they call as ‘puruṣa.’ The puruṣa is eternal, pure and all-pervading consciousness. He gets into the bondage of sarisāra (transmigratory existence) due to aviveka or non-discrimination between himself and prakṛti (nature). By viveka-khyāti or knowledge that distinguishes him from the prakṛti, the non-self, he recovers his original state of freedom, freedom from pain and suffering. It is not a state of joy or bliss. These systems also concede that the puruṣas are innumerable.

==Ātman as per Mīmānsā System==
The views of the Mīmānsā school regarding the ātman, or the soul, are very similar to those of the preceding four systems mentioned here. The ātman is an eternal, infinite substance which is related to a real body in a real world. It survives death to be able to reap the consequences of its action performed here. Consciousness is not its essence but only an adventitious quality which arises when some conditions are present. There are as many souls as there are individuals. Liberation is obtained by the disinterested performance of obligatory actions, knowledge of the ātman and the wearing out of the karmas accumulated in the past. Total stoppage of rebirth and remaining in a state beyond pleasure and pain is the special characteristic of liberation.

==Ātman as per Vedanta System==
The Vedanta system has branched off into three main schools :
#Advaita - The Advaita school maintains that the ātman is eternal, infinite and is of the nature of pure consciousness. It is, in the ultimate analysis, Brahman the Absolute itself. Ajñāna or the ignorance of its real nature has led to its bondage and jñāna or knowledge will lead it to liberation. This is not a state to be attained but the original state itself regained. In this state, it will enjoy unalloyed bliss.
# Viśiṣṭādvaita - The Viśiṣṭādvaita school declares that the ātman or the soul, though eternal, is not vibhu (infinite) but aṇu (atomic) in size. Consciousness is intrinsic to it, though its contraction and expansion are possible. Such souls are infinite in number. They are different from Brahman or God, but parts of it. Liberation is attained by bhakti or devotion to God. In this state, the souls become similar to God but not absolutely identical with him.
# Dvaita - According to the Dvaita school, the soul is eternal, atomic in size and has consciousness as its essence. The souls are innumerable, different from God and from one another too. They are of three classes: those that are bound but may become liberated; those that are eternally confined to transmigratory existence and those that are doomed permanently to the misery of hell. Liberation is obtained by knowledge, devotion to Viṣṇu, and by his grace. It is living in Vaikuṇṭha, the world of God, in his eternal presence. Even in the state of liberation differences among the liberated souls persist.

==References==
{{reflist}}
* The Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Swami Harshananda, Ram Krishna Math, Bangalore

Bhadrācalam

2015-01-29T00:26:13Z

Vishal J Mehta: moved from Discussion

By Swami Harshananda

[[File:Bhadracalam.jpg|thumb|Śri Rāma Temple at Bhadrācalam]]

Bhadrācalam literally means ‘mountain of [[Bhadra]]’.

==Geographical Parameters of Bhadrācalam==
Bhadrācalam is also known as Bhadragīri. It is considered as one of the twenty five important places of pilgrimage associated with Śrī Rāma. It is situated in the Khammam district of [[Andhra]] Pradesh. It is 50 km. (31 iles) from Kothagudem, the place famous for the coal mines of Singareni.

==Historical Significance of Bhadrācalam==
The sanctum of the temple has the images of Śri Rāma, Sītā and Lakṣmaṇ[[a]]. According to the sthalapurāṇa (local mythological accounts), they appeared before the sage Bhadra (personification of the mountain Bhadragiri, considered as the son of Meruparvata or mountain Meru and Menakā) and transformed themselves into stone images at his request to stay there permanently. An anthill grew over the images and they were hidden from the human gaze for centuries.

The presence of the images there was revealed accidentally or by divine dispensation to Pokala Dammakka, a childless widow who had adopted a boy named Rāma. She retrieved the images and preserved them, offering a simple [[worship]]. One day, in [[a]] dream, she saw the sage [[Bhadra]] who instructed her to keep up her devoted worship until the time when a great devotee of Śri Rāma comes and constructs a temple for the images.

Later Kañcarla Gopanna (A.D. 1630-1687), the tax-collector of the Muslim ruler Tanisha, visited the place. She revealed her dream to him. Since he was a great devotee of Śrī Rāma, he got the temple built. Though he was punished by the ruler for the ‘misuse’ of State funds, Śrī Rāma came to his rescue in a miraculous way. Gopanna became a famous composer and musician, now well known as Bhadrā[[cala]] Rāmadāsa.

==Important [[Festivals]] of the Temple==
The temple was built in the 17th century and was thoroughly renovated during the 1960’s. Śrī Rāma-Navami and Vaikuṇṭha [[Ek]]ādaśī are the biggest festivals conducted in this temple.

==Places To Visit In And Around Bhadrācalam==
[[Temples]] of Narasiṅha, Govindarāja, and Rāmadāsa Dhyānamandira are places of importance for the pilgrims. Parṇaśālā, about 36 km (20 miles) away, is the place where Śrī Rāma and Sīta stayed before Sitā was abducted by Rāvaṇa, the demon-king. A rivulet, Sītāvāga by name, flows nearby.

Dummaguḍem is just 16 km or 10 miles from Bhadrācalam. It is the place where Śrī Rāma is said to have killed Khara and his army of 14,000 demons.

Guṇḍala is about 5 km or 3 miles down the river from Bhadrācalam. It contains hot springs and other places of interest.

==References==
{{reflist}}
* The Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Swami Harshananda, Ram [[Krishna]] Math, Bangalore

Talk:Bhadrācalam

2015-01-29T00:25:38Z

Vishal J Mehta:

By Swami Harshananda

[[File:Bhadracalam.jpg|thumb|Śri Rāma Temple at Bhadrācalam]]

Bhadrācalam literally means ‘mountain of Bhadra’.

==Geographical Parameters of Bhadrācalam==
Bhadrācalam is also known as Bhadragīri. It is considered as one of the twenty five important places of pilgrimage associated with Śrī Rāma. It is situated in the Khammam district of Andhra Pradesh. It is 50 km. (31 iles) from Kothagudem, the place famous for the coal mines of Singareni.

==Historical Significance of Bhadrācalam==
The sanctum of the temple has the images of Śri Rāma, Sītā and Lakṣmaṇa. According to the sthalapurāṇa (local mythological accounts), they appeared before the sage Bhadra (personification of the mountain Bhadragiri, considered as the son of Meruparvata or mountain Meru and Menakā) and transformed themselves into stone images at his request to stay there permanently. An anthill grew over the images and they were hidden from the human gaze for centuries.

The presence of the images there was revealed accidentally or by divine dispensation to Pokala Dammakka, a childless widow who had adopted a boy named Rāma. She retrieved the images and preserved them, offering a simple worship. One day, in a dream, she saw the sage Bhadra who instructed her to keep up her devoted worship until the time when a great devotee of Śri Rāma comes and constructs a temple for the images.

Later Kañcarla Gopanna (A.D. 1630-1687), the tax-collector of the Muslim ruler Tanisha, visited the place. She revealed her dream to him. Since he was a great devotee of Śrī Rāma, he got the temple built. Though he was punished by the ruler for the ‘misuse’ of State funds, Śrī Rāma came to his rescue in a miraculous way. Gopanna became a famous composer and musician, now well known as Bhadrācala Rāmadāsa.

==Important Festivals of the Temple==
The temple was built in the 17th century and was thoroughly renovated during the 1960’s. Śrī Rāma-Navami and Vaikuṇṭha Ekādaśī are the biggest festivals conducted in this temple.

==Places To Visit In And Around Bhadrācalam==
Temples of Narasiṅha, Govindarāja, and Rāmadāsa Dhyānamandira are places of importance for the pilgrims. Parṇaśālā, about 36 km (20 miles) away, is the place where Śrī Rāma and Sīta stayed before Sitā was abducted by Rāvaṇa, the demon-king. A rivulet, Sītāvāga by name, flows nearby.

Dummaguḍem is just 16 km or 10 miles from Bhadrācalam. It is the place where Śrī Rāma is said to have killed Khara and his army of 14,000 demons.

Guṇḍala is about 5 km or 3 miles down the river from Bhadrācalam. It contains hot springs and other places of interest.

==References==
{{reflist}}
* The Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Swami Harshananda, Ram Krishna Math, Bangalore

Bāuls

2015-01-28T00:41:00Z

Vishal J Mehta: moved from Discussion

By Swami Harshananda

Bāuls literally means ‘the crazy ones’.

==Location of Bāuls==
The Bāuls of rural Bengal, who are found even today, form one of the obscure religious cults of the time. They are wandering minstrels comprising mostly mendicants.

==Origin Of The Word [[Bāul]]==
The word ‘bāul’ is of uncertain origin. It is assumed to have been derived from either of the two [[Sanskrit]] words :
# Vātula - Affected by wind-disease, i.e., mad or crazy
# Vyākula - Impatiently eager
Both these derivations are consistent with the modern sense of the word : ‘Inspired people with an ecstatic eagerness for [[a]] spiritual life, leading to ultimate union with the eternal Beloved.’

==Origin Of The Cult [[Bāul]]==
Historically, this sect might have been derived from the Nātha Cult. However, the influence of Vaiṣṇavism and Sufism can easily be recognized. The Bāuls are most unconventional in their customs and manners, habits and practices. They pride themselves on calling their ways as ‘ulṭ[[a]]’ or ‘the reverse’. That is why they do not care for formal observances of any religious practice.

==Preachings Of Bāuls==
The literature of the Bāuls is entirely in their songs and poems (in Bengali) couched in mystic terms and riddles. Whatever philosophy can be gleaned from these can be stated briefly as follows :
* The human body is the microcosm of the universe and the temple of the Dear one.
* This Beloved, also called ‘maner mānuṣ’ (‘the Man of the Heart’), is the Lord of the universe living in our heart. Hence, any search for Him outside is fruitless.
* This Divine Personality residing in us is our essential nature. Love is the means of achieving union with Him and the lover is the human personality.
* In the highest union, all limitations are transcended, all differences between humanity and [[divinity]] are annihilated.
* Madan, Biśa Bhumimāli, īśān Yugi, Kṛṣṇakānta Pāṭhak and Lālan Fakīr are some of the celebrated composers of the bāul songs.

==References==
{{reflist}}
* The Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Swami Harshananda, Ram [[Krishna]] Math, Bangalore

Talk:Bāuls

2015-01-28T00:40:47Z

Vishal J Mehta:

By Swami Harshananda

Bāuls literally means ‘the crazy ones’.

==Location of Bāuls==
The Bāuls of rural Bengal, who are found even today, form one of the obscure religious cults of the time. They are wandering minstrels comprising mostly mendicants.

==Origin Of The Word Bāul==
The word ‘bāul’ is of uncertain origin. It is assumed to have been derived from either of the two Sanskrit words :
# Vātula - Affected by wind-disease, i.e., mad or crazy
# Vyākula - Impatiently eager
Both these derivations are consistent with the modern sense of the word : ‘Inspired people with an ecstatic eagerness for a spiritual life, leading to ultimate union with the eternal Beloved.’

==Origin Of The Cult Bāul==
Historically, this sect might have been derived from the Nātha Cult. However, the influence of Vaiṣṇavism and Sufism can easily be recognized. The Bāuls are most unconventional in their customs and manners, habits and practices. They pride themselves on calling their ways as ‘ulṭa’ or ‘the reverse’. That is why they do not care for formal observances of any religious practice.

==Preachings Of Bāuls==
The literature of the Bāuls is entirely in their songs and poems (in Bengali) couched in mystic terms and riddles. Whatever philosophy can be gleaned from these can be stated briefly as follows :
* The human body is the microcosm of the universe and the temple of the Dear one.
* This Beloved, also called ‘maner mānuṣ’ (‘the Man of the Heart’), is the Lord of the universe living in our heart. Hence, any search for Him outside is fruitless.
* This Divine Personality residing in us is our essential nature. Love is the means of achieving union with Him and the lover is the human personality.
* In the highest union, all limitations are transcended, all differences between humanity and divinity are annihilated.
* Madan, Biśa Bhumimāli, īśān Yugi, Kṛṣṇakānta Pāṭhak and Lālan Fakīr are some of the celebrated composers of the bāul songs.

==References==
{{reflist}}
* The Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Swami Harshananda, Ram Krishna Math, Bangalore

Ātmabodha

2015-01-28T00:39:21Z

Vishal J Mehta: moved from Discussion

By Swami Harshananda

Ātmabodha literally means ‘knowledge of the self’.

==Origin of Ātmabodha==
Ś[[a]]ṅkara (A.D. 788-820), the doyen of [[Advaita]] [[Vedanta]], has composed three types of works :
# Bhāṣyas - The bhāṣyas are his commentaries on the prasthānatraya. Prasthānatraya is the three basic works of Vedānta viz., Upaniṣads, Brahmasutras and Bhagavadgitā.
# Stotras - The stotras are devotional hymns.
# Prakaraṇas - The prakaraṇas are elementary treatises on [[Advaita]] philosophy. Out of nearly forty prakaraṇas attributed to him, ātmabodha is one of the smaller works. It consists of sixty-eight verses.

==Gist of Ātmabodha==
* As the very name suggests, the work deals with Self-knowledge.
* It briefly describes the qualifications of an aspirant for mokṣ[[a]].
* It asserts that only jñāna (knowledge) can give mokṣa (liberation) directly. It is compared to the fire that is directly responsible for cooking food.
* It describes the world as ‘mithyā’ or transient.
* It analyzes the three śarīras (bodies) and the five kośas (sheaths) to prove that the ātman is different from all these.
* The process of meditation on the ātman comprises the three well-known steps :
# Śravaṇa - Hearing
# Manana - Reflection
# Nididhyāsana - Meditation
* It ends with the description of the identity of the jīva (individual soul) with [[Brahman]] (Supreme Self) and the state of a liberated soul.

==References==
{{reflist}}
* The Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Swami Harshananda, Ram [[Krishna]] Math, Bangalore

Ātmaguṇa

By Swami Harshananda

Ātmaguṇa literally means virtues that help in manifesting the Self.

==Significance of Ātmaguṇa==
Social legislators consider the life of man as an integral unit and prescribe several sanskāras or sacraments to purify him in all aspects. These sanskāras should not be performed mechanically. It should be observed with due faith.

==General Ātmaguṇas==
The general virtues called ‘ātmaguṇas’ can be induced in him. These general virtues by all the authors can be listed as follows :
# Sarvabhutadayā - Compassion towards all creatures
# Kṣānti - Forbearance
# Anasuyatā - Absence of jealousy
# Śauca - Purity
# Anāyāsa - Avoiding exertion
# Maṇgala - Auspiciousness
# Akārpaṇya - Large-hearted
# Aspṛhatā - Absence of covetousness
# Satya - Truth
# Ārjava - Straightforwardness
# [[Dāna]] - Giving gifts
# [[Ahi]]ṅsā - Non-injury
# Śama - Peace of mind
# [[Dama]] - Self-control
# Dhṛti - Courage

==Ātmaguṇas as per Chāndogya Upaniṣad==
The Chāndogya Upaniṣad<ref>Chāndogya Upaniṣad 8.7</ref> has listed eight guṇas or qualities natural to the Ātman as follows :
# Apahata-pāpmā - Free from sins
# Vijara - Free from decrepitude
# Vimṛtyu - Deathless
# Viśoka - Without sorrow
# Vijighatsa - Free from hunger
# Apipāsa - Free from thirst
# Satyakāma - With unfailing desires
# Satyasaṅ[[kalpa]] - With unfailing will

==References==
{{reflist}}
* The Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Swami Harshananda, Ram [[Krishna]] Math, Bangalore

Ātmahatyā

By Swami Harshananda

Ātmahatyā literally means ‘suicide’.

Ātmahatyā or suicide has been considered a great sin by the [[dharma]]śāstras.<ref>Parāśara Smrti 4.1 and 2</ref><ref>Yama Smrti 20 and 21</ref> Though it was prescribed as the ultimate punishment for sinners of most heinous crimes,<ref>Manusmrti 11.90, 91</ref><ref>Gautama Dharmasutras 23.1</ref> it was also disapproved by other writers.

However, it was permitted as a religious act under following circumstances only :
* A vānaprastha (forest hermit) suffering from incurable diseases and unable to perform his duties
* An old man incapable of taking care of himself due to serious old-age decrepitude or illness beyond cure
* A householder who has fulfilled all his duties and obligations and has no desire to live and so on.

Such suicides were committed in various ways such as fasting unto death, mahāprasthāna, drowning oneself at the Triveṇī in Prayāga (modern Allahabad in Uttar Pradesh) or burning oneself in the fire prepared out of cowdung-cakes.

==References==
{{reflist}}
* The Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Swami Harshananda, Ram Krishna Math, Bangalore

Talk:Ātmabodha

2015-01-28T00:39:02Z

Vishal J Mehta:

By Swami Harshananda

Ātmabodha literally means ‘knowledge of the self’.

==Origin of Ātmabodha==
Śaṅkara (A.D. 788-820), the doyen of Advaita Vedanta, has composed three types of works :
# Bhāṣyas - The bhāṣyas are his commentaries on the prasthānatraya. Prasthānatraya is the three basic works of Vedānta viz., Upaniṣads, Brahmasutras and Bhagavadgitā.
# Stotras - The stotras are devotional hymns.
# Prakaraṇas - The prakaraṇas are elementary treatises on Advaita philosophy. Out of nearly forty prakaraṇas attributed to him, ātmabodha is one of the smaller works. It consists of sixty-eight verses.

==Gist of Ātmabodha==
* As the very name suggests, the work deals with Self-knowledge.
* It briefly describes the qualifications of an aspirant for mokṣa.
* It asserts that only jñāna (knowledge) can give mokṣa (liberation) directly. It is compared to the fire that is directly responsible for cooking food.
* It describes the world as ‘mithyā’ or transient.
* It analyzes the three śarīras (bodies) and the five kośas (sheaths) to prove that the ātman is different from all these.
* The process of meditation on the ātman comprises the three well-known steps :
# Śravaṇa - Hearing
# Manana - Reflection
# Nididhyāsana - Meditation
* It ends with the description of the identity of the jīva (individual soul) with Brahman (Supreme Self) and the state of a liberated soul.

==References==
{{reflist}}
* The Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Swami Harshananda, Ram Krishna Math, Bangalore

Ātmaguṇa

By Swami Harshananda

Ātmaguṇa literally means virtues that help in manifesting the Self.

==Significance of Ātmaguṇa==
Social legislators consider the life of man as an integral unit and prescribe several sanskāras or sacraments to purify him in all aspects. These sanskāras should not be performed mechanically. It should be observed with due faith.

==General Ātmaguṇas==
The general virtues called ‘ātmaguṇas’ can be induced in him. These general virtues by all the authors can be listed as follows :
# Sarvabhutadayā - Compassion towards all creatures
# Kṣānti - Forbearance
# Anasuyatā - Absence of jealousy
# Śauca - Purity
# Anāyāsa - Avoiding exertion
# Maṇgala - Auspiciousness
# Akārpaṇya - Large-hearted
# Aspṛhatā - Absence of covetousness
# Satya - Truth
# Ārjava - Straightforwardness
# Dāna - Giving gifts
# Ahiṅsā - Non-injury
# Śama - Peace of mind
# Dama - Self-control
# Dhṛti - Courage

==Ātmaguṇas as per Chāndogya Upaniṣad==
The Chāndogya Upaniṣad<ref>Chāndogya Upaniṣad 8.7</ref> has listed eight guṇas or qualities natural to the Ātman as follows :
# Apahata-pāpmā - Free from sins
# Vijara - Free from decrepitude
# Vimṛtyu - Deathless
# Viśoka - Without sorrow
# Vijighatsa - Free from hunger
# Apipāsa - Free from thirst
# Satyakāma - With unfailing desires
# Satyasaṅkalpa - With unfailing will

==References==
{{reflist}}
* The Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Swami Harshananda, Ram Krishna Math, Bangalore

Ātmahatyā

By Swami Harshananda

Ātmahatyā literally means ‘suicide’.

Ātmahatyā or suicide has been considered a great sin by the dharmaśāstras.<ref>Parāśara Smrti 4.1 and 2</ref><ref>Yama Smrti 20 and 21</ref> Though it was prescribed as the ultimate punishment for sinners of most heinous crimes,<ref>Manusmrti 11.90, 91</ref><ref>Gautama Dharmasutras 23.1</ref> it was also disapproved by other writers.

However, it was permitted as a religious act under following circumstances only :
* A vānaprastha (forest hermit) suffering from incurable diseases and unable to perform his duties
* An old man incapable of taking care of himself due to serious old-age decrepitude or illness beyond cure
* A householder who has fulfilled all his duties and obligations and has no desire to live and so on.

Such suicides were committed in various ways such as fasting unto death, mahāprasthāna, drowning oneself at the Triveṇī in Prayāga (modern Allahabad in Uttar Pradesh) or burning oneself in the fire prepared out of cowdung-cakes.

==References==
{{reflist}}
* The Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Swami Harshananda, Ram Krishna Math, Bangalore

Bera

2015-01-28T00:37:32Z

Vishal J Mehta: moved from Discussion

By Swami Harshananda

Bera literally means ‘icon’.

[[Worship]] of images is an integral part of the religion of Sanatana [[Dharma]]. Area or image is one of the several forms of manifestation of the Divine.

==Origin of Bera==
'Bera' is [[a]] term which is commonly used in the āgamas for images but in a more technical sense. This word is of uncertain origin. It is generally employed to indicate that images are made according to the prescriptions of [[murti]]śilpaśāstra or iconography and used in worship. Painted or engraved figures are not classed under ‘bera’.

==Significance of Bera In [[Temple Construction]]==
The height and the width of the bera are used as standards for determining other measurements like those of the pīṭha or pedestal, of the garbhagṛha or the cella, or the vimāna (the tower over the main shrine) for [[temple construction]].

==General Types of Bera==
[[A]] bera should be either ‘[[citra]]’ (solid figure) or ‘citrārdha’ (relief figure). Beras can be of two general types :
# [[Acala]] or immovable - The acalabera is also called ‘dhruvabera’ (the constant icon) or ‘mulabera’ (the original icon). It is the original image of stone permanently fixed in the sanctuary.
# [[Cala]] or movable and portable - The calaberas can be of four types. They are made of metal. Along with the original (dhruvabera) they are collectively called ‘Pañcaberas’ (five icons).

==Types of Calabera==
These divisions of beras are found mostly in the Vaiśiavāgamas.
# Kautukabera - It is also called ‘kriyābera’ or ‘karmārcā’. It is kept in the central part of the altar in the shrine. Life is infused into it from the main image and all the items of [[worship]] of the main image are also offered to this image.
# Snapanabera - It is an image that receives the daily ceremonial bath. This image is sometimes also designated as ‘tīrthasnānārcā,’.
# Utsavabera - It is also called as ‘utsavārcā’ or ‘rathabera’. This image is meant to be taken out in procession on festival days.
# Balibera - It is also called as ‘balyarcā’. It is an image that receives the food offerings meant to be distributed among the attendant and minor [[deities]]. It is taken out in a procession at the time of [[baliharaṇa]] or distribution of food offerings to these [[deities]].
# Śayanārcā - This image is put to rest during night.

==Nṛttabera==
The Śaivāgamas sometimes add one more image ‘nṛttabera’. It is a Naṭarāja icon generally taken out on certain occasions like aridrotsava.

==References==
{{reflist}}
* The Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Swami Harshananda, Ram [[Krishna]] Math, Bangalore

Talk:Bera

2015-01-28T00:37:13Z

Vishal J Mehta:

By Swami Harshananda

Bera literally means ‘icon’.

Worship of images is an integral part of the religion of Sanatana Dharma. Area or image is one of the several forms of manifestation of the Divine.

==Origin of Bera==
'Bera' is a term which is commonly used in the āgamas for images but in a more technical sense. This word is of uncertain origin. It is generally employed to indicate that images are made according to the prescriptions of murtiśilpaśāstra or iconography and used in worship. Painted or engraved figures are not classed under ‘bera’.

==Significance of Bera In Temple Construction==
The height and the width of the bera are used as standards for determining other measurements like those of the pīṭha or pedestal, of the garbhagṛha or the cella, or the vimāna (the tower over the main shrine) for temple construction.

==General Types of Bera==
A bera should be either ‘citra’ (solid figure) or ‘citrārdha’ (relief figure). Beras can be of two general types :
# Acala or immovable - The acalabera is also called ‘dhruvabera’ (the constant icon) or ‘mulabera’ (the original icon). It is the original image of stone permanently fixed in the sanctuary.
# Cala or movable and portable - The calaberas can be of four types. They are made of metal. Along with the original (dhruvabera) they are collectively called ‘Pañcaberas’ (five icons).

==Types of Calabera==
These divisions of beras are found mostly in the Vaiśiavāgamas.
# Kautukabera - It is also called ‘kriyābera’ or ‘karmārcā’. It is kept in the central part of the altar in the shrine. Life is infused into it from the main image and all the items of worship of the main image are also offered to this image.
# Snapanabera - It is an image that receives the daily ceremonial bath. This image is sometimes also designated as ‘tīrthasnānārcā,’.
# Utsavabera - It is also called as ‘utsavārcā’ or ‘rathabera’. This image is meant to be taken out in procession on festival days.
# Balibera - It is also called as ‘balyarcā’. It is an image that receives the food offerings meant to be distributed among the attendant and minor deities. It is taken out in a procession at the time of baliharaṇa or distribution of food offerings to these deities.
# Śayanārcā - This image is put to rest during night.

==Nṛttabera==
The Śaivāgamas sometimes add one more image ‘nṛttabera’. It is a Naṭarāja icon generally taken out on certain occasions like aridrotsava.

==References==
{{reflist}}
* The Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Swami Harshananda, Ram Krishna Math, Bangalore

Baudhāyana

2015-01-28T00:34:12Z

Vishal J Mehta: moved from Discussion

By Swami Harshananda

Baudhāyana literally means ‘descendant of [[Bodhāyana]]’.

One of the ancient but well-known names met with in the Vedāṅga literature is that of Baudhāyāna. Baudhāyana is [[a]] descendant of Bodhāyana, son of [[Bodha]]. However, nothing is known of this Bodha.

==Difference in Bodhāyana and Baudhāyana==
The two names Bodhāyana and Baudhāyana have sometimes been used as if they are synonymous. [[A]] Kāṇva Bodhāyana, mentioned in the Baudhāyana-dharmasutras, is perhaps a more ancient teacher and may be a predecessor. Baudhāyana probably existed somewhere during the period 600-300 B.C. and belonged to South India. This surmise is based on the fact that Sāyaṇa (14th century A.D.), the great commentator on the [[Vedas]], was a descendant of Baudhāyana. Practically nothing is known about him.

==Literary work by Baudhāyana==
Baudhāyana is one of the very few authors whose work is available on all the four branches of [[Kalpa]], the last of the six Vedāṅgas. His extant of work consists of different sections (each called "sutra"). In all, including older and modern versions, there are 9 sections of his work. They are as follows :
# The Śrautasutras - It is considered to be very ancient. It has 30 praśnas or sections, each divided into several adhyāyas or chapters. It is in prose and the sentences are rather long. This whole work deals with the details of Vedic sacrifices of various types like [[Agnihotra]], Darśapurṇamāsa, Cāturmāsya, Vājapeya, [[Aśvamedha]] and so on.
# The Dvaidhasutras - It deals with vaikalpika vidhis or choices given with regard to any particular rule.
# The Karmāntasutras - It deals with the rest of the injunctions not given earlier and form a part of the Śrautasutras.
# The Grhyasutras - It is in four praśnas or sections comprising of forty-seven adhyāyas or chapters. The subjects dealt with include the sixteen sanskāras or sacraments like jātakarma (rites to be performed at birth), nāmakaraṇa (naming ceremony), upanayana (investiture with yajñopavīta or the sacred thread to mark the beginning of Vedic studies), vivāha (marriage) and so on. Other topics dealt with in the work are certain rites like Vaiśvadevahoma and prāyaścittas or expiatory rites for transgressing rules while performing the Vedic rites described earlier.
# The Dharmasutras - It is also considered as an ancient work. It is in four praśnas or khaṇḍas (sections). The last praśna is considered as a later interpolation by some scholars. The topics dealt with are mainly the sources of [[dharma]], upanayana and duties of a brahmacārin (Vedic student), duties of a snātaka (one who has completed the study of the [[Vedas]]), eight forms of marriage, prāyaścittas or expiatory rites for sins, the sandhyā ritual, the pañcayajñas or the five daily sacrifices, śrāddha ceremonies connected with death and post-death rituals, sanyāsa or rites to be performed to become a monk, means of securing siddhis or supernatural powers and so on.
# The Śulbasutras - The last praśna of the Śrautasutras is the Śulbasutras. It deals with the geometrical and mechanical details of constructing the sacrificial vedi or altar.
# Grhyaparibhāsāsutram - It is in two praśnas and twenty-three adhyāyas. It defines the various terms used in Vedic sacrifices.
# Grhyaśesasutram - It is in five praśnas and ninety-seven adhyāyas. It fills up the gap as it were in the performance of the Vedic rites described earlier by giving the details of the rituals left out.
# Pitrmedhasutram - It comprises of three praśnas and forty-eight adhyāyas. It deals almost exclusively with the aurdhvadehika rites (rites to be performed after death).

==References==
{{reflist}}
* The Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Swami Harshananda, Ram [[Krishna]] Math, Bangalore

Talk:Baudhāyana

2015-01-28T00:33:57Z

Vishal J Mehta:

By Swami Harshananda

Baudhāyana literally means ‘descendant of Bodhāyana’.

One of the ancient but well-known names met with in the Vedāṅga literature is that of Baudhāyāna. Baudhāyana is a descendant of Bodhāyana, son of Bodha. However, nothing is known of this Bodha.

==Difference in Bodhāyana and Baudhāyana==
The two names Bodhāyana and Baudhāyana have sometimes been used as if they are synonymous. A Kāṇva Bodhāyana, mentioned in the Baudhāyana-dharmasutras, is perhaps a more ancient teacher and may be a predecessor. Baudhāyana probably existed somewhere during the period 600-300 B.C. and belonged to South India. This surmise is based on the fact that Sāyaṇa (14th century A.D.), the great commentator on the Vedas, was a descendant of Baudhāyana. Practically nothing is known about him.

==Literary work by Baudhāyana==
Baudhāyana is one of the very few authors whose work is available on all the four branches of Kalpa, the last of the six Vedāṅgas. His extant of work consists of different sections (each called "sutra"). In all, including older and modern versions, there are 9 sections of his work. They are as follows :
# The Śrautasutras - It is considered to be very ancient. It has 30 praśnas or sections, each divided into several adhyāyas or chapters. It is in prose and the sentences are rather long. This whole work deals with the details of Vedic sacrifices of various types like Agnihotra, Darśapurṇamāsa, Cāturmāsya, Vājapeya, Aśvamedha and so on.
# The Dvaidhasutras - It deals with vaikalpika vidhis or choices given with regard to any particular rule.
# The Karmāntasutras - It deals with the rest of the injunctions not given earlier and form a part of the Śrautasutras.
# The Grhyasutras - It is in four praśnas or sections comprising of forty-seven adhyāyas or chapters. The subjects dealt with include the sixteen sanskāras or sacraments like jātakarma (rites to be performed at birth), nāmakaraṇa (naming ceremony), upanayana (investiture with yajñopavīta or the sacred thread to mark the beginning of Vedic studies), vivāha (marriage) and so on. Other topics dealt with in the work are certain rites like Vaiśvadevahoma and prāyaścittas or expiatory rites for transgressing rules while performing the Vedic rites described earlier.
# The Dharmasutras - It is also considered as an ancient work. It is in four praśnas or khaṇḍas (sections). The last praśna is considered as a later interpolation by some scholars. The topics dealt with are mainly the sources of dharma, upanayana and duties of a brahmacārin (Vedic student), duties of a snātaka (one who has completed the study of the Vedas), eight forms of marriage, prāyaścittas or expiatory rites for sins, the sandhyā ritual, the pañcayajñas or the five daily sacrifices, śrāddha ceremonies connected with death and post-death rituals, sanyāsa or rites to be performed to become a monk, means of securing siddhis or supernatural powers and so on.
# The Śulbasutras - The last praśna of the Śrautasutras is the Śulbasutras. It deals with the geometrical and mechanical details of constructing the sacrificial vedi or altar.
# Grhyaparibhāsāsutram - It is in two praśnas and twenty-three adhyāyas. It defines the various terms used in Vedic sacrifices.
# Grhyaśesasutram - It is in five praśnas and ninety-seven adhyāyas. It fills up the gap as it were in the performance of the Vedic rites described earlier by giving the details of the rituals left out.
# Pitrmedhasutram - It comprises of three praśnas and forty-eight adhyāyas. It deals almost exclusively with the aurdhvadehika rites (rites to be performed after death).

==References==
{{reflist}}
* The Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Swami Harshananda, Ram Krishna Math, Bangalore

Basaveśvara

2015-01-28T00:30:38Z

Vishal J Mehta: moved from Discussion

By Swami Harshananda

[[File:Basavesvara.jpg|thumb|Basaveśvara]]

Basaveśvara (death—[[A]]. D. 1168)

Vīraśaivism is one of the important aspects of Śaivism. It is more popular in Karnataka and owes its development and popularity mainly to Basaveśvara. Basaveśvara was also called Basavanṇa or [[Basava]] and flourished in the 12th century. Though attempts have been made to project him as the founder of this faith, others in the tradition have not accepted this, as quite [[a]] few teachers of the same school have preceded him.

==Social Culture During Basaveśvara's Birth==
The socio-political condition of the people of Karnataka during the latter part of the 11th and early part of the 12th centuries was ripe for the advent of a rebel-reformer, and Basaveśvara fitted into it admirably. The [[brāhmaṇas]] with the strength of their learning in the traditional lore, secular sciences and their cultural roots, wielded enormous power in both the political field and in the social setup.

The caste system had an iron grip over the society and persons of lower castes enjoyed few privileges. Their colossal ignorance and arrant superstition had created deified spirit, the fear of which had led to several superstitious practices. Further, [[women]] in general were always treated as inferior to men. Jainism, as a result of constant conflict with the various cults of Hinduism, had lost its popular appeal.

==Memoir of Basaveśvara==
Basaveśvara was born as the son of a śaiva [[brāhma]]ṇa couple - Mādirāja and Mādāmbā at Bāgevāḍi in the Bijapur district of modern Karnataka. Since he was born after much austerity and prayers to Vṛṣ[[abha]] or Nandinātha (the bullmount of Śiva) he was also christened as ‘[[Basava]]’ (= vṛṣ[[abha]]).

Though brought up in the Vedic brāhmanical tradition, he could not reconcile himself to many of the customs that occurred during his times, like immolating animals in Vedic sacrifices. Most unwillingly and under protest, he underwent the upanayana ceremony (the ceremony of investiture with the sacred thread called yajñopavīta). He received a good education, which he assimilated well due to his unusual powers of comprehension.

However, he could not bring himself to accept the various rituals of Vedic origin. Nor could he tolerate the injustice being heaped upon the lower caste groups by the upper classes. This gradually led to rift between him and his parents and the elders of the contemporary society.

His parents soon passed away, leaving him an orphan. He thought he was now free to come out of the clutches of brāhminical orthodoxy, which he did, by tearing off the sacred thread that symbolized it. He then went to Kappaḍi Saṅgama, a holy place situated at the confluence of the rivers Malaprabhā and Kṛṣṇā. He settled down near the temple of Saṅgameśvara and started his spiritual quest through the [[worship]] of the Śivaliṅga there. A holy man īśānya-guru by name, is said to have given him shelter there.

It is not known how long Basaveśvara stayed at Kappaḍi Saṅgama. Once Śiva appeared in a dream and commanded him to go to Maṅgaliveḍa and meet the King Bijjala. He did so, though most unwillingly. Bijjala of the Kalacuri race, who had been a governor of the Cālukyas head, gradually grown in power and had usurped their kingdom during the period A.D. 1157-62.
Being impressed by the appearance and personal magnetism of Basaveśvara, Bijjala appointed him as an employee in his treasury under Siddha Daṇdādhipa. After the latter’s demise, Basaveśvara took over as the chief. Soon after this, he got married to Gaṅgādevī and Nīlalocanā, daughters of two high-ranking officers.

His hospitality and generosity soon attracted all and sundry to his house in the guise of devotees of Śiva. Though sometimes, he had to suffer their quixotic behavior, he would do so with infinite patience and cheerfulness. Sometime later, Basaveśvara shifted to Kalyāṇa, the capital of Bijjala. Though he worked honestly and efficiently, rumors were floated by persons inimical to him. They gossiped about him misusing the state funds for entertaining his personal guests. These rumours gradually soured his relationship with Bijjala. His attempts of bringing about a social revolution that would transcend caste barriers, accord an equal status to [[women]] and stress the importance of honest physical labor as an integral part of religious or spiritual life added fuel to fire.

These reforms led to a great commotion and social unrest, resulting first in the plucking out of the eyes of the fathers of the couple by Bijjala and then in the assassination of Bijjala himself by the hands of Basaveśvara’s followers as a reaction. In the melee that resulted, Basaveśvara escaped to Kappaḍi Saṅgama; and later, he voluntarily drowned himself at the confluence of the rivers there.

==Goals of Basaveśvara==
Basaveśvara, though a social revolutionary, was basically a spiritual aspirant who rose to saintly heights. His devotion to his Lord, ‘Kuḍala Saṅgamadeva (Śiva),’ was as intense as his keen intellect. He used everything he had: his wealth, possessions, power and good name in the service of his Lord and His devotees. He was a byword for magnanimity and generosity. Neither wealth nor power, nor even happy family could deflect Basaveśvara from his chosen path :
# Worship of Śiva
# Serving the jaṅgamas and śaraṇas (Vīraśaiva [[ascetics]] and devotees)

==Foundation of Śivānubhava-maṇṭ[[apa]]==
He brought about reforms by founding an institution called ‘Śivānubhava-maṇṭapa’ (‘religious house of experience’). This was, perhaps, the birthplace or cradle of Vīraśaivism as it is known today. It was a spiritual as well as a social institution organized by Basaveśvara and presided over by Allama Prabhu, the greatest saint of the time. It acted as a nucleus, around which persons of all ranks and professions, including women, gathered to take part in the discussions that ranged from the most sublime spiritual truths to social problems, norms and conduct.

==Social Reforms Brought About By Śivānubhava-maṇṭapa==
The social revolution that was initiated by this movement developed from a ripple to gigantic waves resulting ultimately to the marriage of a [[brāhma]]ṇa girl to a Harijan (untouchable) boy since both the families had embraced the Vīraśaiva cult.

==Literature By Basaveśvara==
Basaveśvara has left behind him a large number of his sayings as ‘vacanas.’ The vacana is a class of Kannada literature, midway between prose and [[poetry]], and couched in the common language of the masses. The topics dealt in it range from the deepest philosophical reflections to simple ethics or problems and parodies of the day-to-day life.

==Preachings of Basaveśvara==
His philosophy may be summarized briefly thus :
* Have a great ideal in life to live by.
* Try sincerely hard to stick to that ideal or to reach it.
* Be fearless and face all the problems that may have to be encountered while trying to live that life.
* Do not neglect the life here and now because if it is lived well ‘here,’ you can live well ‘there’ also.
* Do some constructive physical labor to earn your livelihood or to deserve the food that you eat.
* Be contented with what you have and try to share the good things of your life with others.
* Since spiritual evolution is more important than the status in society brought about by caste, the latter has to be overlooked in favor of the former.

There is no doubt that Basaveśvara was one of the brightest luminaries that adorned South India, especially the Karnataka region, in the 12th century.

==References==
{{reflist}}
* The Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Swami Harshananda, Ram [[Krishna]] Math, Bangalore

Talk:Basaveśvara

2015-01-28T00:30:16Z

Vishal J Mehta:

By Swami Harshananda

[[File:Basavesvara.jpg|thumb|Basaveśvara]]

Basaveśvara (death—A. D. 1168)

Vīraśaivism is one of the important aspects of Śaivism. It is more popular in Karnataka and owes its development and popularity mainly to Basaveśvara. Basaveśvara was also called Basavanṇa or Basava and flourished in the 12th century. Though attempts have been made to project him as the founder of this faith, others in the tradition have not accepted this, as quite a few teachers of the same school have preceded him.

==Social Culture During Basaveśvara's Birth==
The socio-political condition of the people of Karnataka during the latter part of the 11th and early part of the 12th centuries was ripe for the advent of a rebel-reformer, and Basaveśvara fitted into it admirably. The brāhmaṇas with the strength of their learning in the traditional lore, secular sciences and their cultural roots, wielded enormous power in both the political field and in the social setup.

The caste system had an iron grip over the society and persons of lower castes enjoyed few privileges. Their colossal ignorance and arrant superstition had created deified spirit, the fear of which had led to several superstitious practices. Further, women in general were always treated as inferior to men. Jainism, as a result of constant conflict with the various cults of Hinduism, had lost its popular appeal.

==Memoir of Basaveśvara==
Basaveśvara was born as the son of a śaiva brāhmaṇa couple - Mādirāja and Mādāmbā at Bāgevāḍi in the Bijapur district of modern Karnataka. Since he was born after much austerity and prayers to Vṛṣabha or Nandinātha (the bullmount of Śiva) he was also christened as ‘Basava’ (= vṛṣabha).

Though brought up in the Vedic brāhmanical tradition, he could not reconcile himself to many of the customs that occurred during his times, like immolating animals in Vedic sacrifices. Most unwillingly and under protest, he underwent the upanayana ceremony (the ceremony of investiture with the sacred thread called yajñopavīta). He received a good education, which he assimilated well due to his unusual powers of comprehension.

However, he could not bring himself to accept the various rituals of Vedic origin. Nor could he tolerate the injustice being heaped upon the lower caste groups by the upper classes. This gradually led to rift between him and his parents and the elders of the contemporary society.

His parents soon passed away, leaving him an orphan. He thought he was now free to come out of the clutches of brāhminical orthodoxy, which he did, by tearing off the sacred thread that symbolized it. He then went to Kappaḍi Saṅgama, a holy place situated at the confluence of the rivers Malaprabhā and Kṛṣṇā. He settled down near the temple of Saṅgameśvara and started his spiritual quest through the worship of the Śivaliṅga there. A holy man īśānya-guru by name, is said to have given him shelter there.

It is not known how long Basaveśvara stayed at Kappaḍi Saṅgama. Once Śiva appeared in a dream and commanded him to go to Maṅgaliveḍa and meet the King Bijjala. He did so, though most unwillingly. Bijjala of the Kalacuri race, who had been a governor of the Cālukyas head, gradually grown in power and had usurped their kingdom during the period A.D. 1157-62.
Being impressed by the appearance and personal magnetism of Basaveśvara, Bijjala appointed him as an employee in his treasury under Siddha Daṇdādhipa. After the latter’s demise, Basaveśvara took over as the chief. Soon after this, he got married to Gaṅgādevī and Nīlalocanā, daughters of two high-ranking officers.

His hospitality and generosity soon attracted all and sundry to his house in the guise of devotees of Śiva. Though sometimes, he had to suffer their quixotic behavior, he would do so with infinite patience and cheerfulness. Sometime later, Basaveśvara shifted to Kalyāṇa, the capital of Bijjala. Though he worked honestly and efficiently, rumors were floated by persons inimical to him. They gossiped about him misusing the state funds for entertaining his personal guests. These rumours gradually soured his relationship with Bijjala. His attempts of bringing about a social revolution that would transcend caste barriers, accord an equal status to women and stress the importance of honest physical labor as an integral part of religious or spiritual life added fuel to fire.

These reforms led to a great commotion and social unrest, resulting first in the plucking out of the eyes of the fathers of the couple by Bijjala and then in the assassination of Bijjala himself by the hands of Basaveśvara’s followers as a reaction. In the melee that resulted, Basaveśvara escaped to Kappaḍi Saṅgama; and later, he voluntarily drowned himself at the confluence of the rivers there.

==Goals of Basaveśvara==
Basaveśvara, though a social revolutionary, was basically a spiritual aspirant who rose to saintly heights. His devotion to his Lord, ‘Kuḍala Saṅgamadeva (Śiva),’ was as intense as his keen intellect. He used everything he had: his wealth, possessions, power and good name in the service of his Lord and His devotees. He was a byword for magnanimity and generosity. Neither wealth nor power, nor even happy family could deflect Basaveśvara from his chosen path :
# Worship of Śiva
# Serving the jaṅgamas and śaraṇas (Vīraśaiva ascetics and devotees)

==Foundation of Śivānubhava-maṇṭapa==
He brought about reforms by founding an institution called ‘Śivānubhava-maṇṭapa’ (‘religious house of experience’). This was, perhaps, the birthplace or cradle of Vīraśaivism as it is known today. It was a spiritual as well as a social institution organized by Basaveśvara and presided over by Allama Prabhu, the greatest saint of the time. It acted as a nucleus, around which persons of all ranks and professions, including women, gathered to take part in the discussions that ranged from the most sublime spiritual truths to social problems, norms and conduct.

==Social Reforms Brought About By Śivānubhava-maṇṭapa==
The social revolution that was initiated by this movement developed from a ripple to gigantic waves resulting ultimately to the marriage of a brāhmaṇa girl to a Harijan (untouchable) boy since both the families had embraced the Vīraśaiva cult.

==Literature By Basaveśvara==
Basaveśvara has left behind him a large number of his sayings as ‘vacanas.’ The vacana is a class of Kannada literature, midway between prose and poetry, and couched in the common language of the masses. The topics dealt in it range from the deepest philosophical reflections to simple ethics or problems and parodies of the day-to-day life.

==Preachings of Basaveśvara==
His philosophy may be summarized briefly thus :
* Have a great ideal in life to live by.
* Try sincerely hard to stick to that ideal or to reach it.
* Be fearless and face all the problems that may have to be encountered while trying to live that life.
* Do not neglect the life here and now because if it is lived well ‘here,’ you can live well ‘there’ also.
* Do some constructive physical labor to earn your livelihood or to deserve the food that you eat.
* Be contented with what you have and try to share the good things of your life with others.
* Since spiritual evolution is more important than the status in society brought about by caste, the latter has to be overlooked in favor of the former.

There is no doubt that Basaveśvara was one of the brightest luminaries that adorned South India, especially the Karnataka region, in the 12th century.

==References==
{{reflist}}
* The Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Swami Harshananda, Ram Krishna Math, Bangalore

Bandhu

2015-01-28T00:18:55Z

Vishal J Mehta: moved from Discussion

By Swami Harshananda

Bandhu literally means ‘one who binds through love or blood relationship’.

The word ‘bandhu’ when used in early Vedic literature meant [[a]] ‘friend.’ Later, it was used to indicate any relative or blood-relation in general.

Gradually, by the time of the medieval digests of [[dharma]]śāstras, it acquired [[a]] more technical or legal sense. It was very important to have a clear definition of the word as it was very important in cases of rights to the property of a deceased person. Hence it was defined as a person related to the deceased through one or more female relatives (cognate) against the gotrajas (agnates) or relatives through the male members of the family. Elaborate details with regards to the line of succession have been provided by the dharmaśāstras.

==References==
{{reflist}}
* The Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Swami Harshananda, Ram [[Krishna]] Math, Bangalore

Bāṇaliñga

2015-01-28T00:18:13Z

Vishal J Mehta: moved from Discussion

By Swami Harshananda

Bāṇ[[aliñga]] literally means ‘liṅga of [[Bāṇa]]’.

==Occurence of Bāṇaliṅgas==
Bāṇaliṅgas are natural liṅgas of Śiva (svayambhu or self-manifest) made of crystallized quartz. They are generally found
in some sacred rivers like the Narmadā.

==Significance of Bāṇaliṅgas==
[[A]] legend goes that Śiva got them manifested at the special request of Bāṇā[[sura]], [[a]] great devotee of his. It is hence named as ‘bāṇaliṅga’.

==Characteristics of Bāṇaliṅgas==
Though several stones shaped like a liṅga are found in the river Narmadā, not all of them are bāṇaliṅgas. Special characteristics are prescribed for them in order to determine which ones are true bāṇaliṅgas. The bāṇaliṅgas occur in many shapes, sizes and colors. They are hence given different names.
* The ‘āgneya-liñga’ will be rose in color and warm to touch.
* The ‘yāmya-liṅga’ is shaped like a cudgel.
* The ‘varuṇa-liñga’ is round in shape.
* The ‘raudra-liṅga’ resembles a piece of bone.
* The ‘vaiṣṇava-liṅga’ has variegated colors.
They are sometimes given different names of Śiva like Svayambhu, Mṛtyuñjaya or Nīlakaṇṭha depending upon their external characteristics.

==References==
{{reflist}}
* The Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Swami Harshananda, Ram [[Krishna]] Math, Bangalore

Talk:Bāṇaliñga

2015-01-28T00:17:53Z

Vishal J Mehta:

By Swami Harshananda

Bāṇaliñga literally means ‘liṅga of Bāṇa’.

==Occurence of Bāṇaliṅgas==
Bāṇaliṅgas are natural liṅgas of Śiva (svayambhu or self-manifest) made of crystallized quartz. They are generally found
in some sacred rivers like the Narmadā.

==Significance of Bāṇaliṅgas==
A legend goes that Śiva got them manifested at the special request of Bāṇāsura, a great devotee of his. It is hence named as ‘bāṇaliṅga’.

==Characteristics of Bāṇaliṅgas==
Though several stones shaped like a liṅga are found in the river Narmadā, not all of them are bāṇaliṅgas. Special characteristics are prescribed for them in order to determine which ones are true bāṇaliṅgas. The bāṇaliṅgas occur in many shapes, sizes and colors. They are hence given different names.
* The ‘āgneya-liñga’ will be rose in color and warm to touch.
* The ‘yāmya-liṅga’ is shaped like a cudgel.
* The ‘varuṇa-liñga’ is round in shape.
* The ‘raudra-liṅga’ resembles a piece of bone.
* The ‘vaiṣṇava-liṅga’ has variegated colors.
They are sometimes given different names of Śiva like Svayambhu, Mṛtyuñjaya or Nīlakaṇṭha depending upon their external characteristics.

==References==
{{reflist}}
* The Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Swami Harshananda, Ram Krishna Math, Bangalore

Balipratipadā

2015-01-28T00:15:38Z

Vishal J Mehta: Created page with "By Swami Harshananda ==Occurrence of Balipratipadā== Balipratipadā is considered as one of the three most holy days of the Calendar. It falls on the Kārttika ..."

By Swami Harshananda

==Occurrence of Balipratipadā==
Balipratipadā is considered as one of the three most holy days of the Calendar. It falls on the Kārttika śuklapratipad.<ref>First day of the bright fortnight of the month Kārttika, generally in November</ref> It is also one of the three days of the Dīpāvalī (also spelt as [[Divā]]lī) festival, or the festival of lights.

==Significance of Balipratipadā==
According to the mythology on this day [[Bali]], the emperor of the [[asuras]] or demons, was conquered by Lord [[Viṣṇu]] and was granted several boons because he was [[a]] great devotee.

==Rituals Observed on Balipratipadā==
[[Worship]] of an image of [[Bali]] along with his consort, Vindhyāvalī, is an important aspect of the festival, especially for kings. Gifts given on this day produce manifold results. Worship of cows, bulls and the Govardhana hill is performed on this day.

==Activities on Balipratipadā==
An activity called Dyṅtapratipadā is also performed on this day. In this activity, [[a]] Mārgapālī (literally, protector of the road), or a rope of kuśa grass between a pole and a tree is tied across a road. Then people pass under it and play with a dice. These are some of the activities generally observed during this festival. A paurāṇic story of the game of dice between Śiva and Pārvati seems to be at the back of this practice of dice-play. Hence this day is also called as ‘Dyṅtapratipadā’.

Sometimes, a ceremonial tug-of-war is also arranged in front of a temple or the palace, between the princely class and the common people. As per the ritual, the common people always win in the end, symbolizing their collective power. Occasionally, images of [[Agni]] and Brahmā are established on a ratha or chariot and worshiped. The chariot is then drawn round the streets of the town. Hence this festival is also called ‘Balipratipadā rathayātrāvrata’.

==References==
{{reflist}}
* The Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Swami Harshananda, Ram [[Krishna]] Math, Bangalore

Talk:Balipratipadā

2015-01-28T00:15:25Z

Vishal J Mehta:

By Swami Harshananda

==Occurrence of Balipratipadā==
Balipratipadā is considered as one of the three most holy days of the Calendar. It falls on the Kārttika śuklapratipad.<ref>First day of the bright fortnight of the month Kārttika, generally in November</ref> It is also one of the three days of the Dīpāvalī (also spelt as Divālī) festival, or the festival of lights.

==Significance of Balipratipadā==
According to the mythology on this day Bali, the emperor of the asuras or demons, was conquered by Lord Viṣṇu and was granted several boons because he was a great devotee.

==Rituals Observed on Balipratipadā==
Worship of an image of Bali along with his consort, Vindhyāvalī, is an important aspect of the festival, especially for kings. Gifts given on this day produce manifold results. Worship of cows, bulls and the Govardhana hill is performed on this day.

==Activities on Balipratipadā==
An activity called Dyṅtapratipadā is also performed on this day. In this activity, a Mārgapālī (literally, protector of the road), or a rope of kuśa grass between a pole and a tree is tied across a road. Then people pass under it and play with a dice. These are some of the activities generally observed during this festival. A paurāṇic story of the game of dice between Śiva and Pārvati seems to be at the back of this practice of dice-play. Hence this day is also called as ‘Dyṅtapratipadā’.

Sometimes, a ceremonial tug-of-war is also arranged in front of a temple or the palace, between the princely class and the common people. As per the ritual, the common people always win in the end, symbolizing their collective power. Occasionally, images of Agni and Brahmā are established on a ratha or chariot and worshiped. The chariot is then drawn round the streets of the town. Hence this festival is also called ‘Balipratipadā rathayātrāvrata’.

==References==
{{reflist}}
* The Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Swami Harshananda, Ram Krishna Math, Bangalore

Bālālaya

2015-01-28T00:05:01Z

Vishal J Mehta: moved from Discussion

By Swami Harshananda

[[Bālā]]laya literally means ‘little temple’.

[[Temples]], with their images, are built with materials like stone for durability. However, due to the ravages of time, weather, accidents or other reasons, occasionally they suffer from damage. When the temple structure or the image is damaged, repairs are needed. [[A]] provision has been made in the āgamas for the necessary ritualistic processes to transfer the ‘kalā’ or the power of the deity temporarily through a kalaśa (consecrated pitcher of water) to a new image installed in a new temple that is provisionally built for this purpose. Once the renovation work is completed, the ‘kalā’ is transferred back to the old renovated temple and image.

The temporary structure put up for this purpose to house the deity during the renovation work is called as "[[bālā]]laya" or "little temple". It is made so that the usual rituals can go on undisturbed. It is ‘small’ compared to the original structure, hence the designation. It is generally built in the front of the old temple, but to its left side, and its door facing the old one. It should have both [[a]] garbhagṛha (sanctum sanctorum) and a maṇḍ[[apa]] (hall) attached to it. The image may be made of either metal or wood. The entire process of consecration of the bālālaya is identical to that of any newly built temple.

Once the old temple is renovated, the kalā is transferred back to the old image in the renovated shrine, or to the new image installed there, if the old image had been damaged beyond repair. Care is taken to ensure that :
* The image of the bālālaya is burnt if it is made of wood
* The image is melted if it is made of metal and presented to the ācārya or preceptor.
* The old image of the original temple, if replaced, should be taken in a procession and immersed deeply in sea or river or lake.

==References==
{{reflist}}
* The Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Swami Harshananda, Ram [[Krishna]] Math, Bangalore

Talk:Bālālaya

2015-01-28T00:04:46Z

Vishal J Mehta:

By Swami Harshananda

Bālālaya literally means ‘little temple’.

Temples, with their images, are built with materials like stone for durability. However, due to the ravages of time, weather, accidents or other reasons, occasionally they suffer from damage. When the temple structure or the image is damaged, repairs are needed. A provision has been made in the āgamas for the necessary ritualistic processes to transfer the ‘kalā’ or the power of the deity temporarily through a kalaśa (consecrated pitcher of water) to a new image installed in a new temple that is provisionally built for this purpose. Once the renovation work is completed, the ‘kalā’ is transferred back to the old renovated temple and image.

The temporary structure put up for this purpose to house the deity during the renovation work is called as "bālālaya" or "little temple". It is made so that the usual rituals can go on undisturbed. It is ‘small’ compared to the original structure, hence the designation. It is generally built in the front of the old temple, but to its left side, and its door facing the old one. It should have both a garbhagṛha (sanctum sanctorum) and a maṇḍapa (hall) attached to it. The image may be made of either metal or wood. The entire process of consecration of the bālālaya is identical to that of any newly built temple.

Once the old temple is renovated, the kalā is transferred back to the old image in the renovated shrine, or to the new image installed there, if the old image had been damaged beyond repair. Care is taken to ensure that :
* The image of the bālālaya is burnt if it is made of wood
* The image is melted if it is made of metal and presented to the ācārya or preceptor.
* The old image of the original temple, if replaced, should be taken in a procession and immersed deeply in sea or river or lake.

==References==
{{reflist}}
* The Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Swami Harshananda, Ram Krishna Math, Bangalore

Bahvṛcopanisad

2015-01-27T23:56:57Z

Vishal J Mehta: moved from Discussion

By Swami Harshananda

==Contents of the Bahvṛcopanisad==
This is one of the minor Upaniṣads of recent origin (13th cent. [[A]]. D.) and is sectarian in character. It belongs to the Ṛgvedic tradition and deals with the Goddess Śakti. The entire Upaniṣad is short and written in prose, except for quotations. It deals with the first existence of beings and attributes of the Goddess Śakti.

==Creation of Beings==
In the beginning, the Devī or the Goddess alone existed. She created the Cosmic Egg. Many beings on the Earth were born from that egg. They are :
# Brahmā
# [[Viṣṇu]]
# Rudra
# Māruts - Wind-gods
# Gandharvas - Celestial minstrels
# [[Apsaras]] - Nymphs

==Efficacy of Goddess Śakti==
Śakti is the Supreme Power. She is the various [[arts]] and sciences like :
# The Sāmbhavī-vidyā - The science of Śambhu or God
# The Kādi-vidyā
# The Hādi-vidyā
# The Sādi-vidyā - Sciences related to the Divine Mother
She is [[Om]] and abides in the realm of words as their import. She is Mahātripurasundarī pervading the three bodies - the gross, the subtle and the causal as pure [[consciousness]]. She alone is the Ātman. Nothing exists apart from her. She is the contemplation of mahākavyas.

==Different names of Goddess Śakti==
She is called by various names. Some of them have been mentioned below :
# Bālā
# Ambikā
# Bagalā
# Mātaṅgī
# Bhuvaneśvari
# Cāmuṇḍā
# Vārāhi
# [[A]]śvārudhā
# Pratyañgirā
# Dhumāvati
# Sāvitrī
# Sarasvatī

==References==
{{reflist}}
* The Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Swami Harshananda, Ram [[Krishna]] Math, Bangalore

Talk:Bahvṛcopanisad

2015-01-27T23:56:25Z

Vishal J Mehta:

By Swami Harshananda

==Contents of Bahvṛcopanisad==
This is one of the minor Upaniṣads of recent origin (13th cent. A. D.) and is sectarian in character. It belongs to the Ṛgvedic tradition and deals with the Goddess Śakti. The entire Upaniṣad is short and written in prose, except for quotations. It deals with the first existence of beings and attributes of the Goddess Śakti.

==Creation of Beings==
In the beginning, the Devī or the Goddess alone existed. She created the Cosmic Egg. Many beings on the Earth were born from that egg. They are :
# Brahmā
# Viṣṇu
# Rudra
# Māruts - Wind-gods
# Gandharvas - Celestial minstrels
# Apsaras - Nymphs

==Efficacy of Goddess Śakti==
Śakti is the Supreme Power. She is the various arts and sciences like :
# The Sāmbhavī-vidyā - The science of Śambhu or God
# The Kādi-vidyā
# The Hādi-vidyā
# The Sādi-vidyā - Sciences related to the Divine Mother
She is Om and abides in the realm of words as their import. She is Mahātripurasundarī pervading the three bodies - the gross, the subtle and the causal as pure consciousness. She alone is the Ātman. Nothing exists apart from her. She is the contemplation of mahākavyas.

==Different names of Goddess Śakti==
She is called by various names. Some of them have been mentioned below :
# Bālā
# Ambikā
# Bagalā
# Mātaṅgī
# Bhuvaneśvari
# Cāmuṇḍā
# Vārāhi
# Aśvārudhā
# Pratyañgirā
# Dhumāvati
# Sāvitrī
# Sarasvatī

==References==
{{reflist}}
* The Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Swami Harshananda, Ram Krishna Math, Bangalore

Talk:Balarāma

2015-01-27T23:51:32Z

Vishal J Mehta:

By Swami Harshananda

Balarāma literally means ‘Rāma of strength’.

[[File:balarama.jpg|thumb|Balarāma]]

Balarāma was the elder brother of Kṛṣṇa. He was conceived as the seventh son of Devakī by Vasudeva. But the foetus was drawn out of her by Yogamāyā (divine power) and placed in the womb of Rohiṇī, the elder wife of Vasudeva, living at Nandagokula. So he was born as the son of Rohiṇī. Since he was extraordinarily strong, he was called ‘Balarāma’ (bala = strength). He had several other names like Saṅkarṣaṇa, Rauhiṇeya, Musalī, Hali, Nīlāmbara and so on.

As per the paurāṇic lore, he was the incarnation of Ādiśeṣa (the serpent on which Viṣṇu is resting in the Kṣīrasāgara or ocean of milk) came down to help Kṛṣṇa who was Viṣṇu himself. He was an expert in fighting with gadā or mace. The plough (halā) was his favorite weapon. The Bhāgavata describes several tales of his exploits. Along with Kṛṣṇa, he killed many demons like Pralamba, Dhenuka, Dvivida and Balvala.

After the killing of Kamsa by Kṛṣṇa, Balarāma got his formal education under the sage Sāndīpani. He married Revatī, the daughter of the king Revata. When the Kauravas of Hastināpura abducted Sāmba, a son of Kṛṣṇa, he personally rescued him. He taught gadā-vidyā (the science of fighting with the mace) to Bhīma (the second of the five Pāṇḍavas) and Duryodhana (the eldest of the Kauravas). He had a soft corner for his favorite student, Duryodhana.

During the Kurukṣetra (or Mahābhārata) war, he refused to participate and went away on a pilgrimage. He reappeared at the time of the duel between Bhīma and Duryodhana. He tried to prevent it but did not succeed. He got cross with Bhīma for having flouted the rules of mace-fighting but was pacified by Kṛṣṇa. When the Yādavas exterminated one another in mutual fighting, Balarāma sat in yogic stance and left the body in the form of a serpent, thus confirming that he was Ādiśeṣa.

==References==
{{reflist}}
* The Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Swami Harshananda, Ram Krishna Math, Bangalore

Talk:Bṛhadāranyaka Upaniṣad

2014-12-10T08:20:10Z

Vishal J Mehta: /* Introduction */

By Swami Harshananda

==Introduction==
Out of the three basic scriptures of the religion, the Upaniṣad called the prasthānatraya ranks first. In the group of ten Upaniṣads, the Bṛhadāranyaka and the Chāndogya occupy a unique place. These Upaniṣads not only delineate the fundamental principles of Vedānta but also describe a number of upāsanās or meditations. These are technically known as Vidyās.

The Bṛhadāranyaka Upaniṣad, as its very name suggests, is a large work (bṛhad = large, big) and forms an integral part of the well-known Śatapatha Brāhmana. Śatapatha Brāhmana belongs to the Śukla Yajurveda. It has two recensions:
# The Kānva - It has 17 kāṇḍas or sections. The six adhyāyas or chapters of the Bṛhadāranyaka form chapters 3 to 8 of the 17th kāṇḍa in the Kānva recension.
# The Mādhyandina - It has only 14 sections. The chapters 4 to 9 of the 14th kāṇḍa forms the Mādhyandina recension.

There are two ways into which this Upaniṣad can be divided. These are as follows:
# The adhyāyas are divided into khaṇḍas or brāhmaṇas which are subdivided into kaṇḍikās (similar to mantras). There are 435 kaṇḍikās distributed among the 47 brāhmaṇas of the 6 adhyāyas of this Upaniṣad.
# This Upaniṣad can also be divided into the first two adhyāyas which forms the Madhukānda, the middle two adhyāyas which form the Munikānda or the Yājñavalkyakānda and the last two adhyāyas which form the Khilakānda. These kāṇḍas deal with upadeśa (the teaching), upapatti (the argument) and upāsanā (the meditations and rites) respectively.

The Munikānda consists of almost half the total number of kaṇḍikās. It is the most important part of this Upaniṣad. The great thinker and sage Yājñavalkya, who is the principal person that appears here, has expounded brilliantly the philosophy of Ātman/Brahman. He has also described the several subtle aspects of related teachings. A chapter-wise summary of the work may now be attempted.

==First Chapter==
This chapter consists of six sections under the names of different brāhmaṇas.

===Aśva Brāhmaṇa===
Aśva-brāhmaṇa describes a special process of meditation wherein the various aspects of Prajāpati, the Creator are advised to be superimposed on the different limbs of the horse chosen for the Aśvamedha (horse-sacrifice). These aspects of the creator are:
# Kāla - Time
# Loka - The various worlds
# Devatā - The various deities
This meditation can transform the horse into Prajāpati himself in a spiritual sense. The ritual of the Aśvamedha can lead the performer to Brahmaloka or the world of Brahmā also known as Hiraṇyagarbha. Though only kings are competent to perform this sacrifice even others can attain the same result by imagining themselves to be the horse and superposing the various items on themselves as described.

===Agni Brāhmaṇa===
Agni-brāhmaṇa deals with the manifestation of agni or fire from Prajāpati and the method of contemplation on it just like Prajāpati himself. This leads to the fruit of mṛtyunjaya or conquest of death.

===Udgitha Brāhmaṇa===
Udgītha is the second and the most important part of a sāman sung by the priest ugdātṛ in a Soma sacrifice. In this chapter the importance of prāṇa and the vital force has been brought out by an allegorical story. The devas or gods wanted to conquer the asuras or demons by performing the Jyotiṣṭoma sacrifice. They employed sense-organs like speech, eyes, nose and mind to sing the udgītha for them. However the asuras succeeded in contaminating them through selfishness thereby defeating the purpose of the devas. When these asuras rushed towards the prāṇa, the chief vital force, they were destroyed. Prāṇa is not only the real power behind the sense-organs but also the essence of the Vedas and a replica of the cosmic Prāṇa.<ref>It is also known as Prajāpati or Hiraṇyagarbha</ref> By meditating on it, one can attain the world of Prajāpati. The speciality of this upāsanā or meditation is that it does not involve any rites or rituals.

===Purusavidha Brāhmaṇa===
Before creation, the entire universe was within the body of Puruṣa (Prajāpati or Virāj). It was undifferentiated from him. He desired for a mate. Out of this desire, he projected an another entity out of himself. This entity split itself into two, the male part called as Manu and the female part called as Satarapā. All the living beings were created due to their union. These beings include everything on this world from a human form to a minute ant. He however remained totally unaffected. He then realized that the created universe of beings was also himself. Later, he created the gods like Agni. The Puruṣa is the Supreme Self which is the reason of the whole creation. Whole world exists in it like a sword in its sheath or fire in the wood. It is he who is being manifested through all the activities of the body-mind complex. However the different activities like speaking are only the nomenclatures born out of the various types of functioning. He is the inmost self in us who is unaffected by the sense of actions or their fruits, which have been superimposed on him by avidyā or ignorance of his real nature. The sage Vāmadeva and many others like him realized that they were in the ultimate analysis, the Supreme Self. Then comes a classification of the gods. It is as follows:
# Agni is brāhmaṇa.
# Indra, Varuṇa, Soma, Yama and īśāna are kṣattriyas.
# Vasus, Rudras and Ādityas are vaiśyas.
# Puṣan is a śudra.
The human beings were born out of these four classes of gods. The Puruṣa or the Supreme Being also created dharma or righteousness (the Cosmic Law) to regulate them all. However, it is declared that an ajñāni or an ignorant person becomes an object of enjoyment for all. These ignorant ones are advised to discharge their debts to the gods and the others, through the pañcayajñas or the five daily sacrifices. The Upaniṣad also says that it is desire that binds a person and it is meditation on the Ātman or the Self alone that can deliver him. One who fails in this has to suffer much.

===Saptānna Brāhmaṇa===
Saptānna brāhmaṇa is the god of seven foods. The first anna or food is the usual physical food upon which all the living beings sustain themselves. Human beings have to consume food so that they can perform the prescribed religious rites which can give them the unseen results later on. If they do not perform these rites, they will be eating only sin. The second and the third annas are the huta and the prahuta sacrificial oblations and gifts given during the sacrifices. They are sometimes identified with the two sacrifices Darśa and Purṇamāsa meant for the gods. Milk is the fourth anna, specially meant for the animals. The last three annas or foods, were kept by Prajāpati for himself. They are:
# Vāk - Speech
# Manas - Mind
# Prāṇa - Vital force
Since they help him to create the worlds and sustain them, they are called ‘anna’. These three are then identified with the three worlds, the three Vedas, the three beings (gods, manes and human beings) and so on. In fact they comprise the whole world. One who meditates upon them as limited, attains the finite world while the one who meditates upon them as unlimited, obtains the infinite world. The Prajāpati or the Hiraṇyagarbha is himself the time. The Upaniṣad describes how the various organs like vāk or speech, competed against one another but were overcome by fatigue. However, prāṇa or the vital force was not affected by it. Hence the organs identified with it became immortal. Among the gods like Agni (fire), Āditya (Sun) and Candra (Moon), only Vāyu (air), the cosmic counterpart of prāṇa, could sustain itself in its work. If a person can meditate on the organs like speech (exists in all living beings) and the elements like fire (exist in this world) as identified with his own Self, he attains identity with Hiraṇyagarbha. He can also live in his world.

===Ukṭha Brāhmana===
Ukṭha Brāhmana declares that the whole universe is nothing but the forms like:
# Nāma - Name
# Rupa - Form
# Karma - Action
Like the three mutually supporting sticks, these three also support one another and help in manifesting each other. Since this universe is only an upādhi or limiting adjunct to Paramātman (the Supreme Self), anyone who is interested in it will not be inclined to meditate on him.

==Second Chapter==
This chapter comprises of six brāhmaṇas. It is more directly concerned with ātma-tattva or the knowledge of the Ātman. The well-known discourse by the great sage Yājñavalkya to his wife Maitreyī incidentally appears in the fourth chapter also. Though this section is shorter, it forms the core of this chapter.

===Ajātaśatru Brāhmaṇa===
This chapter starts with the legend of Bālāki. Bālāki was a very proud king of Kāśi. He was a descendent of Garga and Ajātaśatru. Bālāki proposed to teach Ajātaśatru about the Brahman. However, he just had the elementary knowledge concerned with the conditioned Brahman. He taught him about the topics like:
# The Being residing in the sun
# The Being residing in the moon
# The Being residing in the lightning
# The Being residing in the ether
# The Being residing in the air
But Ajātaśatru had more knowledge compared to him. So he also taught him about the unconditioned Brahman. He taught him the topics:
# In deep sleep all the sense organs like speech are absorbed in their sources. The individual Self is merged in the Supreme Self, the unconditioned Brahman.
# It then resembles a child or a great king or a worthy brāhmaṇa who has reached the acme of bliss.
# All the beings, the worlds and the gods emerge out of the Ātman, the Supreme Being, just as sparks spring from fire.

===Śiśu Brāhmaṇas===
His teachings mainly describes prāṇa or the vital force. Seven deities like Rudra and Āditya praises the prāṇa. He further describes prāṇa as:
# A calf whose body is its abode
# The head is its special place
# The vigor generated by food and drink is its post
# The food is its tether.

===Murtāmurta Brāhmaṇa===
This section is devoted to the description of the two forms of Brahman. By superimposing these two forms, the Supreme Brahman is made conceivable. The words ‘neti, neti’ (‘not this, not this’) deny all the limitations to Brahman and reveal its essential nature.
# One form is gross, mortal, limited and perceptible.
# The other form is subtle, immortal, unlimited and imperceptible.

===Maitreyī Brāhmaṇas===
This section denotes the story of Yājñavalkya and his two wives, Maitreyī and Kātyāyanī. It emphasizes on the importance of sanyāsa or monastic life to attain the Self. The sage Yājñavalkya intends to embrace the monastic life and hence wanted to divide his wealth between his two wives. Maitreyī learns that the wealth and the Vedic rites performed with the help of wealth cannot give her immortality. She rejects the offer of wealth and opts for ātmajñāna or the knowledge of the Self. Yājñavalkya teaches her that husband, wife, children, wealth, various worlds or the gods are dear to us only because of the Ātman or the Self in them and not by themselves. In order to realize this Ātman it has to be:
# Heard of from a qualified teacher - Śravaṇa
# Reflected upon - Manana
# Meditated upon - Nidi-dhyāsana
As it is not possible to grasp the special sources of either a drum, conch or lute without the grasping of sound in general, it is impossible to perceive anything in this world different from Brahman. Brahman is the basic reality. Yājñavalkya further asserts that the Vedas have emerged out of it. It exists in everything as homogeneous consciousness just as the salt exists everywhere in the water in which it has been dissolved. Perception of duality in this world is only apparent and has been caused by avidyā or ignorance of the Reality.

===Malchu Brāhmaṇas===
Malchu Brāhmaṇas sums up the import of the first two chapters. There is an elaborate account of the Ātman or the Self which is the ruler and king of all beings. Just as the spokes are fixed in the nave and the rim of a chariot wheel, all the beings, the gods and the worlds are fixed in the Supreme Self. The Sage Dadhyañ Ātharvaṇa taught this knowledge of the Self to the two Aśvins, the twin gods, through a temporary equine head. It ends with the essential teaching of all the Vedānta texts. The Self, though one, is perceived as manifold through māyā, his inscrutable power.

===Vamśa Brāhmaṇa===
Vamśa brāhmana gives the line of teachers beginning with Hiraṇyagarbha.

==Third Chapter==
A great king named Janaka Vaideha had just completed a big sacrifice called Bahudakṣiṇa. A large number of brāhmaṇas from the countries of Kuru and Pañcāla had come to participate in it. The King proposed to give a huge gift to the Brahmiṣtha (the most learned in Brahman or the Vedas) among them. He wanted to gift that Brahmiṣtha a thousand cows and on the horn of each cow he would tie ten gold coins. None of the assembled brāhmaṇas dared to accept the challenge except for Yājñavalkya. He even ordered his disciple Sāmaśrava to drive the cattle home! The assembly fell into a rage and started questioning him. All the sections of this chapter is the questions asked by different brāhmaṇas to sage Yājñavalkya. There are nine brāhmaṇas in this chapter.

===Aśvala Brāhmaṇas===
Aśvala was the first to pose eight questions to him. He was easily satisfied by the replies of the Yājñavalkya.

===Artabhāga Brāhmaṇas===
An another Vedic scholar, Ārtabhāga, asked six questions to sage Yājñavalkya. He answered them all to the satisfaction of the questioner. The last of these questions deals with the problem of the destination of the soul of a dead person. Yājñavalkya takes Ārtabhāga to a secluded place and the two finally conclude that it is karma that decides the future life of the soul of a dead person. Good karma leads to noble births and bad karma to ignoble ones.

===Bhujyu Brāhmaṇas===
To the questions of Bhujya brāhmaṇa, he replies that even the best of karmas or rites can also result in transmigration. Even if the karmas are accompanied by upāsanā or meditation, it cannot give mokṣa or freedom.

===Usasta Brāhmaṇas===
Uṣasta questions Yājñavalkya to tell him about Brahman which is sākṣāt (immediate) and aparokṣāt (direct). Yājñavalkya replies that it is the Ātman that works in the body through the five prāṇas or vital-airs. It is knowledgeable and hence cannot be seen or known like an external object.

===Kahola Brāhmaṇas===
In this section Yājñavalkya answers to the queries of Kahola brāhmaṇa. A further description of the Ātman is given here. It is described to be beyond:
# Hunger
# Thirst
# Sorrow
# Delusion
# Old age
# Death
The wise ones realize this Ātman and give up their desire for progeny, wealth and meritorious worlds. A realized soul is irrespective of his conduct. His brahmajñāna or knowledge of Brahman never ceases.

===Gārgi Brāhmaṇas===
This section consists of the questions posed by Gārgi, the daughter of Vacaknu and the answers given by Yājñavalkya. The questions were regarding the subtlety of the pañcabhutas or the five elements and the worlds right up to the Brahmaloka, the abode of Brahman. When she asks, ‘By what is the Brahmaloka pervaded?’ Yājñavalkya warns her not to proceed further since the nature of Brahman can be known only through the scriptures and the preceptor and never through logic or inference.

===Antaryāmi Brāhmaṇas===
This section deals with questions asked by the sage Uddālaka Āruṇi and answers given by the sage Yājñavalkya. He asked two questions to the sage:
# The first question was about the ‘antaratama-sutra’ or the inmost thread that passes through all the worlds and all the beings holding them together.
# The second question was about the Antaryāmin, the Being that dwells in all and controls them all.
Yājñavalkya replies that Vāyu is that sutra or thread. It is the Ātman that indwells all the worlds and all the beings. He resides in them and controls them even if they don't know him. He is the sākṣin or the eternal witness, the śrotṛ or the listener, the mantṛ or the thinker and the jñātṛ or the person having all the knowledge. However, he is not the object of cognition for any of the senses. He is the immortal Ātman. Everything else is perishable.

===Akṣara Brāhmaṇas===
This section again has the questions asked by Gārgī to the sage. She puts two questions to Yājñavalkya.
# The first question is: ‘What pervades that sutra which is above the heaven and below the earth as well as between them, and which was, is and will be?’ Yājñavalkya replies that it is ākāśa, the unmanifested ether.
# The second question is that what pervades this ākāśa? He answers that it is Akṣara, the indestructible.

Yājñavalkya describes Akṣara through several words revealing its unique qualities. It can be described only by such negative attributes since it can never be apprehended either by the senses or by the mind. It is:
# Asthula - Not gross
# Anaṇu - Not fine
# Ahrasva - Not short
# Adīrgha - Not long
# Atamah - Not darkness
# Anākāśam - Not ether
# Acakṣuṣkam - Without eyes
# Aprāṇam - Without the vital force
# Amanah - Without mind

Yājñavalkya further avers that, verily under the command of this Akṣara (the Absolute) only the sun, the moon and all the heavenly bodies are held in their positions and perform their allotted duties. Rivers, mountains, quarters, directions and even time itself has to keep to their duties. It is by the rule of this very Absolute that the lives of the human beings and the gods in heaven are being regulated. He concludes by saying that the performance of any rite or ritual without knowing this Akṣara is a waste and that the condition of one who leaves this world without realizing this Akṣara will be miserable. But the one who leaves this world after knowing this Akṣara will know about Brahman.

===Śākalya Brāhmaṇas===
This section conveys the immediacy and directness of the Brahman by a reference to the different enumerations of the gods who are ruled by it. In reply to Sākalya’s question about the number of gods, Yājñavalkya says that though there are ten or hundreds or thousands of gods; they are all the manifestations of one God only. This god is Hiraṇyagarbha who is the cosmic aspect of prāṇa or the vital force.

This God is one and at the same time many also. Hence, when the upāsaka (the worshiper) gets identified with Hiraṇyagarbha, he becomes all, the Self of all. Finally Yājñavalkya asks the assembled brāhmaṇas whether they know the root from which a dead person is reborn. The phenomenon is just like a tree that is cut off but springs up again from the original roots. They were ignorant of it. The Upaniṣad declares this root to be Brahman, the consciousness and the bliss. Brahman is the ultimate resort of all the human beings whether they perform the rituals or know the Brahman or not.

==Fourth Chapter==
This chapter comprises of six brāhmaṇas.

===Sadācārya Brāhmaṇa===
Yājñavalkya poses some questions to the king Janaka Vaideha. The king states the characteristics of a Brahman as he had learnt from six of his teachers. He posits different presiding deities to different sense organs as Brahman. Yājñavalkya rules them out as only partial manifestations of Brahman. They are:
# Agni -Speech
# Vāyu - Vital Air
# Āditya - Eyes
# Digdevatā - Ears
# Candra - Mind
# Prajāpati - Intellect

===Kurca Brāhmaṇa===
Yājñavalkya describes the avasthātraya or the three states of consciousness which the embodied ātman experiences. The three states of consciousness are designated as
# Jāgrat (waking state) - Viśva or Vaiśvānara
# Svapna (dream state) - Taijasa
# Suṣupti (deep-sleep state) - Prājña
Though the terms used in this section are different, the interpretation given by the commentators leads us to this conclusion.

===Jyotir Brāhmaṇa===
This section is fairly voluminous one comprising of 38 kaṇḍikas. The avasthātraya or the three states of consciousness, mentioned in the previous brāhmaṇa, is discussed in detail through yukti or logic and reasoning. For an ordinary human being endowed with the body and the senses, what is it that acts as a jyoti or light? This is the question that Janaka repeatedly asks Yājñavalkya. Yājñavalkya lists them one by one as:
# The sun
# The moon
# Fire
# Speech
# The Self or ātman
When questioned to the sage whether this ātman is associated with the body and the senses or not, Yājñavalkya says that just as a large fish swims alternately to both the banks of a river, ātman simulates the intellect and moves between the dream world and the waking world. Since the intellect is transparent and next to the ātman, it easily reflects the consciousness of the latter. Just as a crystal glows in the light of a lamp, the intellect also, though bereft of consciousness, appears to shine by the light or consciousness of the ātman. It is self-luminous. It is just like the luminaries the sun and the moon which are able to shine only by the light of the ātman.

Then follows the conception of dream according to the Vedānta. In the dream state, the Self puts aside the gross body of the waking state and creates a dream-body comprising the impressions of the waking state. Dreams are not new experiences of the waking state. Sometimes they may reflect the experiences of past lives also. The objects of the dream state are then and there created by the mind. Though the Self is dreaming, he has no direct connection with the physical body. Hence it is not advisable to suddenly wake up a sleeping person as it may endanger his life or senses. In dream, the Self merely witnesses the results of good and bad actions but does not actually experience them or do anything.

The ātman or the Self then enters the samprasāda or the suṣupti state, the state of deep-sleep. In this state he enjoys supreme peace and bliss. He merges himself in the Supreme Self. This is the nearest approximation to the state of Brahman. However, avidyā or ignorance does persist even in that state, though in an un-manifested form. Then follows a description of the sufferings of an aged or diseased body in order to rouse the spirit of renunciation in us. When the Self leaves the present body it takes up another self which is the reflection of it's own past work. This passing of the Self is analogous to the return of man from the dream to the waking state.

===Sāriraka Brāhmaṇa===
This section gives a detailed description of the transmigration of the jīva or the Self. At the time of death it withdraws from the sense-organs and comes to the heart. It then exits through one of the parts of the body. The potential results of upāsanā follows the jīva in its onward journey. They are:
# Meditation
# Karma (good and bad deeds)
# Vāsanās (past impressions)

Jīva creates for itself a new body like a goldsmith who prepares ornaments out of gold. Once the results of past deeds are exhausted, it returns to this world for new work. It should be noted that only a person with desires and cravings transmigrates. A person who has no cravings do not transmigrate. The latter is merged in Brahman, after casting off his body like a snake who casts off its slough.

The person knowing Brahman alone become immortal. There is no duality or multiplicity in Brahman. One who sees it otherwise transmigrates from death to death. The seeker of Brahman should not reflect on many words which only causes an exhaustion to the vocal cords. He should abjure all the vain talk. Other teachings given in this section are:
# In reality, the ātman is unaffected by good or bad deeds.
# Knowledge of this ātman alone can make a being a ‘muni’ or a sage.
# Seekers of liberation desire only the ātman and not the worlds of men, manes or gods. Hence they renounce their hearth and home and become monks.
# The ātman cannot be defined in positive terms. At best it can be described negatively as ‘neti’ (‘not this’).
# A person knowing the ātman is never beset with the thoughts of rewards or punishments for his past actions.
# Person knowing ātman is ever controlled, serene and free from desires. He sees the ātman in himself. He understand everything else as his own Self. He is free from all doubts and evils, ever blessed and absolutely fearless.

===Maitreyi Brāhmaṇa===
This section is for all the practical purposes a repetition of 2.4.

===Vamśa Brāhmaṇa===
This section traces the genealogy of the ācāryas or the teachers. Hiraṇyagarbha is the primeval teacher just like the Madhukānda.

==Fifth Chapter==
This chapter begins with the Khilakānda, the ‘supplementary book’. It introduces some auxiliary meditations which do not conflict with the rites but lead to worldly well-being and also krama-mukti or gradual liberation.

===First Brāhmaṇa===
This section starts with the well-known śāntimantra (peace-chant) ‘purṇamadah.’ The infinite universe has come out of the infinite Brahman. Even after realizing its identity with Brahman, it is left alone because the universe is sopādhika or conditioned Brahman. It has no real existence. The latter half deals with praṇavopāsana or meditation on Brahman with the Praṇava or Omkāra.

===Prājāpatya Brāhmaṇa===
It prescribes the cultivation of the three qualities as a part of upāsanā or meditation by the means of an interesting parable. They are:
# Dama - Self-control
# Dāna - Giving gifts
# Dayā - Showing compassion

===Hṛdaya Brāhmaṇa===
This section eulogizes the heart, the seat of the intellect.

===Fourth and Fifth Brāhmaṇa===
These section enjoins meditation on the hṛdaya-brahman as Satya (the Truth) and its eulogy. Meditations on the different parts of the body are also described. The akṣipuruṣa (the ocular being) or the jīva and the ādityapuruṣa or the solar being are the aspects of Satya-brahman. During death, the solar being withdraws his rays and hence the dying man sees the sun as an orb without its rays.

===Mano Brāhmaṇa===
This section describes about the meditations on vidyut (lightning) and vāk (speech or the Vedas) as Brahman.

===Ninth Brāhmaṇa===
The ninth brāhmaṇa recommends meditation on agni or fire as Vaiśvānara or Virāj.

===Gati Brāhmaṇa===
This section describes the goals of the above meditations, which resides in Brahmaloka throughout the life-time of Hiraṇyagarbha.

===Tapo Brāhmaṇa===
This section advises us to look upon illness or being carried for the funeral after death, as a tapas or penance, since it can destroy our sins.

===Twelfth Brāhmaṇa===
This section enjoins anna (food) and prāṇa (vital force). It denotes that both should be meditated upon as Brahman.

===Thirteenth Brāhmaṇa===
This section recommends meditations on the prāṇa as uktha (a recitation connected with Soma- yāga), yajus, sāman and kṣattra (the healer).

===Gāyatrī Brāhmaṇa===
This section describes meditation on Brahman as possessing the Gāyatrī and the upādhi or limiting adjunct. The four pādas or quarters of the Gāyatrī are identified respectively with the three worlds, the three Vedas, the three prāṇas or vital-airs and āditya or the sun. This will result in various divine fruits.

===Fifteenth Brāhmaṇa===
This section contains a prayer to Āditya or the Sun and Agni or the fire by a dying man who has combined meditation with the rites (jñāna-karma-samuccaya) for the removal of the obstacles to his journey on the uttarāyaṇa or the northern path, after death.

==Sixth Chapter==
There are six brāhmaṇas in this chapter.

===Prānasamvāda Brāhmaṇa===
This section demonstrates through an allegory that the prāṇa or the vital force, is the eldest and the best of all the organs. Once, a dispute arose among the sense-organs like the eye and the speech, as to which of them was the greatest. They approached Prajāpati for the adjudication. He stated that the greatest among them was that organ by whose departure the body would be rendered more impure. The departure of vāk (speech), cakṣus (the eyes), śrotra (the ears), retas (organ of generation) and manas (the mind), one by one, did not make the body more impure. It continued to live. But, when prāṇa (also called mukhyaprāṇa) tried to depart, all the other organs were also pulled out of their places of residence. Hence it was decided that the prāṇa or the vital force was the best.

===Karmavipāka Brāhmaṇa===
This section teaches the Pañcāgni-vidyā or the Doctrine of the Five Fires. Śvetaketu, the proud son of the sage Gautama Āruṇi, goes to the court of the king Pravāhaṇa Jaivali to exhibit his learning. However, when the king puts him five questions, he is unable to answer any of them. Crest-fallen, he returns to his father and objects him of not having taught this subject. Since Gautama too did not know this science, he chooses to go to the king to learn it from him. The king teaches him Pañcāgnividyā or the Doctrine of the Five Fires. The five fires are:
# Dyuloka - Heaven
# Parjanya - Rain
# This loka or world
# Puruṣa - Man
# Yaṣā - Woman
Householders who know this meditation on the Five Fires and the hermits who meditate with faith on the Hiraṇyagarbha, go to Brahmaloka by the Uttarāyaṇa, the northern path (also called Devayāna and Arcirādimārga). It will not return to this world again. Those who practice sacrifices and penances and give gifts will travel along the path of smoke (called Dhumādimārga or the Dakṣiṇāyana or Pitṛyāna) to the Pitṛloka, the world of manes.

After exhausting the results of their good deeds there, they would return to this world. They rotate like a Persian Wheel in the circle of transmigration, till they attain the Devayāna or immediate liberation. The rest, the ignorant ones, are born as moths, insects and so on.

===Srimantha Brāhmaṇa===
It describes the rite of Srīmantha (the paste for prosperity) as a means to attaining greatness and thereby, wealth, which is needed to perform the Vedic rituals. There is also the eulogy of this rite and the line of teachers.

===Fifth Brāhmaṇa===
It describes the Putramantha rite, by which a house-holder can get a worthy son or a worthy daughter. Only the performer of the Srīmantha rite is eligible to conduct this rite.

===Vamśa-brāhmana===
It describes the long line of teachers from Hiraṇyagarbha up to Pautimāṣīputra.

==Conclusion==
The Bṛhadāranyaka Upaniṣad occupies a pre-eminent place among the Upaniṣads not only for its size but also for its teachings. Almost all the aspects of the teachings of Vedānta-4-Brahman/Ātman find a place in it. They are:
# Creation
# Nature of the individual soul and its destiny
# Theory of karma
# Analysis of the three states of consciousness
# Various modes of Upaniṣadic meditations
# Characteristics of a liberated being

The Upaniṣad also throws some interesting light on the contemporary society. There were great sages and men of learning devoted to their respective fields of knowledge who would also meet occasionally, either for disputation or for exchange of ideas. Noble kings like Janaka, Pravahaṇa Jaivali and Ajataśatru themselves were eminent men of learning. They provided opportunities for such sages to gather in their courts and also rewarded them generously. Women, earnestly interested in Vedic learning, austerity or even self-knowledge had easy access to it, as shown by the instances of Maitreyī (a housewife) and Gārgī (a brahmavādinī, student of Vedic learning).

The fact that Gārgī was also one among the sages that had assembled in the court of the king Janaka and had dared to question Yājñavalkya, speaks volumes about the high status of women during the Vedic period. The myth that the ancient people always craved for sons and looked down upon daughters has been exploded in the mantra 6.4.17 wherein the desire of the parents for a learned daughter (paṇḍitā duhitā) has been clearly stated.

The Upaniṣad also places frankly before us the examples of men of conceit born out of their scholarship or high birth (eg., Dṛpta Bālāki and Svetaketu) on the one hand and persons of great humility and culture who were never averse to learning from the others even though they may be inferior in the social hierarchy of those days (eg., Gautama) on the other.
References of the powerful horses of Sindhu country, the chariots, kings and their big retinue, cows, gold coins and various kinds of spiritual sciences and rituals bespeak of a high degree of civilization and culture.

One can safely say that the Bṛhadāranyaka Upaniṣad represents a landmark in the development of early philosophical literature of the country.

==References==
{{reflist}}
* The Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Swami Harshananda, Ram Krishna Math, Bangalore

Brahmavidyā Upaniṣad

2014-12-10T07:39:16Z

Vishal J Mehta: moved from Discussion

By Swami Harshananda

==Contents of Brahmavidyā Upaniṣad==
This is one of the minor Upaniṣads belonging to the Kṛṣna [[Yajurveda]]. It is [[a]] fairly large work of 110 ślokas or verses in the [[anu]]ṣṭubh meter. The topics dealt with in this Upaniṣad are:
# The Praṇava or Oṅkāra
# The Haiṅsamantra (so’ham hamsah)
# Various aspects of meditation on these two mantras

==Technique of Observing Praṇava==
The Upaniṣad starts with an exposition of Praṇava, its four parts and contemplations connected with them. Just as the [[sound]] of [[a]] gong or a bell (made of bell metal) gradually gets attenuated finally merging into the infinite sound or infinite silence, the mind of a yogi who utters the Praṇava (Orh), lengthening it over sixteen mātrās or instants of time, simultaneously concentrating his mind on that sound, also gets dissolved in [[Brahman]]. Brahman is the final goal of praṇava-[[japa]].

==Technique of Hamsavidyā==
Hamsavidyā is the next topic to be discussed. The words ‘harī’ and ‘sah’ represent the jīvātman (the individual self) and Parmātman or Brahman (the Supreme Self) respectively. The natural breathing process of inhalation and exhalation should be mentally connected with the two words ‘ham’ and ‘sah’. Then the process of breathing itself gets converted into japa (repetition of divine name) ultimately resulting in the experience of the unity of the two. This is Hamsavidyā.

==Techniques for Absorbing the Upaniṣad==
This Upaniṣad stresses that the ātman can be known only through the śruti (the scripture or the [[Vedas]]) and the ācārya (spiritual preceptor). It further describes three types of ācāryas
# The Codaka - It is actually the Vedas which impel a person to take to the spiritual path.
# The Bodhaka - It is the teacher who teaches the disciple, ‘Thou art That.’
# The Mokṣada - It is the Lord himself, since it is only he that can give mokṣa or liberation.

==Conclusion==
Here, the Upaniṣad declares that it is in the heart alone that one realizes this ‘Hamsa’ or the Lord who is the indwelling spirit.
The work concludes with a long, highly poetical, soliloquy by the knower of the Self, the gist of which is that he exists in all and he himself is everything.

==References==
{{reflist}}
* The Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Swami Harshananda, Ram [[Krishna]] Math, Bangalore

Talk:Brahmavidyā Upaniṣad

2014-12-10T07:38:40Z

Vishal J Mehta: /* Techniques for Absorbing Upaniṣad */

By Swami Harshananda

==Contents of Brahmavidyā Upaniṣad==
This is one of the minor Upaniṣads belonging to the Kṛṣna Yajurveda. It is a fairly large work of 110 ślokas or verses in the anuṣṭubh meter. The topics dealt with in this Upaniṣad are:
# The Praṇava or Oṅkāra
# The Haiṅsamantra (so’ham hamsah)
# Various aspects of meditation on these two mantras

==Technique of Observing Praṇava==
The Upaniṣad starts with an exposition of Praṇava, its four parts and contemplations connected with them. Just as the sound of a gong or a bell (made of bell metal) gradually gets attenuated finally merging into the infinite sound or infinite silence, the mind of a yogi who utters the Praṇava (Orh), lengthening it over sixteen mātrās or instants of time, simultaneously concentrating his mind on that sound, also gets dissolved in Brahman. Brahman is the final goal of praṇava-japa.

==Technique of Hamsavidyā==
Hamsavidyā is the next topic to be discussed. The words ‘harī’ and ‘sah’ represent the jīvātman (the individual self) and Parmātman or Brahman (the Supreme Self) respectively. The natural breathing process of inhalation and exhalation should be mentally connected with the two words ‘ham’ and ‘sah’. Then the process of breathing itself gets converted into japa (repetition of divine name) ultimately resulting in the experience of the unity of the two. This is Hamsavidyā.

==Techniques for Absorbing the Upaniṣad==
This Upaniṣad stresses that the ātman can be known only through the śruti (the scripture or the Vedas) and the ācārya (spiritual preceptor). It further describes three types of ācāryas
# The Codaka - It is actually the Vedas which impel a person to take to the spiritual path.
# The Bodhaka - It is the teacher who teaches the disciple, ‘Thou art That.’
# The Mokṣada - It is the Lord himself, since it is only he that can give mokṣa or liberation.

==Conclusion==
Here, the Upaniṣad declares that it is in the heart alone that one realizes this ‘Hamsa’ or the Lord who is the indwelling spirit.
The work concludes with a long, highly poetical, soliloquy by the knower of the Self, the gist of which is that he exists in all and he himself is everything.

==References==
{{reflist}}
* The Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Swami Harshananda, Ram Krishna Math, Bangalore

Talk:Brahmavidyā Upaniṣad

2014-12-10T07:35:24Z

Vishal J Mehta: /* Technique of Hamsavidyā */

By Swami Harshananda

==Contents of Brahmavidyā Upaniṣad==
This is one of the minor Upaniṣads belonging to the Kṛṣna Yajurveda. It is a fairly large work of 110 ślokas or verses in the anuṣṭubh meter. The topics dealt with in this Upaniṣad are:
# The Praṇava or Oṅkāra
# The Haiṅsamantra (so’ham hamsah)
# Various aspects of meditation on these two mantras

==Technique of Observing Praṇava==
The Upaniṣad starts with an exposition of Praṇava, its four parts and contemplations connected with them. Just as the sound of a gong or a bell (made of bell metal) gradually gets attenuated finally merging into the infinite sound or infinite silence, the mind of a yogi who utters the Praṇava (Orh), lengthening it over sixteen mātrās or instants of time, simultaneously concentrating his mind on that sound, also gets dissolved in Brahman. Brahman is the final goal of praṇava-japa.

==Technique of Hamsavidyā==
Hamsavidyā is the next topic to be discussed. The words ‘harī’ and ‘sah’ represent the jīvātman (the individual self) and Parmātman or Brahman (the Supreme Self) respectively. The natural breathing process of inhalation and exhalation should be mentally connected with the two words ‘ham’ and ‘sah’. Then the process of breathing itself gets converted into japa (repetition of divine name) ultimately resulting in the experience of the unity of the two. This is Hamsavidyā.

==Techniques for Absorbing Upaniṣad==
This Upaniṣad stresses that the ātman can be known only through the śruti (the scripture or the Vedas) and the ācārya (spiritual preceptor). It further describes three types of ācāryas
# The Codaka - It is actually the Vedas which impel a person to take to the spiritual path.
# The Bodhaka - It is the teacher who teaches the disciple, ‘Thou art That.’
# The Mokṣada - It is the Lord himself, since it is only he that can give mokṣa or liberation.

==Conclusion==
Here, the Upaniṣad declares that it is in the heart alone that one realizes this ‘Hamsa’ or the Lord who is the indwelling spirit.
The work concludes with a long, highly poetical, soliloquy by the knower of the Self, the gist of which is that he exists in all and he himself is everything.

==References==
{{reflist}}
* The Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Swami Harshananda, Ram Krishna Math, Bangalore

Talk:Brahmavidyā Upaniṣad

2014-12-10T07:33:11Z

Vishal J Mehta: /* Technique of Observing Praṇava */

By Swami Harshananda

==Contents of Brahmavidyā Upaniṣad==
This is one of the minor Upaniṣads belonging to the Kṛṣna Yajurveda. It is a fairly large work of 110 ślokas or verses in the anuṣṭubh meter. The topics dealt with in this Upaniṣad are:
# The Praṇava or Oṅkāra
# The Haiṅsamantra (so’ham hamsah)
# Various aspects of meditation on these two mantras

==Technique of Observing Praṇava==
The Upaniṣad starts with an exposition of Praṇava, its four parts and contemplations connected with them. Just as the sound of a gong or a bell (made of bell metal) gradually gets attenuated finally merging into the infinite sound or infinite silence, the mind of a yogi who utters the Praṇava (Orh), lengthening it over sixteen mātrās or instants of time, simultaneously concentrating his mind on that sound, also gets dissolved in Brahman. Brahman is the final goal of praṇava-japa.

==Technique of Hamsavidyā==
Hamsavidyā is the next topic taken up. The words ‘harī’ and ‘sah’ represent the jīvātman (the individual self) and Parmātman or Brahman (the Supreme Self) respectively. The natural breathing process of inhalation and exhalation should be mentally connected with the two words ‘ham’ and ‘sah’. Then the process of breathing itself gets converted into japa (repetition of divine name) ultimately resulting in the experience of the unity of the two. This is Hamsavidyā.

==Techniques for Absorbing Upaniṣad==
This Upaniṣad stresses that the ātman can be known only through the śruti (the scripture or the Vedas) and the ācārya (spiritual preceptor). It further describes three types of ācāryas
# The Codaka - It is actually the Vedas which impel a person to take to the spiritual path.
# The Bodhaka - It is the teacher who teaches the disciple, ‘Thou art That.’
# The Mokṣada - It is the Lord himself, since it is only he that can give mokṣa or liberation.

==Conclusion==
Here, the Upaniṣad declares that it is in the heart alone that one realizes this ‘Hamsa’ or the Lord who is the indwelling spirit.
The work concludes with a long, highly poetical, soliloquy by the knower of the Self, the gist of which is that he exists in all and he himself is everything.

==References==
{{reflist}}
* The Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Swami Harshananda, Ram Krishna Math, Bangalore

Brahma-vaivarta-purāṇa

2014-12-10T07:31:14Z

Vishal J Mehta: moved from Discussion

By Swami Harshananda

==Significance of [[Brahma]]-vaivarta-purāṇ[[a]]==
Modern religion, though rooted in the [[Vedas]] and the Vedānta, is deeply influenced by the purāṇas, at least on the practical side. The Brahma-vaivarta-purāṇ[[a]] is a type of purāṇa that is often quoted by the writers of the [[dharma]]śāstras while dealing with topics like castes, gifts, vratas (religious vows during festival days), descriptions of narakas or hells for transgression of dharma and so on. The original part of the purāṇa may be ancient. However, the extant edition, as available in print, seems to have evolved over the period A.D. 800-1600.

It is probable that this purāṇa may have acquired this title because it treats the created world as only a vivarta of or an appearance in [[Brahman]], the Absolute. It is a fairly voluminous work comprising 18,000 verses spread over four khaṇdas or books, the total number of chapters being 276.

==Sections of [[Brahma]]-vaivarta-purāṇa==
This purāṇa is divided into 4 sections or books. They are:
# Brahmakhanda
# Prakrtikhanda
# Gaṇapatikhanda
# Śri-Kṛṣna-janma-khanda

==Brahmakhanda, The First Book==
The first book is called Brahmakhanda. It gives a gist of the contents of the entire work. It declares that it is Śrī Kṛṣṇa who is the creator of the entire universe and that his world, the Goloka, is the highest of all the divine abodes. Even Vaikuṇtha and Kailāsa are considered inferior to it. A detailed account of creation which includes the emanation of other [[deities]] like Nārāyaṇa, Śaṅkara or Śiva, Brahmā and [[Dharma]]-puruṣa, along with goddesses like [[Murti]], Lakṣmī, Sarasvatī, Durgā and Sāvitrī is also given. Other topics dealt with in this book include:
# [[Ayurveda]] (science of health)
# [[Worship]] of Śāligrāma (the stone symbol of [[Viṣṇu]])
# Austerities to be practiced by the sanyāsins and widows
# Philosophical teachings concerning the ultimate identity of the jīva (individual soul) with [[Brahman]]
# Description of the Goloka

==Prakṛtikhanda, The Second Book==
Prakṛtikhanda, the second book, deals with the mulaprakṛti or the Mother Nature, who is pictured as the consort of God, forming the left part of his body. She evolves into five goddesses:
# Rādha
# Durgā
# Lakṣmī
# Sarasvatī
# Sāvitrī

God or Puruṣa splits himself into Śri Kṛṣṇa and Nārāyaṇa. Later, Brahmā and Śiva also emanate from him. Mulaprakṛti gives birth to a golden egg from which emerges Mahāvirāt, the Cosmic Being that creates the worlds. Like the previous khaṇḍa, a number of miscellaneous subjects have been dealt with in this one:
# Stories of various female [[deities]] including the river-goddesses
# [[Worship]] and meditation concerning [[Bhumi]] or Mother Earth
# Merits of a bath in the Gaṅgā River
# Importance of the tulasī leaves and rules concerning its use
# Details of the various śāligrāma stones
# The well-known story of Sāvitri and Satyavān
# [[Karma]] and its effects
# Descriptions of narakas or hells
# Detailed information about the growth of the human foetus in the womb
# Story of Durgā in brief
# Details about Durgā's worship

==Gaṇapatikhanda, The Third Book==
This book deals mainly with the following topics:
# Birth and exploits of Gaṇapati and Saṇmukha
# The two sons of Śiva and Pārvatī
# The story of Paraśurāma (the Rāma of the battle-axe)
# Beautiful hymns in praise of Gaṇapati

==Śri-Kṛṣna-janma-khanda, The Fourth Book==
Śri-Kṛṣna-janma-khanda is the most voluminous book of all. Though the story of Kṛṣṇa follows the one told in the [[Bhāgavata]], the amorous deeds of Rādhā and Kṛṣṇa are portrayed prominently. Other topics dealt with in this book are:
# Stories of Ambarīṣa and Durvāsa
# Stories of [[Aṣṭāvakra]] and Śrī Rāma
# Evil omens indicated by bad dreams
# Duties of the people belonging to the four varṇas
# Special code of conduct for the widows
# Foods fit and unfit for consuming
# Description of Kaliyuga or the Iron Age
# Greatness of the country of [[Bhārata]]
# The science of architecture
The last chapter of this book gives a list of eighteen major purāṇas along with the total number of verses in each of them.
A special feature of this purāṇa is that it gives several important mantras (esoteric formulas) along with their usage.

==References==
{{reflist}}
* The Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Swami Harshananda, Ram [[Krishna]] Math, Bangalore

Talk:Brahma-vaivarta-purāṇa

2014-12-10T07:30:27Z

Vishal J Mehta: /* Śri-Kṛṣna-janma-khanda, The Fourth Book */

By Swami Harshananda

==Significance of Brahma-vaivarta-purāṇa==
Modern religion, though rooted in the Vedas and the Vedānta, is deeply influenced by the purāṇas, at least on the practical side. The Brahma-vaivarta-purāṇa is a type of purāṇa that is often quoted by the writers of the dharmaśāstras while dealing with topics like castes, gifts, vratas (religious vows during festival days), descriptions of narakas or hells for transgression of dharma and so on. The original part of the purāṇa may be ancient. However, the extant edition, as available in print, seems to have evolved over the period A.D. 800-1600.

It is probable that this purāṇa may have acquired this title because it treats the created world as only a vivarta of or an appearance in Brahman, the Absolute. It is a fairly voluminous work comprising 18,000 verses spread over four khaṇdas or books, the total number of chapters being 276.

==Sections of Brahma-vaivarta-purāṇa==
This purāṇa is divided into 4 sections or books. They are:
# Brahmakhanda
# Prakrtikhanda
# Gaṇapatikhanda
# Śri-Kṛṣna-janma-khanda

==Brahmakhanda, The First Book==
The first book is called Brahmakhanda. It gives a gist of the contents of the entire work. It declares that it is Śrī Kṛṣṇa who is the creator of the entire universe and that his world, the Goloka, is the highest of all the divine abodes. Even Vaikuṇtha and Kailāsa are considered inferior to it. A detailed account of creation which includes the emanation of other deities like Nārāyaṇa, Śaṅkara or Śiva, Brahmā and Dharma-puruṣa, along with goddesses like Murti, Lakṣmī, Sarasvatī, Durgā and Sāvitrī is also given. Other topics dealt with in this book include:
# Ayurveda (science of health)
# Worship of Śāligrāma (the stone symbol of Viṣṇu)
# Austerities to be practiced by the sanyāsins and widows
# Philosophical teachings concerning the ultimate identity of the jīva (individual soul) with Brahman
# Description of the Goloka

==Prakṛtikhanda, The Second Book==
Prakṛtikhanda, the second book, deals with the mulaprakṛti or the Mother Nature, who is pictured as the consort of God, forming the left part of his body. She evolves into five goddesses:
# Rādha
# Durgā
# Lakṣmī
# Sarasvatī
# Sāvitrī

God or Puruṣa splits himself into Śri Kṛṣṇa and Nārāyaṇa. Later, Brahmā and Śiva also emanate from him. Mulaprakṛti gives birth to a golden egg from which emerges Mahāvirāt, the Cosmic Being that creates the worlds. Like the previous khaṇḍa, a number of miscellaneous subjects have been dealt with in this one:
# Stories of various female deities including the river-goddesses
# Worship and meditation concerning Bhumi or Mother Earth
# Merits of a bath in the Gaṅgā River
# Importance of the tulasī leaves and rules concerning its use
# Details of the various śāligrāma stones
# The well-known story of Sāvitri and Satyavān
# Karma and its effects
# Descriptions of narakas or hells
# Detailed information about the growth of the human foetus in the womb
# Story of Durgā in brief
# Details about Durgā's worship

==Gaṇapatikhanda, The Third Book==
This book deals mainly with the following topics:
# Birth and exploits of Gaṇapati and Saṇmukha
# The two sons of Śiva and Pārvatī
# The story of Paraśurāma (the Rāma of the battle-axe)
# Beautiful hymns in praise of Gaṇapati

==Śri-Kṛṣna-janma-khanda, The Fourth Book==
Śri-Kṛṣna-janma-khanda is the most voluminous book of all. Though the story of Kṛṣṇa follows the one told in the Bhāgavata, the amorous deeds of Rādhā and Kṛṣṇa are portrayed prominently. Other topics dealt with in this book are:
# Stories of Ambarīṣa and Durvāsa
# Stories of Aṣṭāvakra and Śrī Rāma
# Evil omens indicated by bad dreams
# Duties of the people belonging to the four varṇas
# Special code of conduct for the widows
# Foods fit and unfit for consuming
# Description of Kaliyuga or the Iron Age
# Greatness of the country of Bhārata
# The science of architecture
The last chapter of this book gives a list of eighteen major purāṇas along with the total number of verses in each of them.
A special feature of this purāṇa is that it gives several important mantras (esoteric formulas) along with their usage.

==References==
{{reflist}}
* The Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Swami Harshananda, Ram Krishna Math, Bangalore

Talk:Brahma-vaivarta-purāṇa

2014-12-10T07:27:38Z

Vishal J Mehta: /* Prakṛtikhanda, The Second Book */

By Swami Harshananda

==Significance of Brahma-vaivarta-purāṇa==
Modern religion, though rooted in the Vedas and the Vedānta, is deeply influenced by the purāṇas, at least on the practical side. The Brahma-vaivarta-purāṇa is a type of purāṇa that is often quoted by the writers of the dharmaśāstras while dealing with topics like castes, gifts, vratas (religious vows during festival days), descriptions of narakas or hells for transgression of dharma and so on. The original part of the purāṇa may be ancient. However, the extant edition, as available in print, seems to have evolved over the period A.D. 800-1600.

It is probable that this purāṇa may have acquired this title because it treats the created world as only a vivarta of or an appearance in Brahman, the Absolute. It is a fairly voluminous work comprising 18,000 verses spread over four khaṇdas or books, the total number of chapters being 276.

==Sections of Brahma-vaivarta-purāṇa==
This purāṇa is divided into 4 sections or books. They are:
# Brahmakhanda
# Prakrtikhanda
# Gaṇapatikhanda
# Śri-Kṛṣna-janma-khanda

==Brahmakhanda, The First Book==
The first book is called Brahmakhanda. It gives a gist of the contents of the entire work. It declares that it is Śrī Kṛṣṇa who is the creator of the entire universe and that his world, the Goloka, is the highest of all the divine abodes. Even Vaikuṇtha and Kailāsa are considered inferior to it. A detailed account of creation which includes the emanation of other deities like Nārāyaṇa, Śaṅkara or Śiva, Brahmā and Dharma-puruṣa, along with goddesses like Murti, Lakṣmī, Sarasvatī, Durgā and Sāvitrī is also given. Other topics dealt with in this book include:
# Ayurveda (science of health)
# Worship of Śāligrāma (the stone symbol of Viṣṇu)
# Austerities to be practiced by the sanyāsins and widows
# Philosophical teachings concerning the ultimate identity of the jīva (individual soul) with Brahman
# Description of the Goloka

==Prakṛtikhanda, The Second Book==
Prakṛtikhanda, the second book, deals with the mulaprakṛti or the Mother Nature, who is pictured as the consort of God, forming the left part of his body. She evolves into five goddesses:
# Rādha
# Durgā
# Lakṣmī
# Sarasvatī
# Sāvitrī

God or Puruṣa splits himself into Śri Kṛṣṇa and Nārāyaṇa. Later, Brahmā and Śiva also emanate from him. Mulaprakṛti gives birth to a golden egg from which emerges Mahāvirāt, the Cosmic Being that creates the worlds. Like the previous khaṇḍa, a number of miscellaneous subjects have been dealt with in this one:
# Stories of various female deities including the river-goddesses
# Worship and meditation concerning Bhumi or Mother Earth
# Merits of a bath in the Gaṅgā River
# Importance of the tulasī leaves and rules concerning its use
# Details of the various śāligrāma stones
# The well-known story of Sāvitri and Satyavān
# Karma and its effects
# Descriptions of narakas or hells
# Detailed information about the growth of the human foetus in the womb
# Story of Durgā in brief
# Details about Durgā's worship

==Gaṇapatikhanda, The Third Book==
This book deals mainly with the following topics:
# Birth and exploits of Gaṇapati and Saṇmukha
# The two sons of Śiva and Pārvatī
# The story of Paraśurāma (the Rāma of the battle-axe)
# Beautiful hymns in praise of Gaṇapati

==Śri-Kṛṣna-janma-khanda, The Fourth Book==
Śri-Kṛṣna-janma-khanda is the voluminous book of all. Though the story of Kṛṣṇa follows the one given in the Bhāgavata, the amorous deeds of Rādhā and Kṛṣṇa are portrayed prominently. Other topics dealt with in this book are:
# Stories of Ambarīṣa and Durvāsa
# Stories of Aṣṭāvakra and Śrī Rāma
# Evil omens indicated by bad dreams
# Duties of the people belonging to the four varṇas
# Special code of conduct for the widows
# Foods fit and unfit for consuming
# Description of Kaliyuga or the Iron Age
# Greatness of the country of Bhārata
# The science of architecture
The last chapter of this book gives a list of eighteen major purāṇas along with the total number of verses in each of them.
A special feature of this purāṇa is that it gives several important mantras (esoteric formulae) along with their usage.

==References==
{{reflist}}
* The Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Swami Harshananda, Ram Krishna Math, Bangalore

Talk:Brahma-vaivarta-purāṇa

2014-12-10T07:23:18Z

Vishal J Mehta: /* Brahmakhanda, The First Book */

By Swami Harshananda

==Significance of Brahma-vaivarta-purāṇa==
Modern religion, though rooted in the Vedas and the Vedānta, is deeply influenced by the purāṇas, at least on the practical side. The Brahma-vaivarta-purāṇa is a type of purāṇa that is often quoted by the writers of the dharmaśāstras while dealing with topics like castes, gifts, vratas (religious vows during festival days), descriptions of narakas or hells for transgression of dharma and so on. The original part of the purāṇa may be ancient. However, the extant edition, as available in print, seems to have evolved over the period A.D. 800-1600.

It is probable that this purāṇa may have acquired this title because it treats the created world as only a vivarta of or an appearance in Brahman, the Absolute. It is a fairly voluminous work comprising 18,000 verses spread over four khaṇdas or books, the total number of chapters being 276.

==Sections of Brahma-vaivarta-purāṇa==
This purāṇa is divided into 4 sections or books. They are:
# Brahmakhanda
# Prakrtikhanda
# Gaṇapatikhanda
# Śri-Kṛṣna-janma-khanda

==Brahmakhanda, The First Book==
The first book is called Brahmakhanda. It gives a gist of the contents of the entire work. It declares that it is Śrī Kṛṣṇa who is the creator of the entire universe and that his world, the Goloka, is the highest of all the divine abodes. Even Vaikuṇtha and Kailāsa are considered inferior to it. A detailed account of creation which includes the emanation of other deities like Nārāyaṇa, Śaṅkara or Śiva, Brahmā and Dharma-puruṣa, along with goddesses like Murti, Lakṣmī, Sarasvatī, Durgā and Sāvitrī is also given. Other topics dealt with in this book include:
# Ayurveda (science of health)
# Worship of Śāligrāma (the stone symbol of Viṣṇu)
# Austerities to be practiced by the sanyāsins and widows
# Philosophical teachings concerning the ultimate identity of the jīva (individual soul) with Brahman
# Description of the Goloka

==Prakṛtikhanda, The Second Book==
Prakṛtikhanda, the second book, deals with the mṅlaprakṛti or the Mother Nature, who is pictured as the consort of God, forming the left part of his body. She evolves into five goddesses:
# Rādha
# Durgā
# Lakṣmī
# Sarasvatī
# Sāvitrī

God or Puruṣa splits himself into Śri Kṛṣṇa and Nārāyaṇa. Later, Brahmā and Śiva also emanate from him. Mulaprakṛti gives birth to a golden egg from which emerges Mahāvirāt, the Cosmic Being. He creates the worlds. Like previous khaṇḍa, here also a number of miscellaneous subjects have been dealt with:
# Stories of various female deities including the river-goddesses
# Worship and meditation concerning Bhumi or Mother Earth
# Merits of a bath in the Gaṅgā River
# Importance of the tulasī leaves and rules concerning its use
# Details of the various śāligrāma stones
# The well-known story of Sāvitri and Satyavān
# Karma and its effects
# Descriptions of narakas or hells
# Detailed information about the growth of the human foetus in the womb
# Story of Durgā in brief
# Details about Durgā's worship

==Gaṇapatikhanda, The Third Book==
This book deals mainly with the following topics:
# Birth and exploits of Gaṇapati and Saṇmukha
# The two sons of Śiva and Pārvatī
# The story of Paraśurāma (the Rāma of the battle-axe)
# Beautiful hymns in praise of Gaṇapati

==Śri-Kṛṣna-janma-khanda, The Fourth Book==
Śri-Kṛṣna-janma-khanda is the voluminous book of all. Though the story of Kṛṣṇa follows the one given in the Bhāgavata, the amorous deeds of Rādhā and Kṛṣṇa are portrayed prominently. Other topics dealt with in this book are:
# Stories of Ambarīṣa and Durvāsa
# Stories of Aṣṭāvakra and Śrī Rāma
# Evil omens indicated by bad dreams
# Duties of the people belonging to the four varṇas
# Special code of conduct for the widows
# Foods fit and unfit for consuming
# Description of Kaliyuga or the Iron Age
# Greatness of the country of Bhārata
# The science of architecture
The last chapter of this book gives a list of eighteen major purāṇas along with the total number of verses in each of them.
A special feature of this purāṇa is that it gives several important mantras (esoteric formulae) along with their usage.

==References==
{{reflist}}
* The Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Swami Harshananda, Ram Krishna Math, Bangalore

Talk:Brahma-vaivarta-purāṇa

2014-12-10T07:21:30Z

Vishal J Mehta: /* Significance of Brahma-vaivarta-purāṇa */

By Swami Harshananda

==Significance of Brahma-vaivarta-purāṇa==
Modern religion, though rooted in the Vedas and the Vedānta, is deeply influenced by the purāṇas, at least on the practical side. The Brahma-vaivarta-purāṇa is a type of purāṇa that is often quoted by the writers of the dharmaśāstras while dealing with topics like castes, gifts, vratas (religious vows during festival days), descriptions of narakas or hells for transgression of dharma and so on. The original part of the purāṇa may be ancient. However, the extant edition, as available in print, seems to have evolved over the period A.D. 800-1600.

It is probable that this purāṇa may have acquired this title because it treats the created world as only a vivarta of or an appearance in Brahman, the Absolute. It is a fairly voluminous work comprising 18,000 verses spread over four khaṇdas or books, the total number of chapters being 276.

==Sections of Brahma-vaivarta-purāṇa==
This purāṇa is divided into 4 sections or books. They are:
# Brahmakhanda
# Prakrtikhanda
# Gaṇapatikhanda
# Śri-Kṛṣna-janma-khanda

==Brahmakhanda, The First Book==
The first book is called as Brahmakhanda. It gives a gist of the contents of the entire work. It declares that it is Śrī Kṛṣṇa who is the creator of the entire universe and that his world, the Goloka, is the highest of all the divine abodes. Even Vaikuṇtha and Kailāsa are counted inferior to it. A detailed account of creation which includes the emanation of other deities like Nārāyaṇa, Śaṅkara or Śiva, Brahmā and Dharma- puruṣa, along with the goddesses like Murti, Lakṣmī, Sarasvatī, Durgā and Sāvitrī is also given. Other topics dealt with in this book include:
# Ayurveda (science of health)
# Worship of Śāligrāma (the stone symbol of Viṣṇu)
# Austerities to be practiced by the sanyāsins and widows
# Philosophical teachings concerning the ultimate identity of the jīva (individual soul) with Brahman
# Description of the Goloka

==Prakṛtikhanda, The Second Book==
Prakṛtikhanda, the second book, deals with the mṅlaprakṛti or the Mother Nature, who is pictured as the consort of God, forming the left part of his body. She evolves into five goddesses:
# Rādha
# Durgā
# Lakṣmī
# Sarasvatī
# Sāvitrī

God or Puruṣa splits himself into Śri Kṛṣṇa and Nārāyaṇa. Later, Brahmā and Śiva also emanate from him. Mulaprakṛti gives birth to a golden egg from which emerges Mahāvirāt, the Cosmic Being. He creates the worlds. Like previous khaṇḍa, here also a number of miscellaneous subjects have been dealt with:
# Stories of various female deities including the river-goddesses
# Worship and meditation concerning Bhumi or Mother Earth
# Merits of a bath in the Gaṅgā River
# Importance of the tulasī leaves and rules concerning its use
# Details of the various śāligrāma stones
# The well-known story of Sāvitri and Satyavān
# Karma and its effects
# Descriptions of narakas or hells
# Detailed information about the growth of the human foetus in the womb
# Story of Durgā in brief
# Details about Durgā's worship

==Gaṇapatikhanda, The Third Book==
This book deals mainly with the following topics:
# Birth and exploits of Gaṇapati and Saṇmukha
# The two sons of Śiva and Pārvatī
# The story of Paraśurāma (the Rāma of the battle-axe)
# Beautiful hymns in praise of Gaṇapati

==Śri-Kṛṣna-janma-khanda, The Fourth Book==
Śri-Kṛṣna-janma-khanda is the voluminous book of all. Though the story of Kṛṣṇa follows the one given in the Bhāgavata, the amorous deeds of Rādhā and Kṛṣṇa are portrayed prominently. Other topics dealt with in this book are:
# Stories of Ambarīṣa and Durvāsa
# Stories of Aṣṭāvakra and Śrī Rāma
# Evil omens indicated by bad dreams
# Duties of the people belonging to the four varṇas
# Special code of conduct for the widows
# Foods fit and unfit for consuming
# Description of Kaliyuga or the Iron Age
# Greatness of the country of Bhārata
# The science of architecture
The last chapter of this book gives a list of eighteen major purāṇas along with the total number of verses in each of them.
A special feature of this purāṇa is that it gives several important mantras (esoteric formulae) along with their usage.

==References==
{{reflist}}
* The Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Swami Harshananda, Ram Krishna Math, Bangalore