Talk:Sarasvati-Sindhu Civilization

By Swami Harshananda, Himanshu Bhatt, and Krishna Maheshwari

Similar to temples still in use today like Ekambareswarar or Devi Talab Mandir, the Sarasvatī-Sindhu Civilization site of Mohenjo Daro had a bathing pool in the city center wherein citizens bathed to cleanse themselves.

The Sarasvatī-Sindhu Civilization or the Saraswati-Sindhu Sabhyata, also known as Indus-Sarasvati Civilization, Indus-Ghaggar-Hakra Civilization, Sapta-Sindhu (or Sapta-Sindhava), and formerly known as the Indus Valley Civilization, was the first civilization to implement architectural designs for creating entire cities. The first cities found of this ancient civilization were Harappa and Mohenjo Daro in modern day Sindh (Pakistan), and Dholavira and Lothal in modern Gujarat. It is 8,000 years old or more. Its extent was from Daimabad in the south, Mandi in the east, Sutkagan Dor in the west, to either Burzahom or Shortugai in the north. Because Bhirrana is the oldest documented settlement from the civilization, it is most likely that it was also where the civilization first began and spread from. it is also important to note that Rakhigarhi (also along the Sarasvati) was the largest of the civilization's settlements, measuring around 300 hectares (whereas the 2nd largest settlement is Mehrgarh at 200 ha.)

The discovered artifacts (found in the early 20th century) provide a good idea of what religious customs of the time were like. Three lingas dating around 5,000 years old were found in Harappa, the famous Pasupati Seal was found there too, while Mohenjo Daro contained the ceremonial Great Bath, fire altars were found in Kalibangan, and Dholavira contains a ceremonial well for purification purposes.

Massive and constant flooding, due to sea levels rising, was the major reason for abandoning the cities and relocating to other urban centers. From the devastation of flooding, its residents migrated and many of the Sindhi migrants were the ones who had migrated from their homeland in the Indian Subcontinent to the Middle East and Europe. Some of its residents had also migrated by sail in a 30° pathway fron Mohenjo Daro to Giza (Egypt), Machu Pichu (Peru), and Easter Island. In the latter two are where Sarasvatī-Sindhu Civilization scripts were found.

The Sarasvatī-Sindhu Civilization and culture represents the Rig Vedic culture.

Timelines of the Sarasvatī-Sindhu Civilization

Indian shoreline before submersion from sea levels increasing, which began after end of last ice age in 10000 BCE.

Dr. Glenn Milne of Durham University depicts and points at receding Indian shore from sea level rises.

The Sarasvatī-Sindhu Civilization, in its urban or “Mature” phase, is dated to 2600–1900 BCE. However, it was preceded by a millennium-long “Early” phase, which saw the convergence of important concepts and technologies, and had further antecedents reaching back to about 7000 BCE, a Neolithic culture at Mehargarh, which shows a continuous evolution all the way to the Mature phase.

The oldest site of the civilization is Bhirrana (in modern-day Haryana), which was actively inhabited approximately between 8000-2600 BCE. S.R. Rao states the following and is supported by Sarkar et al. , who also refer to a proposal by Possehl and to various radiocarbon dates from other sites:
7000 – 3300 BCE = Pre-Harappan (Mehargarh)
3300 – 2600 BCE = Early Harappan
2600 - 2500 BCE = Early Mature Harappan
2500 – 1900 BCE = Mature Harappan
1900 – 1300 BCE = Post-urban Harappan.

By 1900 BCE, the civilization started breaking down. The archeological evidence shows consequent migration of the population eastwards. Mohenjo-Daro completely vanished by 1900 BCE but Harappa shows continuity till about 1300 BCE.

Some other sites in Gujarat show continuity till 1000 BCE. Many aspects and cultural practices, including the city building plan, of the Harappans continued till the historic times as evidenced in the excavation of a 600 BCE city of Shishupalgarh by B. B. Lal and its incorporation in the Arthaśāstra of Kautilya , who apparently was the mentor and teacher of Chandragupta Maurya.

Proposed Reasons for Decline Beginning in Late Harappan Phase

File:Civilazaion archaeological finding.jpg

Many archaeologists have come to the conclusion that climate change was the reason for the civilization’s decline.

Cause(s)	Scholar(s)
Change in River Course	Dales, M.S. Vatsa, H.T. Lambrick
Drying of Ghaggar (Sarasvati) and Increasing Airidity	D.P. Agarwal and Sood
Earthquake	Rakes and Dales
Ecological Disturbance	Fairchild
Flood	Macay, S.R. Rao
Low Rainfall	Stein
Natural Calamities	K.A.R. Kennedy

Archaeological Sites in India

Further excavations over the next few decades revealed roughly 50 sites along the Indus and 1,000+ along the Sarasvati belonged to this civilization. However, almost all the findings cognate to the discoveries at other sites indicating that they span a single civilization.

Over 1,400 Sarasvati-Sindhu Civilization sites have been discovered, of which 925 sites are in India and 475 sites in Pakistan, as well as some sites in Afghanistan which are believed to have been trading colonies established by people of the Sarasvati-Sindhu Civilization.

Overview of Discoveries

The archaeological findings at various levels or depths have been assigned to different periods of history. The oldest of these findings is from 7000 BCE and the most recent one is from 2000 BCE. These discoveries reveal that the Harappan culture spread across more than 1,000 sites was a Vedic culture with findings that reference practices that continue to this day in modern day India.

Amalgamation of Local Cultures into Common Civilization

Date	Culture (Rao 2005)	Period (Dikshit 2013)	Phase (Sarkar 2016)	Conventional date (HP)	Harappan Phase	Conventional date (Era)	Era
7500-6000 BCE	Period IA: Hakra Wares Culture	Pre-Harappan Hakra Period (Neolithic)	Pre-Harappan	7000-3300 BCE	Pre-Harappan	c.7000-c.4500 BCE	Early Food Producing Era
6000-4500 BCE	Period IB: Early Harappan	Transitional Period	Early Harappan
4500-3000 BCE	Period IIA: Early Mature Harappan	Early Harappan Period	Early Mature Harappan			c.4500-2600 BCE	Regionalisation Era
				3300-2600 BCE	Early Harappan
3000-1800 BCE	Period IIB: Mature Harappan	Mature Harappan Period	Mature Harappan
				2600-1900 BCE	Mature Harappan	2600-1900 BCE	Integration Era
1800-1600 BCE (1800-800 BCE)	Late Harappan Period	Late Harappan Period		1900-1300 BCE	Late Harappan	1900-1300	Localisation Era

Localization of Civilization

Date	Main phase	Subphase	Harappan Phase	Era
ca. 4000 - 3500 BCE	Formative Phase	e.g., Mehrgarh-IV-V	Pre-Harappan	Regionalisation Era
ca. 3500 - 2800 BCE	Early Phase	e.g., Kalibangan-I	Early Harappan
ca. 2800 - 2600 BCE	Period of Transition	e.g., Dholavira-III
ca. 2600 - 1900 BCE	Mature Phase	e.g., Harappa-III, Kalibangan-II	Mature Harappan	Integration Era
ca. 1900 - 1500 BCE	Late Phase	e.g., Cemetery H, Jhukar	Late Harappan	Localisation Era
ca. 1500 - 1400 BCE	Final Phase	e.g., Dholavira

Concordance of Periodisations

Dates	Main Phase	Mehrgarh phases	Harappan phases	Other phases	Era
7000–5500 BCE	Pre-Harappan	Mehrgarh I (aceramic Neolithic)			Early Food Producing Era
5500–3300 BCE	Pre-Harappan/Early Harappan	Mehrgarh II-VI (ceramic Neolithic)			Regionalisation Era c.4000-2500/2300 BCE (Shaffer) c.5000-3200 BCE (Coningham & Young)
3300–2800 BCE	Early Harappan c.3300-2800 BCE c.5000-2800 BCE (Kenoyer)		Harappan 1 (Ravi Phase; Hakra Ware)
2800–2600 BCE		Mehrgarh VII	Harappan 2 (Kot Diji Phase, Nausharo I)
2600–2450 BCE	Mature Harappan (Indus Valley Civilisation)		Harappan 3A (Nausharo II)		Integration Era
2450–2200 BCE			Harappan 3B
2200–1900 BCE			Harappan 3C
1900–1700 BCE	Late Harappan		Harappan 4	Cemetery H Ochre Coloured Pottery	Localisation Era
1700–1300 BCE			Harappan 5
1300–600 BCE	Post-Harappan Iron Age India			Painted Grey Ware (1200-600 BCE) Vedic period (c.1500-500 BCE)	Regionalisation c.1200-300 BCE (Kenoyer) c.1500-600 BCE (Coningham & Young)
600-300 BCE				Northern Black Polished Ware (Iron Age)(700-200 BCE) Second urbanisation (c.500-200 BCE)	Integration

Significance of Sarasvati River

See also: Sarasvati River

Mapped route of Ghaggar-Hakra during the Sarasvatī-Sindhu Civilization peak.

The Ghaggar-Hakra and Sarasvatī-Sindhu Civilization settlements.

After having analyzed geophysical features, combined with satellite imagery, further elaborated by the stories of the Sarasvati River within northern Indian cultures, the consensus among geoscientists and archaeologists is that the Gaggar-Hakra was the Sarasvati, and that the now-extinct Nara (upon which the Nara Canal in Sindh was built) was a part of the river too.

The disintegration of the Sarasvatī-Sindhu Civilization can be traced to the gradual disintegration and erosion. This explains areas in which the Indus and its tributaries did not flow through broke away from the Sarasvatī-Sindhu Civilization first. In Gujarat and southeastern Sindh, in which the Indus did not flow through or have any impact on, flourished in the peak of the Sarasvatī-Sindhu Civilization. The Sarasvati was not only able to connect that region, but also some cities on the Gangetic Basin, including settlements now in the statement of Uttar Pradesh (Alamgirpur, Bargaon, Hulas, Mandi, Sanauli, and Sothi.) Of the 10 most important Sarasvatī-Sindhu Civilization sites, only 3 (Harappa, Mohenjo Daro, Chanhu Daro) are along the Indus River, while 1 (Lothal) lies on the shoreline, and the other 6 (Rakhigarhi, Banawali, Kalibangan, Dholavira, Surkotada) are along the tract of the Sarasvati. Further, the Rann of Kutch was inundated with water during the Sarasvatī-Sindhu Civilization era as is it now, even without receiving water from the ocean or another river. This is because of the supply of water that came from the Sarasvati River, which passed through the Rann while making its way into the ocean.

The erosion of rivers as they have "shifted underground," have continued being used in some cases. The Nara was a part of the Sarasvati which has become the modern-day Nara Canal. This erosion occurs due to tectonic uplift, especially due to Tectonic–climatic interaction.

After the river’s decline, the change in the epicentre of Indian civilization from the Sarasvati river to the Ganga is seen implicitly in the Puranic story of the descent of Ganga and more clearer in the Mahabharata (Vana Parva, chapter 85) which states that in the Treta Yuga Puskara was the holiest tirtha, while in Dvapara it was Kurukshetra, and in the Kali it is Prayaga. Prayaga is at the confluence of the Ganga and Yamuna. Both it and Varanasi are considered the holiest places of Hinduism, and their pilgrimages, known as Kumbh Mela, are the largest human gathering on Earth (more so than Jerusalem and Mecca.) So why did Prayaga become the seat of chief Hinduism during the Mahabharata War's era?: Because a part of the Sarasvati was still flowing through the city (while in some areas it had already eroded), along with the Ganga and Yamuna rivers.

Denial of Existence

Writers have opposed the idea of the Ghaggar-Hakra and its former Nara segment, being parts of the no fragmented Sarasvati River. Their reason for doing so was to discredit Hinduism by portraying the holiest land of the Rig Veda compilers, known as Brahmavarta (situation between the Sarasvati and its Drishadwati tributary, as being outside of India (thereby depicting Hinduism and Aryans as non-Indian in origin.) Historically, supporters of this have been Islamists (both Indian and foreign), Eurocentrists (i.e., White nationalists, and imperialists), and Indian liberals (i.e., Marxists, certain Dalit Neobuddhists, staunch atheistic Dravidianists.)

With more and more investigation from both Indian and international researchers, this denial has become very difficult, especially as the Ghaggar-Hakra actually does match every geophysical description within texts, and because it actually was very significant for the establishment and decline of the Sarasvati-Sindhu Civilization.

Restoration Efforts

"To me the project is much more than religious...Every year farmers in the district lose crop over a vast stretch of cultivated area because of floods in the Somb. If we can divert the waters, as much 10,000 acres of land can be reclaimed." - Gagandeep Singh, Haryana civil services officer and volunteer of revival project

The point of origin of the fragmented river is believed to be the base of the Shivalik Mountains and has been called Saraswati Udgam Sthal. Resurrecting this river would be helpful to farmers in particular because it would save their crops, and others because they would have a new drinking souce. Some notable Jains are part of the revivalist effort as well.

Harappa

Animal-taming seals of Sarasvatī-Sindhu Civilization.

Standing figurine of Sarasvatī-Sindhu Civilization and a much-later one of Bastar (Chattisgarh.)

The Harappa town was a square of about 1.5 kms. (0.9 mile) on each side and 4.8 kms. (3 miles) in circumference. It was laid out in a grid pattern of the streets. The houses were built of burnt bricks whose dimensions conformed strictly to the Kāśyapa Samhitā. The dimensions of the bricks were 11.75" x 5.25" x 7.5" and two other sizes. The houses had only one main door for entrance fixed on the side lanes. There were courtyards inside and the windows opened to the streets. Small houses had just two rooms whereas the bigger ones could have even twenty five rooms. Bathrooms, latrines and sanitary arrangements were very good. Apart from bricks and mortar, wood was generously used not only for construction purposes but also for a wide range of furniture like cots, chairs, stools, tables and easy-chairs. Firewood and charcoal were in use in the domestic stoves. Rooms were often set apart for the purpose of worship.

Roads were straight and well maintained. Special chambers had been constructed for the collection and disposal of garbage. One of the most striking features of the Harappa town was its big granary or warehouse. There were 12 granaries arranged in two parallel rows with proper arrangements for ventilation and passages of approach. There were grain millers built on brick platforms where wooden pestles were used for crushing the grains.

Mohenjo Dāro

Mohenjo Dāro means ‘the mound of the dead’. It is situated on the west bank of the Indus river about 600 kms. (375 miles) to the south-west of Harappa. This site is larger and better preserved than Harappa. The layout is strikingly similar to that of Harappa.

The chief attraction of this site is ‘The great Bath.’ It was built of brick set in gypsum mortar with a damp-proof course of bitumen. The dimensions were 54 by 33 meters (177 by 108 ft.). The outer walls were massive having thickness of 2 to 2.5 meters (7 to 8 ft.). In the center there was an open paved quadrangle with verandahs on the four sides. At the back of the verandahs, galleries and rooms were situated. In the center of the paved quadrangle there was a large swimming bath of 11.8 by 7 meters (39 by 23 ft.) dimensions. The swimming pool was lined by finely dressed brick laid in gypsum mortar and covered with bitumen. Steps leading to a low platform were also constructed for the convenience of the bathers. Arrangements for some kind of steam-bath were also found.

Dholavira

Main article: Dholavira and Buddhism

Dholavira matches the descriptions of the Sukhavati paradise mentioned in Buddhist scriptures. It is tis Buddha-kshetra in which Amitabha resided, and in which his disciples Alokiteshvar and Vajrapani lived with him before establishing their own Buddha-kshetras.

Dholavira was also the Sukha city of Varuna.

Lothal

Add summary here

Ganweriwala

A layperson coming to a mendicant guru for spiritual advice.

Selection of uncovered cities

Site	District	Province/State	Modern Country	River Source(s)	Active Era	Hectares	Findings
Alamgirpur	Meerut	Uttar Pradesh	India	Yamuna, Hindan	3300 - 1300 BCE	10	Impression of cloth on trough
Allahdino	Karachi	Sindh	Pakistan	Indus	? - 2000 BCE	1.4	Floor tiles of a house have been discovered at this site
Amri	Dadu	Sindh	Pakistan	Indus	3500 - 2400 BCE	3.5 - 4	Remains of rhinoceros
Babar Kot	Saurashtra	Gujarat	India	Amreli			A stone fortification wall, plant remains of millets & gram.
Balu	Kaithal	Haryana	India	Sarasvati			Earliest evidence of garlic. Several plant remains were found here include various types of barley, wheat, rice, horse gram, green gram, various types of a pea, sesamum, melon, watermelon, grapes, dates, garlic, etc. (Saraswat and Pokharia - 2001-2) which is comparable to a nearby Sarasvatī-Sindhu Civilization site Kunal, Haryana revealed remains of rice (probably wild).
Banawali	Fatehabad	Haryana	India	Sarasvati, Rangoi	2500 - 1450 BCE	16	Barley, terracotta figure of plough
Bara	Rupnagar	Punjab	India	Sarasvati	2000 - ? BCE	4 - 8
Bargaon	Saharanpur	Uttar Pradesh	India	Yamuna, Hindan
Baror	Sri Ganganagar	Rajasthan	India	Sarasvati			Human skeleton, ornaments, 5 meter long and 3 meter clay oven, a pitcher filled with 8,000 pearls
Bet Dwarka	Devbhoomi Dwarka	Gujarat	India	Gomti	? - 1500 BCE		Late Harappan seal, inscribed jar, the mould of coppersmith, a copper fishhook
Bhagatrav	Bharuch	Gujarat	India	Tapi
Bhagwanpur (or Baghpur)	Kurukshetra	Haryana	India	Sarasvati	1700 - 1000 BCE
Bhirrana	Fatehabad	Haryana	India	Sarasvati	7500 - 800 BCE		Graffiti of a dancing girl on pottery, which resembles a dancing girl statue found at Mohenjo Daro
Chak 86	Ganganagar	Rajasthan	India	Sarasvati
Chanhu Daro	Nawabshah	Sindh	Pakistan	Indus	4000 - 1700 BCE		Bead making factory, use of lipstick, only Indus site without a citadel
Chapuwala	Cholistan Desert	Punjab	Pakistan	Sarasvati			unexcavated 9.6 hectares
Daimabad	Ahmadnagar	Maharashtra	India	Pravara	2300 - 1800 BCE	20	A sculpture of a bronze chariot, 45 cm long and 16 cm wide, yoked to two oxen, driven by a man 16 cm high standing in it; and three other bronze sculptures. Southernmost Sarasvatī-Sindhu Civilization site
Daulatpur	Hisar	Haryana	India	Drishadvati
Dhalewan	Mansa	Punjab	India	Sarasvati
Desalpur	Kutch	Gujarat	India	Sarasvati, Rann of Kutch			Massive stone fortification, Harappan pottery, three script bearing seals; one of steatite, one of copper and one of terracotta.
Dholavira	Kutch	Gujarat	India	Sarasvati, Rann of Kutch	3500 - 1450 BCE	47	Figure of chariot tied to a pair of bullocks and driven by a nude human, Water harvesting and number of reservoirs, use of rocks for constructions
Farmana	Rohtak	Haryana	India	Sarasvati			Largest burial site of Sarasvatī-Sindhu Civilization, with 65 burials,found in India
Gamanwala	Bhawalpur	Punjab	Pakistan	Sarasvati		27.3
Ganweriwala	Bhawalpur	Punjab	Pakistan	Sarasvati	2500 - ? BCE	81.5	Equidistant from both Harappa and Mohenjo Daro, it is near a dry bed of the former Ghaggar River. It is a site of almost the same size as Mahenjo Daro. It may have been the third major center in the Sarasvatī-Sindhu Civilization as it is near to the copper-rich mines in Rajasthan.
Ghaligay	Swat	Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa	Pakistan	Swat	2000 - ? BCE
Girawar	Rohtak	Haryana	India	Sarasvati
Gola Dhoro	Kutch	Gujarat	India	Satalli	2500-2000 BCE	0.005	Production of shell bangles, semi-precious beads, etc.
Harappa	Sahiwal	Punjab	Pakistan	Ravi	2600 - 1300 BCE	150	Granaries, coffin burial, lot of artifacts, important Sarasvatī-Sindhu Civilization town, the first town which is excavated and studied in detail
Hisar Mound (inside Firoz Shah Palace)	Hisar	Haryana	India	Sarasvati			Unexcavated site
Hulas	Saharanpur	Uttar Pradesh	India	Yamuna, Hindan	2000 - 1000 BCE
Jalilpur	Multan	Punjab	Pakistan	Ravi
Jalwali	Bikaner	Rajasthan	India	Sarasvati		22.5
Jognakhera	Kurukshetra	Haryana	India	Sarasvati			Copper smelting furnaces with copper slag and pot shards
Juni Kuran	Kutch	Gujarat	India	Sarasvati, Rann of Kutch			fortified citadel, lower town, public gathering area
Kaj	Gir Somnath	Gujarat	India	Shingavadi , Somat			Ceramic artifacts, including bowls. Ancient port.
Kanjetar	Gir Somnath	Gujarat	India	Shingavadi , Somat			Single phase Harapppan site.
Kalibangan	Hanumangarh	Rajasthan	India	Sarasvati	3500 - 1750 BCE		Baked/burnt bangles, fire altars, small circular pits containing large urns and accompanied by pottery, bones of camel
Kanmer	Kutch	Gujarat	India	Sarasvati, Rann of Kutch
Karanpura (near Bhadra)	Hanumangarh	Rajasthan	India	Sarasvati	2600 - 1900 BCE		Skeleton of child, terracotta like pottery, bangles, seals similar to other Harappan sites
Khirasara	Kutch	Gujarat	India	Sarasvati, Khari, Rann of Kutch	2600 - 2200 BCE		Ware House, Industrial area, gold, copper, semi-precious stone, shell objects, and weight hoards
Kerala-no-dhoro (or Padri)	Saurashtra	Gujarat	India	Shetrunji			Salt production centre, by evaporating sea water
Kot Bala (or Balakot)	Lasbela	Balochistan	Pakistan	Winder, Wirhab		2.8	Earliest evidence of furnace, seaport
Kot Diji	Khairpur	Sindh	Pakistan	Sarasvati, Indus	3300 – 2600 BCE
Kotada Bhadli	Kutch	Gujarat	India	Sarasvati, Rann of Kutch			Fortification bastion few houses foundations
Kotla	Rupnagar	Punjab	India	Sarasvati	3300-1300 BCE	4 - 8
Kudwala	Bahawalpur	Punjab	Pakistan	Sarasvati		38.1
Kunal	Fatehabad	Haryana	India	Sarasvati	5000 - 2800 BCE		Earliest Pre-Harappan site, Copper smelting.
Kuntasi	Rajkot	Gujarat	India	Phulki	2200 - 1700 BCE		Small port
Lakhanjo Daro	Sukkur	Sindh	Pakistan	Indus		300	major unexcavated site (greater than 300 hectares)
Larkana	Larkana	Sindh	Pakistan	Indus
Loteshwar	Patan	Gujarat	India	Sarasvati, Khari, Rann of Kutch			Ancient archaeological site
Lothal	Ahmedabad	Gujarat	India	Tapi	2400 - 1900 BCE	4.5	Bead making factory, dockyard, button seal, fire altars, painted jar, earliest cultivation of rice (1800 BCE)
Lurewala	Sargodha	Punjab	Pakistan	Indus
Manda	Jammu	Jammu & Kashmir	India	Chenab			Northernmost Harappan site in Himalayan foothills
Malwan	Surat	Gujarat	India	Tapi			Southernmost Harappan site in India
Mandi	Muzaffarnagar	Uttar Pradesh	India	Yamuna, Hindan
Mehrgarh	Kachi	Balochistan	Pakistan	Bolan	7000 - 2000 BCE	200	Earliest agricultural community (7000-5000 BCE)
Mitathal	Bhiwani	Haryana	India	Sarasvati
Mohenjo Daro	Larkana	Sindh	Pakistan	Indus	2500 - 1800 BCE	81.5	Great Bath (the biggest bath ghat), Great granary, Bronze dancing girl, Bearded man, terracotta toys, Bull seal, Pashupati seal, three cylindrical seals of the Mesopotamian type, a piece of woven cloth
Nageshwar	Kutch	Gujarat	India	Rann of Kutch			Shell working site
Navinal	Kutch	Gujarat	India	Nagmati
Nausharo (near Dadhar)	Kachi	Balochistan	Pakistan	Bolan	3000 - 1900 BCE
Ongar	Hyderabad	Sindh	Pakistan	Indus
Pabumath	Kutch	Gujarat	India	Sarasvati, Rann of Kutch			A large building complex, unicorn seal, shell bangles, beads, copper bangles, needles, antimony rods, steatite micro beads; pottery include large and medium size jars, beaker, dishes, dish-on-stand, perforated jars etc.; fine red pottery with black painted designs etc.
Pathani Damb	Makran	Balochistan	Pakistan	Mula Nai		100	At 100 hectares, this has the potential to be another city
Pir Shah Jurio	Karachi	Sindh	Pakistan	Lyari, Malir
Pirak	Sibi	Balochistan	Pakistan	Nari	1700 - 1000 BCE
Rakhigarhi	Hisar	Haryana	India	Sarasvati	6500 - 1900 BCE	350	Terracotta wheels, toys, figurines, pottery. Large site, partially excavated.
Rangpur	Ahmedabad	Gujarat	India	Sukhbhadar	3000 - 1000 BCE		Seaport
Rehman Dheri	Dera Ismail Khan	Khyber Pakhtunkhwa	Pakistan	Zhob	3300 - ? BCE
Rojdi	Rajkot	Gujarat	India	Bhadar, Aji, Nyari	2500 - 1700 BCE
Rupar	Rupnagar	Punjab	India	Satluj		4 - 8
Sanauli	Baghpat	Uttar Pradesh	India	Yamuna, Hindan	1850 - 1550 BCE	4 - 8	Burial site with 125 burials found
Sheri Khan Tarakai	Bannu	Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa	Pakistan	Kurram, Gambila	4000 - 3000 BCE		pottery, lithic artifact
Shikarpur	Kutch	Gujarat	India	Rann of Kutch			Food habit details of Harappans
Shortugai	Darqad	Takhar Province	Afghanistan	Amu	2000 - ? BCE
Siddhuwala (near Derawar)	Bahawalpur	Punjab	Pakistan	Sarasvati
Siswal	Hisar	Haryana	India	Sarasvati	3800 - 3200 BCE	4 - 8	it is very closely connected to the Sothi settlement.
Sokhta Koh	Makran	Balochistan	Pakistan	Shadi Kaur	2600 - 1900 BCE		Pottery
Sothi (near Baraut)	Bagpat	Uttar Pradesh	India	Yamuna, Hindan	4600 - ? BCE
Surkotada	Kutch	Gujarat	India	Sarasvati, Rann of Kutch	2100 - 1700 BCE		Bones of a horse (only site)
Sutkagan Dor	Makran	Balochistan	Pakistan	Dashti, Gajo Kaur		4.5	Bangles of clay, Westernmost known site of Sarasvatī-Sindhu Civilization
Tarkhanewala Dera	Ganganagar	Rajasthan	India	Sarasvati
Vejalka	Botad	Gujarat	India	Ghelo, Kalubhar	2300 - 2000 BCE		pottery

World's Farming First Began Within the Civilization

Recent Genetic research has shown that the base DNA for all modern Indians dates back to 10,000 BCE.

It has been found that the peoples of the civilization had practiced agriculture implementing zebu (AKA Bos Indicus) cattle.

Salient Features of Sarasvatī-Sindhu Civilization

Economy

The soldiers used weapons as bows, arrows, spears, axes, maces, catapults and slings. Weights and measures had been standardized. One scale discovered in the ruins had very accurate markings. Trade and commerce through land and sea were quite flourishing. Contacts had been well-established with Sumeria, Babylonia and Egypt for trade and commerce.

Culture and Arts

Terracotta horned-deity (Shiva) seals.

People were good at arts and crafts. This can be surmised through the various well-finished toys unearthed from the ruins. Chānhu Dāro town was famous for this. Music and dancing were also known to them. One can deduce from the figures found that the stringed instruments resembling a vīṇā (lute), cymbals, mṛdaṅga (drum) were in use. Pots and jars with various drawings and paintings have been recovered from the site. Various traditional Indian games like dice-game were known to them.

Religious Convictions

Lingas found from the Sarasvatī-Sindhu Civilization.

A comparison of the Pashupati seal with later crafts.

Worship of Shiva-Pashupati and his liṅga form, and Goddess Durgā, as well as spiritual symbolism of certain animals and trees like bison, fish, serpent, holy basil (tulasī) and peepul tree existed. A seal of people bowing before a tree was found in Ganweriwala.

Presence of Shaivism

Many scholars such as Marshall associated Pashupati seal with Shiva because of its following features: (1) three faces (2) the attitude of yoga (3) ithyphallicism (4) connection with animals (5) pair of horns. Shiva's association with the 'Pashupati seal' is that the seal reads "Lord of the Cattle" and "Lord of the animals" and Shiva has been described as both the lord of cattle and animals. The Pashupati seal also depicts the mendicant in the yogasana which is another attributed associated with Shiva from scriptures. In reference to the bulls that appear on the Sarasvatī-Sindhu Civilization seals, archeologists have linked them to Shiva as the bull is associated with him in scriptures. In the Rig Veda, Shiva (Rudra) is termed Vrishaba or "bull." Shiva connection with the three heads on the Indus Valley yogi seal is that Shiva has been described and portrayed a three-headed in certain parts of history. For example, in the an Elora temple he is depicted with three heads.

Rudra in the Vedas has been described as a hunter and tamer of animals.

Standing meditative seal

A depiction called Ahmuvan has been found. It is of a standing figure who is given significance in the art by rays showing stemming from him, possibly indicating it is enlightened (having attained of possessing Moksha.) The standing yogic position in Hindu scriptures is associated with Shiva and has in earliest occurrences been mentioned as the sthanu asana. Shiva has repeatedly been called Sthanu in several scriptures. That Shiva's standing pose is a meditative penance is clear from the pose being associated in Kalidas' literature as "Tapasvinah Sthanu" and tapasvin is the term for a mendicant. Also Shiva as Sthanu in Kalidas' literature has been described as "Sthanu sthira-bhakti-yoga-sulabha" meaning "attainable through devotion yoga." In modern Hindu yoga too the standing yoga asana is applied and called samabhanga asana and tadasana.

Symbolism

King-Priest Artifact

Priestly meditative bust of Harappa.

Apart from the Shiva icons, others present can be seen on depicted on tokens and the Sarasvatī-Sindhu Civilization walls.

The priestly meditative bust of Harappa depicts a clergyman in meditation. Apart from appearing as performing yoga, the figure is represented as the clergyman wearing a garment much like the garb of the sanyasi that goes over 1 shoulder. Further, the figure is wearing bands on his head and his biceps just like a Shaiva cleric that wears the vibhuti across his forehead and biceps.

Ascetics have also often been depicted wearing the mala (beads) on their biceps and marks on their foreheads. Wearing of iconography on their foreheads is a common practice for lay Hindus too, such as applying a tilak or Harimandira.

The dress of the Harappan figure is also notable because it looks like he is wearing a sanyasi robe, as it is also worn over just 1 shoulder.

Swastikas

Swastikas are found throughout Harappa.

These emblems both clockwise and counter-clockwise are found across the Sarasvatī-Sindhu Civilization sites on tokens and walls. They are mentioned as early as the Rig Veda.

	We invoke him who may bring us welfare. May the respected Indra guard our welfare, May the omniscient Pushan guard our welfare, May the Universal Creator guard our welfare, May the Great Protector bring us welfare.
—Yajur Veda 25.18-19

Script or Language

One enigmatic aspect of the Sarasvatī-Sindhu Civilization is the script discovered on the various seals. The script remains to be deciphered.

Staple Diet

This civilization was more ancient and comprehensive than the ones of Egypt, Sumeria, Assyria and Mesopotamia. People were mostly vegetarians and many others consumed fish also. Apart from wheat, barley and rice, they grew several varieties of fruits and vegetables like pumpkin, dates and coconuts. They wore clothes made of cotton, jute and fibres.

Appearance of Men & Women

Several varieties of dressing hair were common among the women. The ornaments used to decorate them were girdles, ear-rings, bangles, necklaces, nose-rings, anklets, hairpins and beads. Turbans and head-dresses were used by women. The use of metals like gold, silver, lead, tin, copper, nickel, bronze and many precious stones like diamonds, rubies, emeralds and topaz was well-known to them. Shaving razors and highly polished mirrors were made out of these metals.

Cineration

Dead bodies were disposed through cremation, burial and the system of leaving the bodies to be eaten up by birds and animals seem to have existed. Bodies of babies and little children were generally interred in pots and then buried.

Related Articles

• Hindu Origins
• Historical Racial Diversity of Hindus
• The Spread of Hinduism

External Resources

• "Decoding the INDUS VALLEY SCRIPT" By Kak, Subhash
• "Indus era 8,000 years old, not 5,500; ended because of weaker monsoon" By Jhimli Mukherjee Pandey | TNN | May 29, 2016
• “Horses Are Indigenous To India; Here Are The Archaeological Evidences”
• “Dwarka – Pre-Harappan City That Could Rewrite The History Of The World” By A. Sutherland | AncientPages.com | August 19, 2014
• “Notes for Arts of the Indus Valley Civilization” | Art and Culture | UPSC | August 31, 2019
• “2,700 Year Old Yogi in Samadhi Found in Indus Valley” | June 7, 2016
• Indus Valley Cultural Elements In Minoan Crete By Bibhu Dev Misra
• "List of Indus Valley Civilization Sites in Haryana" | March 28, 2021
• THE INDUS CIVILIZATION By A. H. Dani and B.K. Thapar

References

• The Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Swami Harshananda, Ram Krishna Math, Bangalore